Lecture Notes

MMU 07324
Solid Mechanics
#Credits 09
Lecture #01 – Introduction

First Semester 2021

Dar es salaam Maritime Institute

Marine Engineering Department
By Eng. Anna Msongela (Msc.)
 Course Objectives
At the end of this course students be able to;
1. Describe internal Forces of materials.
2. Determine two dimensional state of stress
and strain
3. Determine strength of engineering
materials.
4. Describe shear force and bending
moments in beams.
5. Describe buckling of columns.
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 Course Assesment

1. Classroom tests and Assignments: 60%

2. End of Semester Examination: 40%

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 References
1. Laxshminarayan, H.V. (2018). Solid Mechanics Theory
and Finite Element Analysis. CBS Publishers and
Distributors Pvt Ltd, India.
2. Jacob, L., and Papadopoulos, P. (2016). Introduction to
Solid Mechanics: An Integrated Approach. 2nd Edition.
Springer, USA.
3. Govindjee, S. (2012). Engineering Mechanics of
Deformable Solids. 1st Edition. OUP Oxford, UK.
4. Yavad, K.S. (2018). Strenghth of Material. 2nd Edition.
STANDARD BOOK HOUSE. Delhi, India.
5. Dym, C.L. and Irving H. Shames, L.H. (2013). Solid
Mechanics. Springer, USA.
6. Rees, D.A. (2016). Mechanics of Solids and Structures.
2 nd Edition. ICP, London.
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 Lecture Outline
1. Fundamental Concepts of Solid Mechanics
2. Stress and Stress Tensors
3. Stress and Strain
4. Elasticity and Elastic Limit
5. Modulus of Elasticity

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 Introduction
. Mechanics, as a scientific discipline, is the study
of the behavior of bodies subject to forces and
displacements (and, to some extent, heating and
cooling).
Solid mechanics is the branch of mechanics dealing
specifically with solid bodies.
We will begin by defining some of the basic
concepts of mechanics.

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 1.1 Fundamental Concepts of Solid
Mechanics
 A body, for the purpose of mechanics, is a portion
of matter that, at a given moment in time, occupies a
certain region in space.
If the region occupied by the body can be idealized
as being of negligible extent (and thus reducible to a
point), the body is called a particle.
Any body that is not reducible to a single particle
will be called a finite body.

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 1.1 Fundamental Concepts of Solid
Mechanics Cont…
 A finite body occupying a connected region every
portion of which contains some matter is called a
continuous body or, simply, a continuum.
But at any point in a region occupied by a
continuum, the matter in its immediate
(infinitesimal) neighborhood can also be thought of
as constituting a particle, and we may thus speak of
the particles (also called material points) of a
continuum.
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 1.1 Fundamental Concepts of Solid
Mechanics Cont…
 A body is said to undergo a displacement when
some or all of its particles are moved to occupy
different positions in space.
The correspondence between the particles and the
positions occupied by them at a given time is known
as the body’s configuration.

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 1.1 Fundamental Concepts of Solid
Mechanics Cont…
 The displacement of a body is said to be rigid if the
distances between all pairs of particles are the same
in any two configurations.
Otherwise, the body is said to undergo deformation.
 Bodies that can undergo only rigid displacements
are called rigid bodies.
Bodies that are not rigid are deformable.

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 1.2 Stress and Stress Tensors
 What is a Tensor?
A tensor is a multi-dimensional array of numerical
values that can be used to describe the physical state
or properties of a material.
A simple example of a geophysically relevant tensor
is stress.
Stress, like pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Pressure is isotropic, but if a material has finite
strength, it can support different forces applied in
different directions.
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 Tensors
Recall
 In elementary mechanics courses there are
primarily two classes of quantities in describing
physical phenomena, namely, scalars and vectors.
The scalar quantity, you will recall, required a single
value for its specification and had no direction
associated with it.
On the other hand, we also worked with quantities
that had both magnitude and direction. =Vectors)
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 Tensors
Recall
 Finally you will recall we could specify a vector by
giving three scalar components of the vector for a
given reference frame.
In this lecture we shall view scalars and vectors in a
somewhat different manner so as to enable us
properly to understand more complex quantities that
we shall need for this subject—namely, tensors.

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 Stress Tensors
Figure 1 (next slide), illustrates a unit cube of
material with forces acting on it in three dimensions.
 By dividing by the surface area over which the
forces are acting, the stresses on the cube can be
obtained.
Any arbitrary stress state can be decomposed into 9
components (labeled σij).
These components form a second rank tensor; the
stress tensor (Figure 1).
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 Stress Tensors
.

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 Stress Tensors
Tensor math allows us to solve problems that
involve tensors.
For example, let's say you measure the forces
imposed on a single crystal in a deformation
apparatus.
It is easy to calculate the values in the stress tensor
in the coordinate system tied to the apparatus.

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 Stress Tensors
 However you may be really interested in
understanding the stresses acting on various
crystallographic planes, which are best viewed in
terms of the crystallographic coordinates.
Tensor math allows you to calculate the stresses
acting on the crystallographic planes by
transforming the stress tensor from one coordinate
system to another.

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 1.3 Stress and Strain
Stress.
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a
body against deformation is known as stress.
The external force acting on the body is called the
load or force.
The load is applied on the body while the stress is
induced in the material of the body.
A loaded member remains in equilibrium when the
resistance offered by the member against the
deformation and the applied load are equal.
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 Stress.

𝑃
Mathematically stress is written as, 𝜎 =
𝐴
where σ = Stress (also called intensity of stress),
P = External force or load, and
A = Cross-sectional area.
The unit of stress depends upon the unit of load (or
force) and unit of area.
In the S.I. units, the force is expressed in newtons
(written as N) and area is expressed as 𝑚2 . Hence
unit of stress becomes as N/𝑚2 .
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 1.3 Stress and Strain.

Strain.
When a body is subjected to some external force,
there is some change of dimension of the body.
The ratio of change of dimension of the body to the
original dimension is known as strain.
Strain is dimensionless. Strain may be :
 1. Tensile strain,
 2. Compressive strain,
 3. Volumetric strain, and
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 Strain.
If there is some increase in length of a body due to
external force, then the ratio of increase of length to
the original length of the body is known as tensile
strain.
But if there is some decrease in length of the body,
then the ratio of decrease of the length of the body to
the original length is known as compressive strain.
 The ratio of change of volume of the body to the
original volume is known as volumetric strain.
The strain produced by shear stress is known as
shear strain.
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 1.3 Stress and Strain.
Types of Stresses
The stress may be normal stress or a shear stress.
 Normal stress is the stress which acts in a direction
perpendicular to the area.
It is represented by σ (sigma).
The normal stress is further divided into tensile
stress and compressive stress.

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 1.3 Stress and Strain.
Types of Stresses
A. Tensile Stress.
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two
equal and opposite pulls as shown in Fig. 1.3 (a) as a
result of which there is an increase in length, is known
as tensile stress.

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 Types of Stresses.
Fig 1.3

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 Types of Stresses.
Let
P = Pull (or force) acting on the body,
A = Cross-sectional area of the body,
L = Original length of the body,
dL = Increase in length due to pull P acting on the
body,
σ = Stress induced in the body, and
e = Strain (i.e., tensile strain).

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 Types of Stresses.
Fig. 1.31 (a) shows a bar subjected to a tensile force
P at its ends. Consider a section x-x, which divides
the bar into two parts.
The part left to the section x-x, will be in
equilibrium if P = Resisting force (R). This is shown
in Fig. 1.31 (b).
Similarly the part right to the section x-x, will be in
equilibrium if P = Resisting force as shown in Fig.
1.31 (c).
This resisting force per unit area is known as stress
or intensity of stress
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 Types of Stresses.
Tensile stress

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 Types of Stresses.
B. Compressive Stress.
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two
equal and opposite pushes as shown in Fig. 1.32 (a)
as a result of which there is a decrease in length of
the body, is known as compressive stress.
And the ratio of decrease in length to the original
length is known as compressive strain.
The compressive stress acts normal to the area and it
pushes on the area

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 Types of Stresses.
Fig 1.32

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 Types of Stresses.
Let an axial push P is acting on a body in cross-
sectional area A. Due to external push P, let the
original length L of the body decreases by 𝑑𝐿.

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two
equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section as shown in
Fig. 1.33 as a result of which the body tends to shear
off across the section, is known as shear stress.
The corresponding strain is known as shear strain.
 The shear stress is the stress which acts tangential
to the area.
It is represented by τ.
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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
Fig. 1.33

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
Consider a rectangular block of height h, length L and width
unity.
Let the bottom face AB of the block be fixed to the surface
as shown in Fig. 1.34 (a).
Let a force P be applied tangentially along the top face CD
of the block. Such a force acting tangentially along a surface
is known as shear force.
For the equilibrium of the block, the surface AB will offer a
tangential reaction P equal and opposite to the applied
tangential force P.
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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
Fig. 1.34

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
Consider a section x-x (parallel to the applied force), which
divides the block into two parts.
The upper part will be in equilibrium if P = Resistance (R).
This is shown in Fig. 1.34 (b).
Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium if P =
Resistance (R) as shown in Fig. 1.34 (c).
This resistance is known as shear resistance. And the shear
resistance per unit area is known as shear stress which is
represented by τ.

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.
As the bottom face of the block is fixed, the face ABCD will
be distorted to ABC1D1 through an angle 𝜑 as a result of
force P as shown in Fig. 1.34 (d) below.

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 Types of Stresses
C. Shear Stress.

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 1.4 Elasticity and Elastic Limit
A. Elasticity
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to
undergo some deformation.
If the external force is removed and the body comes back to
its original shape and size (which means the deformation
disappears completely), the body is known as elastic body.
 This property, by virtue of which certain materials return
back to their original position after the removal of the
external force, is called elasticity.
The body will regain its previous shape and size only when
the deformation caused by the external force, is within a
certain limit.
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 1.4 Elasticity and Elastic Limit
B. Elastic Limit
Thus there is a limiting value of force up to and
within which, the deformation completely
disappears on the removal of the force.
The value of stress corresponding to this limiting
force is known as the elastic limit of the material.
 If the external force is so large that the stress exceeds the elastic limit,
the material loses to some extent its property of elasticity.
 If now the force is removed, the material will not return to its original
shape and size and there will be a residual deformation in the material.

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 1.5 Hooke’s Law and Elastic
Module
Hooke’s Law states that when a material is loaded
within elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the
strain produced by the stress.
This means the ratio of the stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic
limit.
This constant is known as Modulus of Elasticity or
Modulus of Rigidity or Elastic Modulii.

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 1.6 Modulus of Elasticity (Or
Young’s Modulus)
Young’s Modulus.
The ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to
the corresponding strain is a constant.
This ratio is known as Young’s Modulus or Modulus
of Elasticity and is denoted by E.

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 1.6 Modulus of Elasticity (Or
Young’s Modulus)
Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.
The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear
strain within the elastic limit, is known as Modulus
of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.
This is denoted by C or G or N.

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 .
Safety Factor.
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate tensile stress to the
working (or permissible) stress. Mathematically it is
written as

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For One-Dimensional Stress System.
The relationship between stress and strain for a
unidirectional stress (i.e., for normal stress in one
direction only) is given by Hooke’s law, which
states that when a material is loaded within its
elastic limit, the normal stress developed is
proportional to the strain produced.

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For One-Dimensional Stress System.
This means that the ratio of the normal stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic
limit.
This constant is represented by E and is known as
modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus of
elasticity.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
= Constant or = 𝐸
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒

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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For One-Dimensional Stress System.
where
𝜎 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠,
𝑒 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝜎
Or = 𝑒………………….1.7A
𝐸
The above equation gives the stress and strain
relation for the normal stress in one direction.
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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
Before knowing the relationship between stress and
strain for two-dimensional stress system, we shall
have to define the following;
longitudinal strain,
lateral strain, and
Poisson’s ratio.

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
longitudinal strain,
The longitudinal strain is defined as the deformation
of the body per unit length in the direction of the
applied load.
𝐿𝑒𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦,
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦,
𝛿𝐿 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃.
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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
longitudinal strain,
Then,
𝜹𝑳
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝑳
Or it is called linear strain

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
lateral strain,
The strain at right angles to the direction of applied
load is known as lateral strain.
Let a rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and
depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as
shown in Fig. (next slide).
The length of the bar will increase while the breadth
and depth will decrease
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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
lateral strain,

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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
lateral strain,
Let
𝛿𝐿 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ,
𝛿𝑏 = 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ,
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ.
𝛿𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = … 1.7 𝐵
𝐿
𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑑
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 … [1.7 (𝐶)]
𝑏 𝑑
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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
Note.
(i) If longitudinal strain is tensile, the lateral strains will be
compressive.
(ii) If longitudinal strain is compressive then lateral strains
will be tensile.
(iii) Hence every longitudinal strain in the direction of load
is accompanied by lateral strains of the opposite kind in all
directions perpendicular to the load.

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Tensile Load

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Compressive Load

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
Poisson’s ratio.
The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is
a constant for a given material, when the material is
stressed within the elastic limit.
This ratio is called Poisson’s ratio and it is generally
denoted by µ.
Hence mathematically,

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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
Poisson’s ratio.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, µ =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

𝑜𝑟

𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = µ × 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

… 1.7 𝐷

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
For Two-Dimensional Stress System.
Poisson’s ratio.
As lateral strain is opposite in sign to longitudinal
strain, hence algebraically, lateral strain is written as
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = – µ × 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 … [1.7 (𝐸)]

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Consider a two-dimensional figure ABCD, subjected to two
mutually perpendicular stresses 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 . (fig. below)

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Let
𝜎1 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝜎2 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦𝜎1 .

The stress 𝜎1 will produce strain in the direction of x and
also in the direction of y.
The strain in the direction of x will be longitudinal strain
and will be equal to 𝜎1 / 𝐸 whereas the strain in the direction
of y will be lateral strain and will be equal to
– µ × 𝜎1 / 𝐸
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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Now consider the strain produced by 𝜎2 .
The stress 𝜎2 will produce strain in the direction of y and
also in the direction of x.
The strain in the direction of y will be longitudinal strain
and will be equal to 𝜎2 /𝐸
whereas the strain in the direction of x will be lateral strain
and will be equal to – µ × 𝜎2 / 𝐸 .

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 1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain
Let
𝑒1 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒2 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Now total strain in the direction of x due to stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2
=

Similarly total strain in the direction of y due to stresses

𝜎1 and 𝜎2 =

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1.7 Relationship Between Stress
and Strain

 The above two equations gives the stress and strain

relationship for the two-dimensional stress system.

 In the above equations, tensile stress is taken to be

positive whereas the compressive stress negative.

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 -End-

Thank You

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