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CROP Production Notes-1

Cert. In General Agriculture (Kitale National Polytechnic)

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CROP PRODUCTION NOTES

CERTIFICATE LEVEL
COURSE OUTLINE

• CROP ECOLOGY
• LAND PREPARATION
• PLANT PROPAGATION
• PLANTING
• CROP MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
• CROP PROTECTION
• CROP ROTATION
• CROPPING SYSTEMS
• SEED PRODUCTION AND QUALITY CONTROL
• PASTURES AND FODDER CROPS
• STAPLE FOOD CROPS
• INDUSTRIAL CROPS
• AGRO FORESTRY

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TOPIC 1

CROP ECOLOGY

Specific Objective

At the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to:

a. Define crop ecology

b. State the biotic and abiotic factors that affect crop production
c. List various agro ecological zones in Kenya
d. List the crops grown in each agroecological zone

1. CROP ECOLOGY

Definition-A branch of Biology dealing with the relationship of organisms with their environment and with each
other. OR

The study of various phenomena within the crop field e.g., Predator/prey relationship or crop/weed competition

1 a. BIOTIC FACTORS.

• These are living organisms that affect agricultural production. • Biotic

factors influencing agriculture can be divided into the following classes.

Crop pests: stalk borer damaging maize in the field

Decomposers: Cause rotting of organic matter there by releasing nutrients for crop growth.
They help in improving soil structure through incorporating organic matter into the soil.

Nitrogen fixing Bacteria: Nitrogen fixing bacteria are found in root nodules of leguminous
plants. Improve crop production through increasing soil nitrogen content which crops
require for proper growth.

Livestock parasites: suck blood and transmit diseases to animals

Pollinators: Bee pollinating maize flower. Pollination in crop production increases yields and
viability of seeds.

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Predators: Eagles can eat chicken, rabbits among other livestock. Eagle can also eat insects
and pests for example rats, moles and birds which destroy crops.

Pathogens: Causes diseases in livestock and crops thereby lowering quality of produce.
Increase cost of production when control measures are implemented. Introduce toxic

substances into agricultural products thereby lowering the quality of the produce. Can cause
death to crops and animals.

Effects of Biotic Factors on Agricultural Production

1. Pests

• Feed on crops thereby lowering quantity of agricultural produce.

• Feed on grains thereby affecting viability of the seeds

• Act as disease vectors

• Lower palatability of crop produce

• Increase cost of production when control methods are applied

• Create entry points for disease causing organisms

2. Parasites
Irritate livestock

• Causes anemia in livestock

• Some block alimentary canal

• Lower rate of production in livestock

• Increase cost of production when controlled

• Some lower quality of hides and skins

• Some absorb food meant for the livestock thereby lowering the level of production.

• Some for-example ticks transmit disease causing organisms. 3. ABIOTIC/CLIMATIC

FACTORS.

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Climatic factors include:

 Rainfall

Poor rainfall distribution results to wilting of crops

Excess rainfall can cause soil erosion Excess rainfall can result to
crop failure due to flooding. The four aspects of rainfall which affect agricultural
production include: - a) Rainfall Amount
Rainfall amount refers to quantity of rainfall received in a given area for a period of one year. Rainfall
amount is measured using a rain gauge in millimeters per annum. The amount of rainfall determines the
crops grown in an area.

b) Rainfall distribution

This refers to the spread of rainfall over the year. Rainfall distribution is very poor in Kenya and
therefore irrigation is necessary to supplement the short supply.

c) Rainfall reliability

This refers to the certainty with which a given amount of rain is expected in a given place in the year. d)
Rainfall Intensity
This refers to the strength with which rain falls; it is therefore measured in terms of amount per hour.
Rainfall of low intensity is preferred as it improves water infiltration into the soil and causes less
soil erosion.
 Temperature

Temperature is the coldness or hotness of a place.

Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius using a thermometer. Temperature is

influenced by altitude and topography.

Temperature decreases with increase in altitude, such that for every 300 meters rise in altitude
above sea level temperature decreases by1.7-2.2 degrees Celsius.

Each crop has a temperature range within which it can grow referred to as the cardinal range of
temperature.

For crops to grow well and produce high yields, they require a narrow temperature range within the
cardinal range referred to as optimum range of temperature
Effects of temperature on agriculture Low
temperature

Slow growth rate.

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High incidences of disease such as CDB in coffee. Improvement of quality in crops such as tea and
pyrethrum.
High temperature

High evaporation rate hence wilting in crops. Hasten the rate of maturity due to increased
growth Rate.

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Improvement of qualityin crops such as pineapples and oranges.

Increase incidences of diseases such as leaf rust in coffee. Increased incidences of pest infestation
such as aphids in vegetables.

Effects of altitude on agriculture

Kenya is divided into three ecological zones which

include; Low altitude zone o - 1500 meters above sea

level Medium altitude zone 1500 - 2500 meters above

sea level

High altitude zone above 2500 meters above sea level Crops perform differently when grown in
each of these ecological zones and therefore each crop has its most suitable zone for maximum
performance as illustrated below.

 Wind
Wind refers to air in motion.

Below is a list of effects of strong wind on agricultural production. a) Blowing and bringing rain
bearing clouds

b) Destruction of farm structures

c) Strong wind may course lodging in weak plants.

d) Wind erosion on bare land

e) Increases rate of moisture evaporation

f) Increase spread of pests and diseases

g) Agent of dispersal.

h) Pollination in crops.

i)  Light

Light is the source of energy which plants require for Photosynthesis.

During photosynthesis, plants manufacture food using water and carbon dioxide in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll. Aspects of light that influence agriculture i). Light intensity.

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This is the strength with which light hits the surface of the earth. ii) Light duration

This is the period of time the plants are exposed to light recorded using a Campbell sunshine
recorder Photoperiodism This is the response of plants toward light duration. Long day plants

These are plants which require more than 12 hours of lighting to flower and produce fruits or
seeds e.g.
Some wheat varieties

Short day plants These are plants which require less than 12 hours of lighting to flower and
produce e.g. Maize
Day neutral plants

These are plants which produce flowers regardless of the duration of lighting they have been
exposed to e.g. Tobacco. iii) Light wavelength:

This refers to the type or quality of light. A wavelength is the distance between two corresponding
points of a light wave.

Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light which are not present in artificial light unless it is
ultra violet or infra-red.
NB/ Greenhouses can be used to control the temperature, relative humidity and light duration and
intensity.
 Relative Humidity.

This is the amount of water vapor held by air at a given temperature.

At high humidity the rate of evaporation is low and vice versa.
4. EDAPHIC/SOIL FACTORS

• Soil is a mixture of weathered rock and decayed organic matter.

• It supports plant growth by providing anchorage nutrients and water.

• Topsoil covers most of the earth and it contains minerals, organic matter, air, water and living
organisms. Soil Formation

• Soil is formed through the process of weathering.

• Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the earth’s surface.

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• Parent rock is first broken into smaller fragments and eventually into individual constituent minerals.

• The individual minerals combine to form the soil.

• Weathering is a continuous process and it takes hundreds of years to form a centimeter of the soil.

• Weathering involves breakdown (disintegration) and building up (synthesis).

• Weathering process is influenced by the following factors.

1. Climate.

2. Parent material.

3. Topography.

4. Living organisms.

5. Time.
Agents of the Weathering Process.

i. Physical agents.

• In this case no chemical changes are involved.

• These include wind, water, moving ice and temperature.

• Strong winds carry materials which hit against each other and break into smaller fragments.

• Raindrops hit the ground with some force causing soil erosion.

• Moving ice causes rocks to disintegrate.

• High temperatures in the arid areas cause the rocks to at different rates. During the night,
temperatures drop making the rock to contract. The rock surface contracts faster than the inside.
This unequal contraction causes the rocks to disintegrate.

• In places with very low temperature, water gets into the cracks, freezes and becomes ice. As water

turns into ice, it increases in volume pushing the rock apart hence disintegration. ii. Biological
agents.

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• This involves living organisms.

• Large animals like elephants and cattle exert pressure on rocks as they move causing them to break.

• Man’s activities such as mining, quarrying, road construction and earth moving breaks rocks into
smaller fragments.

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Bacteria and fungi help in the breakdown of plant and animal tissues (decomposition). These
materials are incorporated into the soil.

• Termites and moles bring to the surface large quantities of fine materials. This promotes
weathering by aerating lower layers of the rocks.

• Roots of plants force their way through rocks making them to disintegrate. They also produce
acids during respiration which dissolves rock minerals. Decayed roots may mix with water
forming organic acids which dissolves rock minerals. iii. Chemical agents.

• This is the decay or decomposition of the rocks. It involves the following processes.

a) Carbonation.

• As the rain falls through the atmosphere, it dissolves some Co2 forming weak carbonic acid.

• Over time this acid reacts with the rock minerals particularly calcium carbonate causing
decomposition.
Rain water + carbon (IV) oxide Carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid + Limestone Calcium bicarbonate

• The calcium bicarbonate formed in this reaction is soluble in water causing water to eventually
dissolve the entire rock.

a) Oxidation.

• Oxygen reacts with many elements found in rocks causing them to disintegrate. c) Solution.
d) Hydrolysis.

e) Hydration.
Factors Influencing Soil Formation I. Parent rock material

• This influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil such as

a) The texture of the soil e.g. granite gives coarse grained soil.

b) Mineral composition of the soil e.g. rocks containing calcite, feldspar and
ferromagnesium minerals produce deep heavy soils rich in nutrients.

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c) The rate of soil formation e.g. limestone is easily weathered in warm humid regions
and the carbonates are easily soluble.

• Since the parent material influences the physical and chemical properties of the soil, it
therefore controls the type of vegetation in an area. II. Climate

• High temperature speed up the rate of chemical reactions. • Wind acts as a transport
agent and carries the weathered materials from one place to another. Where a lot of
weathered materials are deposited, the soils are deep and rich in nutrients.

• Rainfall provides water which is an important reagent during the weathering process. A lot of
rain may cause rocks to break hastening the weathering process.
III. Topography (Relief)
This is the shape of the land in relation to the underlying rock of the earth’s surface.

• It may quicken or slow the weathering process.

• The slope affects the depth of the soil and kind of vegetation growing in an area.

• Soils found in flat land and low-lying areas tend to be more fertile than those found on higher

slopes. Such areas have deeper soils. • On a steep slope, erosion is high and such areas have
shallow soils. IV. Living organisms (Biotic factors)

• The presence of the various agents of biological weathering speeds up the process of soil
formation. V. Time.

• The process of soil formation is very slow and takes a lot of time.

• Deep mature soils are found where soil forming processes have taken place over a long period.

• If the parent material is resistant to weathering agents, more time is required for the soil to
mature.

• Areas with severe soil erosion have a poorly differentiated soil profile.

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AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES IN KENYA CROPS GROWN

Tropical Alpine Zone Mountains and swamps (Limited crops)

Upper Highlands Barley, Pyrethrum

Lower Highlands Tea, Maize, Wheat

Upper Midlands Coffee, Tea

Lower Midlands Sugarcane, Cotton

Lowlands Groundnuts, Cotton

Coastal Lowlands Coconut, cashewnuts, Cassava

TOPIC 2

LAND PREPARATION

Specific objective

At the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to:

a. Name the tools and implements used in land preparation

b. Explain the importance of land preparation
c. Explain the methods of land preparation

TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN LAND OPERATION

a. Mould board plough

b. Harrow
c. Jembe
d. Machete
e. Slashers
f. Mowers
g. Rakers
h. Axes

LAND PREPARATION
Land preparation involves all the activities that make land suitable for planting such as

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• –ploughing/digging

• -harrowing

• -ridging

• -rolling etc.
A piece of land that has been prepared for planting is called seedbed. In a seedbed the planting
materials germinate and grow to maturity and are harvested from same place.

IMPORTANCE OF LAND PREPARATION

• -To kill the weeds.

• -Encourage water infiltration into the soil.

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-To aerate the soil.

• -Incorporate manure and other organic matter into the soil.

• -To destroy stages of crop pests such as eggs, larvae, pupa or adults burying them, exposing
them to the suns heat or predators and starving them.

• -To encourage root penetration into the soil.

•-To make subsequent operations possible e.g. planting, fertilizer application, rolling and
ridging.
OPERATIONS IN LAND PREPARATIONS
They include;

A. Land clearing.

B. Primary cultivation.

C. Secondary cultivation. D. Tertiary operations.

A. LAND CLEARING
This is the removal of vegetation cover from the surface before tillage. This is done to prepare
land for cultivation and as method of land reclamation. Land clearing is necessary under the
following conditions.

1. When opening up a virgin land.

2. Where a stalk growing crop was previously planted such as maize.

3. Where land was left fallow for long time.

4.
Where the interval between primary and secondary cultivation is long such that the
land has reverted to the original virgin state.
Methods of Land Clearing

• Tree felling. Axes, pangas and power saws are used to cut down trees. Bulldozers and root
rakers are used in felling trees on a large scale. Removal of stumps and trash later
follows.

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• Burning. The vegetation cover is set ablaze. The method should be discouraged as it
destroys the soil organic matter, soil microorganisms and plant nutrients.

• Slashing. This is done to cut small bushes and grasses using slashers, pangas or tractor
drawn mowers.

• Use of chemicals. Chemicals used to kill weeds are called herbicides.

B. Primary Cultivation
This follows land clearing,

Small scale farmers use jembes or fork jembes during hand digging.

• In Large scale framing ploughing is done using moldboard or disc plough.

• Other farmers use ox ploughs.

• Primary cultivation should be done before the onset of the rains. This ensures that
all other subsequent operations are done in good time. Importance of Primary Cultivation

1. To remove weeds.

2. To bury organic matter for easy decomposition.

3. To facilitate water infiltration and aeration.

4. To destroy soil borne pests by exposing them to predators and the sun. 5. To make

planting easy.
Methods of Primary Cultivation

1. Hand digging. This is done by use of jembes, mattocks and fork jembes to cut and
turn the soil slices.

2. Mechanicalcultivation. This is the use of tractor drawn implements such as

moldboard and disc ploughs. Subsoilers, cultivators and chisel ploughs are used to
break the hard pan. Subsoiling is the process of cultivating the soil with the purpose
of breaking up the hard pan. Hard pans may be formed due to continuous use of
heavy machinery on the land. Importance of subsoiling

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• Breaking up the hard pan hence improving drainage.

• Improving soil aeration.

• Bringing to the surface leached minerals. • Improve root penetration.

3. Use of an ox plough. This is the use of ploughs drawn by oxen, donkeys or camels.
The method is faster and more efficient than hand cultivation. It’s common in areas
where land is fairly flat.

The following aspects should be considered when carrying out primary cultivation .

I) Time of Cultivation
Land should be prepared before the onset of the rains so as to;

• Give enough time for the weeds to dry up and decompose into organic matter.

• To allow CO2 and other gases to diffuse out of the soil while being replaced by oxygen.

Give enough time for subsequent operations to be done hence giving way to early
planting. II) Depth of Cultivation
This is determined by;

• Type of crop to be planted. Shallow rooted crops do not deep cultivation. Deep rooted
crops require deep cultivation.

• Type of the soil. Heavy soils are hard when dry making jembes and fork-jembes to dig
shallowly.

• The implements available. Tractor drawn implements give deeper depth than hand
operated tools. III) Choice of the Correct Implements This is determined by:

1. Condition of the land. If the land has a lot of stones and stumps, a disc plough is preferred
because it rolls over the obstacles without braking.

2. Type of the tilth required. Very fine tilth requires different types of implements.

3. Depth of cultivation. When deep cultivation is required heavy implements are used. Light
implements are used when shallow cultivation is needed.

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4. Topography of the land. Tractor drawn implements cannot be used where the slope is
very steep.

5. Implements available. A farmer can only use what is locally available.

6. Shape of the land. Some land shapes may not allow tractor drawn implements to be used
efficiently e.g. where there are acute corners.

7. Size of the land.

C. Secondary Cultivation

• This follows primary tillage.

• This involves the refinement of the seedbed before planting.

• It is also referred to as harrowing. • Small scale farmers can use pangas, jembes,
fork- jembes, and garden rakes to break the soil clods and pulverize the soil.

• Large scale farmers use factors drawn harrows such as disc harrows, spike toothed
harrows, spring tine harrows.
IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY CULTIVATION

i. To remove any weeds that might have germinated immediately after primary cultivation.

ii. To break the soil clods into small pieces for easy planting.

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iii. To level the field so as to obtain the uniform depth of planting. iv. Incorporate organic
matter into the soil in order to encourage decomposition before planting. Factors determining
the number of times secondary cultivation is done.

i. Size of the planting materials. Small seeds require a fine tilth than large seeds.

ii. Slope of the land. If the land is hilly, less number of secondary cultivations are preferred to
discourage soil erosion.

iii. Moisture content of the soil. In dry soils less operations are preferred so as to conserve the
soil moisture.

iv. Condition of the land after primary cultivation. If after primary cultivation, a lot of trash
is left, more harrowing operations should be carried out so as to incorporate the trash
into the soil.
D. Tertiary Operations

• They are carried out to meet the needs of certain crops.

• They are conducted after land clearing, primary and secondary cultivations. They include;

i. Ridging

• This is the process of digging soil in a continuous line and heaping it on one side to form
a ridge (bund) and a furrow.

• These ridges are used in planting crops such as Irish potatoes, cassava, groundnuts etc.

• Ridges facilitate tuber expansion and easy harvestingof the root crops.

• Furrows are made when planting sugarcane. • They help to conserve soil and water.

ii. Rolling

• This is done to compact the soil which is loose or of fine tilth.

• This is done to prevent small seeds from being blown away by the wind and to prevent
soil erosion.

• This also increase seed soil contact. • Heavy rollers are used in large scale.

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iii. Leveling

• This is making the soil surface flat and uniform to promote easy germination of small seeded
crops.

• Rolling ensures uniform germination of seeds.

MINIMUM TILLAGE
This is the use of a combination of farming practices that disturb soil the least. These farming
practices include;

i. Application of herbicides in controlling weeds.

ii. Timing cultivation/timely weeding of the previous crop. iii. Mulching. Mulch prevents weeds

from growing. iv. Restricting cultivation to the area where seeds are to be planted. Weeds in
the rest of the field are controlled by slashing.

v. Establishing a cover crop on the field.

vi. Uprooting or slashing weeds in perennial crops.

Reasons for carrying out minimum tillage

i. Reduce the cost of cultivation. By reducing the number of operations.

ii. To control soil erosion. iii. To maintain soil structure. iv. To conserve soil moisture.

Continuous cultivation exposes the soil to sun’s heat hence evaporation of soil moisture.
To prevent root and underground structures disturbance. vi. To prevent exposure of humus to adverse
conditions such as sun’s heat that cause volatilization of nitrogen

TOPIC 3

PLANT PROPAGATION

Specific objective

At the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to:

a. Explain various methods of crop propagation

b. List advantages and disadvantages of a given method of plant propagation

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PLANT PROPAGATION

DEFINITION

Plant propagation involves the formation and development of new individuals which are utilised
in the establishment of new plantings.

Methods of plant propagation.

(1) Propagation by seed (sexual propagation).

(2) Vegetative propagation (asexual propagation).

PROPAGATION BY SEED.

Seeds are easy to handle during planting making the operation

faster. Fertiliser and manure application can be mechanised.

It is possible to develop new crop varieties due to crosspollination.

When planting seeds, it is easy to use machines like seed planters and drillers.

Disadvantages of using seeds as planting materials

Soil borne pests may damage seeds if left for sometimes in the soil before rain falls.

Some seeds may lose viability if stored for a long time.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION.

The method relies on the use of vegetative structures such as stems, leaves or roots to perpetuate the
parent plants. The vegetative parts contain or develop buds which give rise to new individuals.

Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting.

I) Crop originating from vegetative materials mature faster than those from seeds.

II) The crops show uniformity in such qualities as disease resistance, seed size, colour, keeping or
storing quality and chemical composition.

III) It is possible to produce many varieties of compatible crops on the same root stock.

IV) Use of the vegetative materials is easier and faster, especially where seeds show prolonged
dormancy.

V) The resulting plant has desirable shape and size for ease of harvesting and spraying.

VI) It facilitates the propagation of crops which are seedless or those that produce seeds which are
not viable or have long dormancy.

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Disadvantages.

i) Vegetative propagation does not result in new crop varieties.

ii) Keeping the materials free of disease is difficult. iii) Materials cannot be stored

for long. iv) The materials are bulky and therefore difficult to store and

transport.

Plant parts used for vegetative propagation

(i)Bulbils.

These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle.

(ii) Splits.

These are plantlets divided from the existing mother plant with complete leaves and rooting system.

(i) Crowns and slips.

These are materials used to propagate pineapples. Crowns are born on top of the fruits and are broken
off and prepared for planting. Slips are born at the base of the pineapple fruit, they take 22 months from
planting to maturity.

Crowns and slips are planted in the nurseries first before transplanting to the main seedbed.

(ii) Suckers.

These are small plants that grow from the base of the main stem. They have adventitious roots which
grow quickly when planted to form a new plant.

(iii) Tubers (stem and root tubers)

These are underground structures or food organs which are short and thick. They sprout and produce
roots for growth.

(iv) Vines.

These are soft wood cuttings which produce roots easily upon planting to give rise to new plants. They
are cut from the mother plants and planted directly into the field.

(v) Cuttings and setts.

Cuttings are portions of plant parts which are cut and then planted. They may be from stems, roots or
leaves. A stem cutting must have a bud which develops into a shoot. The root cutting must have an eye.

LAYERING

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Layering is the process used to induce a part of a plant to produce roots while it is still attached to the
mother plant.

Types of layering

(i) Marcotting / Aerial layering

This is aerial layering commonly used on plants with stems that cannot bend easily. Some moist rooting
medium is heaped around a section of the branch whose bark and cambial layer have been removed.
The rooting medium is then wrapped with a polythene sheet to hold the soil and maintain the soil
moisture.
At the point where the bark has been removed, auxins accumulate and thereafter induce development
of roots. The rooting medium quickens the process of rooting.

(ii) Tip layering

In this method:

- The shoot bearing the terminal bud is bent into the ground and covered with a layer of moist soil.

- It is held in position by use of pegs.

- The covered part of the shoot is induced to produce roots after which it is cut off from the mother
plant and transplanted.

GRAFTING

It is a practice of uniting two separate woody stems. The upper part of the union is the scion and the
lower part is the stock. The scion must have one or more buds that grow into the fruiting part of the
new plant. The scion and the stock are joined together so that the cambium tissues touch and fuse
together.
Grafting is usually done between two closely related plants like the orange and the lemon.

Grafting methods include:

i) Whip grafting or splice grafting.

ii) Wedge or cleft grafting. iii)Side grafting. iv) Bark

grafting.

v) Notch grafting.

vi) Approach grafting.

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BUDDING

This is a process of propagation where a vegetative bud (scion) is united to the seedling of another plant
(root stock). The scion has only one bud and some bark with or without wood. The bud is inserted in a
slit made on the bark of the stock. It is held tightly on the stock by tying it with budding tape until it
produces a shoot. The wrapping is removed about two weeks after budding in order to inspect the buds.
If they are green they are accepted by the root stock. The stock is then cut a few centimetres above the
union. The green bud develops to produce a shoot.

Methods of budding include:

i) T- budding. ii) Patch

budding.

iii) Top budding.

Importance of budding and grafting

i) Plants with desirable root characteristics such as disease resistance, vigorous root system,
and resistance to nematode attack but with undesirable products may be utilized to
produce desirable products e.g lemon-orange graft.

ii) They make it possible to grow more than one type of fruit or flower on the same plant. iii)

They help to propagate clones that cannot be propagated in any other way.

iv) They help to shorten the maturity age. Grafted mangoes. For example, may take three and half
years to mature while non-grafted mangoes may take up to seven years to mature.

v) They facilitate the changing of the top of the tree from being undesirable to desirable.

vi) Grafting helps to repair damaged trees.

TISSUE CULTURE (BIOTECHNOLOGY)

Tissue culturing is a biotechnology which is being used extensively in cloning of vegetatively propagated
plants. It is based on the ability of plant tissues (cells) to regenerate other parts of the plants. Tissues
which are also called propagules or explants, are derived from shoot tips where cells are undergoing
rapid cell division and are not differentiated. The cells are then provided with the right conditions which
enable them to multiply and develop roots and shoots.

These conditions include a culture medium which contains the correct nutrients and growth regulator.
They are also subjected to the correct light intensity, temperatures and relative humidity.

Propagation of plants by tissue culture follows a sequence of stages:

Stage 1: The initial phase.

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It involves establishing the aseptic culture and developing the propagule by enhancing cell division and
enlargement. Contamination is eliminated by using disinfectants such as:

- Alcohol.

- Calcium or sodium hypochlorite.

- Mercury chloride.

- Antibiotics.

All tools used must be sterilised to establish a clean culture. The ingredients of the culture medium at
this stage include:

- Inorganic minerals.

- Carbon.

- Energy source- sugar.

- Vitamins.

- Organic supplements.

- Growth regulators.

Stage 2: The multiplication phase

It involves a series of sub-culturing to rapidly multiply the propagules through somatic development of
embryos to produce auxillary buds and adventitious roots. The culture medium at this stage should be
enriched with substances/ growth regulators that enhance the development of plant organs as well as
inducing the proliferation of multiple shoots. Growth regulators include: Auxins, Abscisic acid,
Cytokinins, Ethylene and Gibberellins.

Stage 3:Root formation phase.

It involves the preparation of the propagule for the establishment in the soil. This propagation includes
the following:

i) Rooting of the regenerated plantlets.

ii) Hardening the plantlets by imparting some tolerance to moisture stress and attack by
pathogens.

iii) Converting the plantlets from heterotrophic mode of nutrition to autotrophic state. Rooting of
the plantlets is promoted by either leaving out the growth hormone in the medium or
supplementing the medium with auxins. Hardening occurs due to a change in the physical

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environments for example, increasing the temperatures and light intensity beyond those in the
second stage and gradually exposing the plantlets to conditions similar to those in the field.

IMPORTANCE OF TISSUE CULTURE

Plant tissue culture technology has proven itself to be an effective and viable option for growers to
seriously consider in a variety of different situations:

i. It is used to recover and establish pathogen-free plants especially in the control of viral diseases.

ii. It is used in the mass production of propagules.

iii. It is fast and requires less space than the cultural methods of using cuttings which require a
bigger space.

iv. When large-scale propagation of new or superior plant varieties is required for early
introduction to market. Tissue culture is often the fastest and most economical means to
achieve this goal.

v. It is used for mass multiplication for varieties which are difficult to regenerate by conventional
methods of propagation.

Tissue culture propagules exhibit the following characteristics:

Guaranteed to be disease-free.

Have a more fibrous, healthier root system free of any root rot problems.

Exhibit a denser, bushier branching habit.

Characterised by more vigorous growth after transplanting.

Have a higher survival rate.

They are ready for re-sale in a shorter time.

LIMITATIONS

i. The method requires highly skilled manpower. ii.

It needs special structures to raise propagules. iii.

It is highly laborious. iv. It needs specialized culture

medium which is expensive.

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TOPIC 4
Specific objective

At the end of the topic the trainer should be able to able to:

a. Explain the need for selecting quality planting materials

b. Explain the importance of time of planting, planting depth, spacing and seed rate.
c. Name the methods of planting
d. Name types of fertilizers and manures and their properties
e. Explain the methods of fertilizer and manure application

PLANTING
Planting is the placement of the planting material in the soil for the purpose of regeneration in orde r to
produce more of the plant species.

SELECTION MATERIALS

Factors considered when selecting planting materials:

Suitability to the ecological conditions. The selected planting materials should be well adapted to
the soil conditions, temperatures and the amount of rainfall in the area.

Purity of the materials. Planting materials should be pure and not mixed with other off -types.

Germination percentage. This is a measure of the germination potential of seeds.

Certified seeds. These are seeds which have been tested and proven to have 100% germination
potential and free from diseases and pests.

TIME OF PLANTING

The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of the crop to be planted and
the environmental conditions of the area.

Factors to consider in timely planting

The rainfall pattern or moisture condition of the soil.

Type of crop to be planted.

Soil type.

Market demand.

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Prevalence of pests and diseases.

Weed control.

Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is
scarce dry planting is recommended.

Advantages of timely planting

i. Crops make maximum use of rainfall and suitable soil temperature, leading to vigorous
growth.

ii. Crops usually escape serious pest and disease attack. iii. Crops benefit from

nitrogen flush which is available at the beginning of the rain.

iv. For horticultural crops, proper timing ensures that the produce is marketed when prices are
high.

v. Crops establish earlier than the weeds, hence smothering them.

Depth of planting

This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is
determined by:

i. Soil type: seeds will emerge from greater depths in sandy soils that are light than in clay soils.

ii. Soil moisture content: it is recommended that one plants deep in dry soils in order to place
the seed in a zone with moist soil.

iii. Size of the seed: larger seeds are planted deeper in the soil because they have enough food
reserves to make them shoot and emerge through the soil to the surface.

iv. Type of the germination: seeds with epigeal type of germination such as beans should be
planted shallower than those with hypogeal type of germination such as maize.

Spacing and seed rate

Spacing is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Spacing determines plant population and
the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain maximum number of plants per unit area which will make
maximum use of the environmental factors. Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which
means lower yields, whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for
nutrients and other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are
acceptable in the market.

Factors that determine the spacing of the crop

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i. The type of machinery to be used. The space between the rows should allow free passage of
the machinery which can be used in the field.

ii. The size of the plant. Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer
spacing.

iii. Soil fertility. A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible.

iv. Moisture availability. Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of
plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall.

v. Use of the crop. Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer
spacing than areas of low rainfall.

vi. Pest and disease control. When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move
from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts.

vii. Growth habit of the crop. Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect
type.

Seed rate

Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by the ultimate crop stand
which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit
area without sacrificing quality. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher seed rates
than those which have about 100% germination percentage.

Factors to consider in choosing seed rates.

i. Seed purity.

When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the
contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seed.

ii. Germination percentage.

Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is
required in larger amounts.

iii. Spacing.

At closer spacing, more seeds are used than at wider spacing.

iv. Number of seeds per hole.

When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is
planted per hole.

v. The purpose of the crop.

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A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production.

METHODS OF PLANTING

There are practically six methods of planting, namely:

i. Direct seeding and transplanting.

ii. Row planting.

This is where the seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows.

Advantages of row planting

Machines can be used easily between the rows.

It is easy to establish the correct plant population.

Lower seed rate is used than if broadcasting is adopted.

It is easy to carry out cultural practices such as weeding, spraying and harvesting.

Disadvantages of row planting

It does not provide an ample foliage cover.

It is more expensive than broadcasting because of consuming a lot of labour and time.

It requires some skill in measuring the distances between and within the rows. iii. Broadcasting.

This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted
for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses.

Advantages of broadcasting.

It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting.

It gives a good ground cover.

Disadvantages

It uses more seed than row planting.

The seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places.

It results to poor performance due to competition.

Weeding cannot be mechanised.

iv. Over-sowing.

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This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some
form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil
disturbance is recommended before over-sowing.

A heavy dose of single superphosphate at the rate of 200-400 kg/ha is applied.

The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established.

Regardless of the method of establishment, the pasture and fodder stands should be ready for
light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting.

v. Under-sowing.

This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize.

Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains.

Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertiliser.

No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture
seedlings to sunlight.

Types of Organic Manure

Manure is classified according to the method of preparation and the materials from which it is made.
There are three types of organic manure based on the above classification.

i. Green manure ii.

Farmyard manure iii.

Compost manure

GREEN MANURE

This is a type of manure made of green plants. Plants are grown for the purpose of incorporating into
the soil thus improving soil fertility. Examples of plants used as green manure include:

Maize, Sorghum, Sun-flower, Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Sun-hemp, Clovers, Lucerne and Beans.

Characteristics of plants used as Green Manure

They should be highly vegetative or leafy.

They should have a fast growth rate.

They should have high nitrogen content.

The plants must be capable of rotting quickly.

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The plants should be hardy, that is, they should be capable of growing in poor conditions.

Reasons why Green Manure is not commonly used.

Most of the crops grown are food crops and it is hard for people to use them as green manure.

Green manure crops might use most of the soil moisture and leave very little for the next crop.

Most of the nutrients are used up by micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green
manure plant. These will only be released by micro-organisms when they die. They release nutrients
to the soil slowly.

It takes time for the green manure crop to decompose and therefore planting is delayed.

Preparation of Green Manure

• The crop is planted in the field.

• It is then allowed to grow up to the flowering stage, after which it is incorporated into the soil
through ploughing.

• It is then allowed to decompose.

• After this the field should be prepared for planting the major crop.

FARMYARD MANURE (FYM)

Farmyard manure is a mixture of animal waste (urine and dung) and crop residues used as animal
beddings in animal houses. The mixture should be allowed enough time to decompose.

Factors determining the quality of FYM

i. The type of animals used. Dung from fattening animal s has a higher level of nutrients than
that from dairy animals. Non-ruminants such as pigs and poultry absorb less nutrients from
their feed and therefore give dung which has a higher level of nutrients.

ii. Type of food eaten feedstuffs that are highly nutritious result in manure with a higher level of
nutrients.

iii. Type of litter used. Wood shavings and sawdust are slow to decompose and contain very little
nutrients. Farmers are advised to use litter with a high urine absorption capacity.

iv. Method of storage. FYM must be stored well preferably in a place with a leak-free roof and a
concrete floor. This is to prevent loss of nutrients through leaching and vaporisation by the
action of rain and heat respectively.

Preparation of FYM

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• A layer of grass, wood shavings or saw dust is provided in the houses of farm animals to serve as
beddings.

• Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings and mix them through trampling.

• After some time, which varies from one type of animal to another, the bedding is replaced.

• The discarded bedding is deposited in a specially prepared shed and new layers of used beddings
are continually added until a heap is formed.

• In the course of time, decomposition and mineralisation of these materials take place through the
activities of certain bacteria resulting in rich manure. It can then be used in the farm.

COMPOST MANURE

This is a type of manure that is prepared from composed (heaped) organic materials. The compost
materials include plant residue and animal waste or plant materials only. Kitchen refuse and left overs
may also be included. Materials that should be avoided include synthetics and plants with pests,
diseases and weed seeds.

Site selection for making of compost

manure Factors considered:

i. A well-drained place. This avoids waterlogging which leaches nutrients from the manure.

ii. Direction of the prevailing wind. Should avoid direct drift from the compost manure to the
dwelling place. This prevents bad odour being blown to the homestead.

iii. Size of the farm. The site should be centrally placed to the area of the farm when compost
manure is to be used.

iv. Accessibility. The site must be easily accessible to make it easy for transportation of materials
needed.

Preparation of Compost Manure

There are basically two methods of preparing compost manure. These are:

i. Indore Method (Pit Method) ii. Four

heap system (Stack Method)

INDORE METHOD (PIT METHOD)

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• The materials to be made into compost are packed into a pit 1.2 m long, 1.2m wide and 1.2m
deep. These are placed in layers, starting with fibrous material such as maize stalks which form the
foundation of the compost layers.

• This is then followed by a layer of grass, leaves or any type of refuse material.

• On top of this, a layer of well-rotted manure is added to provide nutrients to the micro-organisms.

• This should be followed by a thin layer of wood ash to improve the level of phosphorus and
potassium in resulting manure.

• Then a layer of topsoil is added which introduces micro-organisms necessary for the decomposition
of the organic materials.

• The above sequence of layers is repeated until the pit is full.

• A layer of soil is added to cover the pit. The pits should be covered to prevent entry of too
much water causing waterlogging.

N/B: During the dry season the material should be kept moist by adding water. The vegetative materials
used should be young. However, if old crop residues are used, nitrogenous fertilisers should be added to
raise the level of nitrogen in the manure.

Diagram:

Five pits are dug in series and materials filled as follows:

Pits I, II, III and IV are filled with fresh materials as described above. After three to four weeks, the
materials in pit IV are transferred to pit V, the materials in pit III to pit IV, in pit II to pit III and in pit I
to
II. This process is repeated until the material that was prepared first is well rotten and taken to the
field as compost manure.

Pit I Pit II Pit III Pit IV Pit V

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Indore method of making compost manure.

iii. FOUR HEAP SYSTEM (STACK METHOD)

In this method, four heaps are used. The materials on each heap are crop residue, animal waste, old
farmyard or compost manure, inorganic fertilisers and topsoil.

Preparation

• Surface vegetation and topsoil are scraped off the selected site and then the ground is levelled.

• Posts are fixed at a distance of 1.2 m apart to form the corners of the heap. The posts should be
2m high.

• Wood planks are fixed on the sides and materials arranged as in Indore method.

• If four heaps are used, materials are placed in the heaps labelled X. after three to four weeks, the
decomposing materials are transferred to heap Y. after another three to four weeks, the compost
materials are transferred to heap Z. it stays for another three to four weeks and is then taken to the
field as compost. The manure heaps must be turned occasionally, at least every three months, to
facilitate circulation of air within the heap for proper decomposition. The manure is ready for use
after six months.

Diagram:

• Top soil.

• Ash.

• Manure.

• Grass, Leaves, refuse etc

• Maize stalk forming foundation.

Dry leaves on top.

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N/B: a long sharp pointed stick is driven into the pile at an angle. The stick is used for checking
temperatures within the heap from time to time. If the temperature inside is high it can be corrected by
adding water.

INORGANIC FERTILIZERS

Inorganic fertilizers are chemically made compounds processed for commercial use which are added
into the soil to improve its fertility by providing one or more plant nutrients.

CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC FERTILISERS.

Fertilisers are classified in the following basis:

i. Nutrients contained. ii.

Mode of application. iii.

Time of application.

iv. Effects on soil Ph.

On the basis of the nutrients contained, the fertilisers are said to be either straight or compound
(mixed).

i. Straight fertiliser.

This is a fertiliser that contains only one of the primary macro-nutrients. The nutrient contained may be
Nitrogen ( N), Phosphorus (P), or Potassium (K). The fertilizers are named according to the nutrient they
contain.

• Nitrogenous fertilizers: contain nitrogen as the only primary macro-nutrient, e.g Calcium
Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate (ASN), Sulphate of Ammonia (SA) and Urea.

• Phosphatic fertilizers: Contain phosphorus as the only primary macro-nutrient e.g Single Super
Phosphate (SSP), Double and Triple Super Phosphate (DSP/TSP).

• Potassic fertilizers: contain potassium as the only primary macro-nutrient, e.g Potassium Chloride or
Muriate of Potash (KCL) and Potassium Sulphate or Sulphate of Potash (K2SO4).

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ii. Compound fertiliser.

A compound fertiliser is one that contains two or three primary macro-nutrients. It may also be referred
as a complex or mixed fertiliser. When it contains only two of the primary macro -nutrients, the
fertiliser is referred to as an incomplete compound fertiliser e.g Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) (18-46-
0); 20-20- 0 and others. When it contains all the three primary macro-nutrients, the fertiliser is referred
to as a complete compound fertiliser e.g 20-10-10, 25-5-5+5s, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15.

PROPERTIES AND IDENTIFICATION OF FERTILISERS.

(i) NITROGENOUS FERTILISERS

Characteristics of Nitrogenous fertilizers:

They are highly soluble in soil water.

They are easily leached to lower horizons.

They have a short residual effect.

They have scorching or burning effect on plants.

They are highly volatile.

They are hygroscopic i.e they absorb moisture from the atmosphere and cake.

They are highly corrosive.

(II)PHOSPHATIC FERTILISERS

Characteristics:

They are sparingly soluble in water.

They have a residual effect.

They are not liable to leaching.

They have a slight scorching effect.

POTASSIC FERTILISERS

Characteristics:

They have a moderate scorching effect.

They have moderate solubilityin water than phosphorus but less than nitrogen.

FERTILISER APPLICATION

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Phosphatefertilisers are applied during the planting time while the nitrogen fertilizers are applied after
the emergence of the crop.

METHODS OF FERTILISER APPLICATION

i. Broadcasting.

It involves the random scattering of fertilizers on the ground for plant use.

ii. Placement method.

This is the application of the fertiliser in the planting holes or drills.

iii. Side dressing.

This is the placement of nitrogenous fertiliser at the side of the crop being top dressed. It can be
achieved by:

a. Band application.

b. Ring application method. It is the placement of fertiliser around an individual crop just
beneath the edge of the canopy.

iv. Foliar spraying.

This is the application of specially formulated fertiliser solution onto the foliage of the crop.

v. Drip application.

This is where the fertiliser is dissolved and applied to individual plants, through perforated pipes or
bottles.

DETERMINATION OF THE FERTILISER RATES

The amount of fertiliser applied in the field is determined by the amount of plant nutrien ts available.

Calculations Involving Fertiliser Application

1. Fertiliser Grade or Analysis

Fertiliser grade indicates the amount of each nutrient contained in a fertiliser. It is calculated by
determining chemically the percentage of each nutrient present in a fertiliser that is;

Percentage of nutrient = Nutrient x 100/ Total weight of fertilise r.

Fertiliser grade is usually calculated in terms of the amount of the three primary macro -nutrient N.P.K.
e.g a bag of 100 kg of fertiliser of a 10-10-10 grade contains 10 kg of N, 10 kg of P2O5 and 10 kg of K2O.

2. Fertiliser Ratio

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It refers to the relative proportions of the three primary macro-nutrients (N.P.K) in a fertiliser. E.g a 10:
10: 10 grade has a 1:1:1 ratio of N: P2O2: K2O while a 20:10:10 grade would have a 2:1:1 ratio.

3. The amount of Fertiliser or Nutrient Required Per Unit Area ( per hectare)

The amount of fertiliser to apply per hectare depends on the amount of nutrients needed and the
fertiliser grade available.

Example 1.

Suppose a soil is deficient in all the three primary macro-nutrients and in a field test it is found that the
following should be applied: 60 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare. Calculate the amount of
sulphate of ammonia, superphosphate and Potassium Chloride required per hectare if the Ammonia
areavailable are Sulphate of Ammonia (20% N), SSP (20% P2O5) and muriate of potash (50% K2O).

Solution:

i. If the soil requirement is 60 kg N/ha and the available fertiliser Sulphate of Ammonia
containing 20% N, then the total amount of:

Sulphate of Ammonia (SA) is

= 60 kg N X 100 kg SA

20 Kg N
=300 kg SA.

ii. Total amount of SSP

= 30 kg P2O5 X 100 kg SSP

……………………………………………..
20 kg P2O5
= 150 kg SSP

iii. Total amount of K2O

= 40 kg K2O X 100 kg KCL

…………………………………………………….
50 kg K2O
= 80 kg KCL.

Example 2:

A farmer was advised to apply 150 kg CAN/ha, while top dressing the maize crop. CAN contains 21% N.

Calculate the amount of nitrogen applied/ha.

21 kg N is contained in 100 kg CAN.

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150 kg CAN supplies:

100 kg CAN = 21 kg N 150 kg CAN

= 21 kg N x 150 kg CAN

……………………………………….

100 kg CAN

= 31.5 kg N/ha.

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TOPIC 5 CROP MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES
Specific Objective
At the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to:

Describe the methods and importance of following management practices’

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

i. Gapping.

Gapping is the filling up or replacement of the dead seedlings. Gapping should be done soon after the
crop has started growing to prevent excessive shading of the newly planted seedlings.

Reason:

Gapping ensures optimum plant population.

ii. Thinning.

Thinning is the uprooting or removal of the excess seedlings to allow space for th e remaining seedlings.

Reason:

To obtain an optimum plant population in a given unit area.

iii. Pruning.

Pruning is the removal of extra or unwanted parts of a plant. The unwanted parts may be due to
breakage, overcrowding, pest or disease attack and unproductivity.

Reasons for pruning

To train the plant so that it can have the required shape.

To remove the diseased and unwanted parts of a plant, such as extra suckers, leaves, branches,
flowers or even stems.

It controls cropping.

To facilitate picking.

To ease the penetration of the

spray. It controls pests and diseases.

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Methods of Pruning

a. Pinching out

This method involves the removal of terminal buds. It is a practice that is carried out in tomatoes (at a
height of 1.6-1.8 m) and flue-cured tobacco after bearing 16-20 leaves.

b. Annual pruning.

It involves the removal of branches that have borne two crops and have undesirable growth
characteristics. Those that are dry, broken, too close or diseased should be removed.

c. Coppicing or pollarding.

This is usually carried out in tree crops where branches are cut at specified points in order to achieve a
desired shape.

iv. Staking and Trellishing.

v. Ratooning. vi. Watering. vii. Top dressing. viii.

Mulching.

Mulching is the placement of materials such as banana leaves, or polythene sheets on the ground next
to the growing crop. These materials should not come into contact with the base of the crop as they
may encourage pest attack.

Importance of mulching.

Reduction of evaporation rate.

Smothers weeds.

Moderation of soil temperature.

Reduction of speed of run off.

Types of mulching materials

There are two main types of mulching materials; namely:

i. Organic materials.

ii. Inorganic materials.

Organic mulching materials include sawdust, wood shavings, coffee pulps, rice haulms, dry grass,
banana leaves, dry maize stalks, napier grass and any other vegetation that is not a weed to the crop.

Inorganic or synthetic materials commonly used are either black or transparent polythene sheets. These
are usually used in highly profitable crops due to their high cost.
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Advantages of Mulching

Prevents water evaporation thus maintaining moisture in the soil for crop use.

Acts as an insulator thus modifies or regulates the soil temperature.

Controls soil erosion by reducing the speed of running water, intercepting the rain drops and
increasing the rate of infiltration.

Controls the weeds by suppressing their growth.

Organic materials are decomposed by soil micro-organisms resulting into humus that improves soil
structure and water holding capacity.

Organic materials improve soil fertilityby releasing nutrients after decomposition.

Disadvantages of Mulching

Provides a breeding ground as well as a hiding place for pests that finally may attack the crops.

Traps the light showers of rainfall thus lowering the chances of the raindrops reaching the soil.

It is a fire risk.

It is expensive to acquire, transport and apply.

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TOPIC 6 CROP
PROTECTION
Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainee should be able to:

a. State types of weeds, their economic effect and methods of controlling weeds
b. Name the diseases, their causes and the control measures
c. Name the pests, the harm caused and its control measures

WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL

A weed is any plant growing where it is not required and whose economic disadvantages outweigh the
advantages. Some weeds are dangerous and their cultivation is prohibited by law, such weeds are called
noxious weeds.

WEED IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION

Identification

Weeds are identified by individual plant names. They are named according to specific features or a
person who found them. Weeds are commonly identified using both common English names and
vernacular names in some cases, these names are limited to small communities. The botanical names
are preferred because they are recognised internationally.

These names have twoparts; the first part refers to the genus while the second part represents the
species to which the weed belongs. They are usually written in italics or underlined. Names of common
weeds in East Africa are given below for the purpose of identification.
BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME
Amaranthus spp. Pigweed
Achyranthesaspera Devil’s Horse Whip
Cynogiossumcaerulum Forget-me-not
Bidenspilosa Black jack
Galinsogaparviflora Macdonald’s eye (Gallant soldier)
Tagetesminuta Mexican marigold
Tarchonathuscamphoratus Leleshwa
Brassica napus Wild rape
Cyperusrotundus Nut grass/sedge
Digitariascalarum Couch grass
Cynodondactylon Star grass
Chlorispyrothrip False star grass
Pennisetumclandestinum Kikuyu grass

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Eleusineindica Wild finger millet

Avenafatua Wild oat
Setariaverticillata Fox tail
Oxalis latifolia Oxalis
Strigahermontheca Striga
Daturastramonium Thorn apple
Solanumincanum Sodom apple
Lantana camara Lantana (Tick berry)
Solanumnigrum Black night shade
Commelinabanghalensis Wandering jew
Conyzabanariensis Fleabane
Urticamassaica Stinging nettle

Classification

Weeds can be classified either on the basis of growth cycles or plant morphology.

1. Growth Cycle

a. Annual weeds

These are weeds which complete their life cycle in the field within a period of one year or less. E.g.
Mexican marigold, black jack, pigweed etc. Most annual weeds are easily controlled.

b. Biennial weeds

These are weeds which complete their life cycle in two years. They achieve vegetative growth in the
first year and produce seeds during the second year. E.g. American wild carrot, Spear thistle, Ragwort
etc. c. Perennial weeds

These take more than two years or seasons to complete their lifecycles. E.g. Sedges, Lantana, Kikuyu
grass, Wanderingjew, Couch grass, Sodom apple etc. These weeds are the most difficult to control.

2. Plant morphology a.

Narrow-leaved

weeds

These are mostly grass weeds. They include Couch grass, Spear grass, Setaria, Eleusine etc. Grass weeds
may be perennial or annual.

b. Broad-leaved weeds

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These include weeds like Blackjack, Oxalis, Lantana, Pigweed, Devil’s horse whip etc. These weeds may
be annual or perennial.

COMPETITIVE ABILITY OF WEEDS

These are factors which contribute to the competitive ability of weeds.

a. Weeds have extremely successful means of propagation. E.g.

• Ability to produce large quantities of seeds.

• Weed seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time waiting for conducive germination conditions.

• Most weed seeds are easily and successfully dispersed.

• Some weeds have ability to propagate vegetatively.

b. Weeds excellently adapted to the environment due to:

• Elaborate or extensive root system useful in supporting the plant, in nutrient absorption and water
uptake.

• Ability to survive even where there is limited nutrient supply.

• Short lifecycle that is if the rain regime is restricted the plant is able to complete its lifecycle.

Harmful effects of weeds

Chemical weed control contributes to environmental pollution.

Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space and light.

Some weeds irritate or hurt workers.

Aquatic weeds block river sources [Link].

Some weeds are alternate hosts of crop pests and diseases e.g wild oats –rusts..

Some weeds are parasitic on crop plants [Link] spp.

Some weeds are poisonous [Link] or thorn apple.

Some are allelopathic.

Some lower the quality of agricultural produce [Link].

Beneficial effects of weeds

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Some weeds are edible to both man and livestock e.g pigweed, wandering jewetc Some weeds

have medicinal effectse.g Sodom apple.

Weeds act as soil cover, preventing soil capping due to the impact of the raindrops.

Weeds add organic matter to the soil when they decompose.

Leguminous weeds fix nitrogen in the soil.

Weed control measures

• Mechanical methods such as cultivation, tillage, slashing and uprooting.

• Cultural methods such as crop rotation, mulching, cover cropping, timely planting, use of clean
planting materials, proper spacing, clean seedbed and flooding.

• Biological weed control method. This is where living organisms are used to suppress weeds as they
feed on them. Such as use of livestock as goats to graze and control the growth of weeds in
plantation crops like coconuts and cashew nuts.

• Chemical weed control method i.e use of herbicides.

Classification of herbicides:

Herbicides can be classified basing on the following aspects:

i. Formulation.

ii. Time of application.

iii. Selectivity. iv. Mode of action.

v. Environmental factors.

Basing on formulation, herbicides are classified as:

Liquids. These are liquid herbicides which are soluble either in water or in oil [Link] and
Paraquat.

Wettable powders. These are finely ground particles mixed with water to form a suspension before
application [Link], Simazines and Duron.

On the basis of time of application, herbicides are classified as:

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Pre-emergence. These are herbicides which are applied soon after crop seeds have been sown but
before they emerge. E.g. Atrazines and Simazines.

Post-emergence. These are herbicides which are applied after crop germination or transplanting.
Such as 2,4-D, M.C.P.A, Paraquat, and Glyphosate.

Basing on selectivity, herbicides can be classified as:

Selective.

Non-selective.

On the basis of mode of action, herbicides are classified as:

Contact. These are chemicals which kill only the parts of the plant with which it comes into contact.

Translocated or systemic. These chemicals kill the whole plant even if it has come into contact
with only a small part of it. It is absorbed into the plant and is translocated to all parts of the
plant.

Environmental factors such as rain, wind, soil, temperature or light may affect the effectiveness of a
herbicide.

Advantages of using Herbicides

i. They require less labour than mechanical cultivation.

ii. They are better adapted to the control of certain bothersome weeds such as couch grass.

iii. Use of herbicides does not disturb crop roots and other underground structures. iv. They

make the control of weeds in certain crops such as wheat, barley and carrots easier.

v. Herbicide application is efficient in both wet and dry soil conditions.

vi. Herbicide application does not disturb the soil hence the soil structure is maintained. vii.

More convenient to use in certain crops such as sisal and sugarcane. [Link] is

cheaper in the long than the use of manual or mechanical cultivation.

ix. They are effective in controlling weeds such as double thorn and stinging nettle which may
cause injury to the farmer.

Disadvantages

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i. It requires skilled labour in mixing and application. ii. There are many risks to

the environment and the user. iii. Some herbicides have long residual effects which

may interfere with future crops.

• Integrated weed control method

• Legislative weed control. This method involves governmental laws and acts which prevent the
introduction of noxious weeds in a country or spreading of foreign weeds from one part of the
country to another.

DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL

A disease is any alteration in the state of an organism or its parts, which interrupts or disturbs its proper
performance or functions. It’s therefore any deviation from good health. Crop diseases are classified
according to their causal agents, which include:-

(i) Fungal diseases.

These are diseases caused by fungi. Fungi are non-green plants incapable of manufacturing their own
food due to lack of chlorophyll. They depend on other green plants or dead remains of plants and
animals for their nutrition. Examples of fungal diseases include; late blight, rusts, smuts, CBD etc

(ii) Viral diseases.

These are diseases caused by viruses. Viruses are extremely small living organisms which can only be
seen under a very powerful electronic microscope. All viruses are parasitic and are only able to
multiply in living tissue. Viral infections interfere with the vital life processes of a plant such as
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilisation. Symptoms of viral infections include:

- Leaf chlorosis.

- Leaf curling.

- Mosaics.

- Malformations (distortion)

- Rosetting.

Viral diseases are transmitted through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vectors such
as aphids, mealybugs or leafhoppers.

Examples of viral diseases:

i. Groundnut rosette. ii.

Cassava mosaic. iii.

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Tobacco mosaic. iv. Potato

leaf-roll.

v. Greening disease of citrus fruits.

vi. Brown streak of cassava.

(iii) Bacterial diseases.

These are diseases caused by bacteria. Bacteria are microscopic single-celled organisms which
reproduce by binary fission. Bacteria are able to live on both living and dead tissues. They are
transmitted through irrigation water, seeds, fertilisers, manures, wind, raindrop splashes, insects, soil
and mechanical means such as through cultivation implements and pruning knives.

Symptoms of bacterial diseases:

Wilting even when the water is in adequate supply due blockage of xylem vessels by masses of
bacteria.

Cankers. These are localised infections which result in death of the plant tissues (necrotic tissues).

Gall formation in the infected tissues.

Examples of bacterial diseases:

i. Bacterial blight of coffee. ii.

Halo blight of beans. iii. Black

rot of cabbage. iv. Black arm of

cotton.

v. Bacterial wilt of potatoes and tomatoes.

(iv) Nutritional disorders.

When crops do not get enough nutrients, deficiency symptoms may appear. i .e Nutritional disorders.

Deficiency symptoms:

Yellowing of leaves.

Drying of leaves.

Falling of leaves, flowers and fruits.

Stunted growth.

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Death in extreme condition.

Formation of anthocyanins.

Other causes of plant diseases are:

• Flooding. On flooded condition, ammonia which is poisonous to plants may be formed; it has a burning effect
on leaves.

• Chemicals. Some toxic chemical compounds in the soil may be absorbed by the plants, leading to death of the
plant.

• Poor weather. Extremes of day and night temperatures may cause hot and cold disease in coffee (Elgon die
back).

• Stress. Stressful conditions on the plant such as irregular watering may cause physiological disorders such as
blossom-end rot in tomatoes.

Harmful effects of crop diseases

• Lowering crop yields.

• They cause the production of poor quality products thus reducing their market value.

• Control of diseases increases the cost of production.

• They cause food poisoning for example ergot in wheat, barley and rye causes nerve poisoning.
Aflatoxin which is produced by the fungus aspergillus spp. Growing on moist stored grains is
poisonous and can cause death if such grains are consumed.

• Environmental pollution resulting from the use of chemicals in the process of controlling th e
diseases.

Control of crop diseases.

Cultural methods.

These are crop husbandry practices which are used to control diseases without the use of chemicals.
They include:

- Healthy planting materials.

- Proper seedbed preparation.

- Heat treatment.

- Field hygiene.

- Diseases resistant varieties such as Ruiru 11, a coffee variety resistant to Coffee Berry Diseases.

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- Proper spacing controls damping off in cabbages.

- Proper drying of the cereals.

Legislative method

It involves imposing of regulations and laws especially in cases of disease outbreaks to prevent the
introduction and spreading of diseases.

Chemical control.

Chemical disease control should be practiced only when other methods have been deemed ineffective
and when it is economical.

They include:-

- Seed dressing. This is the application of fungicides before planting seeds.

- Soil fumigation. This is the application of fumigants in the soil to control soil borne diseases such as
bacterial wilt in potatoes.

- Spraying. The application of fungicides using a sprayer to control such diseases as CBD, Blights, Rusts
etc.

CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

A crop pest is defined as a living organism that destroys crops either directly by causing physical damage to the
plant or indirectly by introducing disease-causing organisms, or pathogens into the plant. Examples of the pests
are:- Insects as hoppers, Rodents e.g rats, mice, squirrels, Nematodes e.g worms, Mites, Aphids and Large animals
such as monkeys, elephants, buffaloes etc.

Harmful effects of crop pests

- Pests such as squirrels and mice unearth planted seeds resulting in low plant population.

- Some pests such as nematodes, termites and moles damage crop roots causing wilting and death to the
plants.

- Pests destroy crop leaves lowering the photosynthetic area resulting in reduced yields.

- Sucking pests deprive the plant its food by sucking plant sap resulting in retarded growth.

- Some pests attack fruits, berries, flowers, thus lowering their quality and quantity.

- Some pests destroy the embryo of seeds, thus lowering their germination potential.

- Some pests transmit crop diseases while others open up the plant to secondary infection.

- In crops where the leaf is the major product, for example kale, pest damage lowers the quality and quantity
through defoliation.
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- Pests reduce the marketability of crop produce by lowering quality. Weevils for example, bore into maize
grains, thus lowering their economic value.

CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS
Pests are classified according to:

i. Their mode of feeding.i.e pests with biting and chewing mouth parts, and those with
piercing and sucking mouth parts.

ii. Crops attacked.i.e coffee pests, maize pests etc iii. Stage of development of the

pest.i.e larval or nymphal or adult. iv. Stage of growth of the crop attacked.

v. Scientific classification. [Link], birds, nematodes, mites etc.

vi. The level of damage. i.e minor pests and major pests.

vii. The place where they are found or habitat. i.e field pests and storage pests.

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON PESTS

1. Field pests which includes;

• Insect pests.

Pest Crop attacked Disease transmitted

Aphids (Aphis crassivora)Groundnut Groundnut rosette virus Aphids (Myzuspersicae)
Groundnut Groundnut mosaic virus
Aphids (Myzuspersicae) Tobacco Tobacco mosaic virus
Tobacco whitefly (Bimisiatabaci) Tobacco Tobacco leaf curl virus
Tobacco whitefly (Bimisiatabaci) Cassava Cassava mosaic virus
Pineapple mealy-bug Pineapple Pineapple virus
(Dysmicoccusbrevipes)
The table above shows some sucking insects and the viral diseases they transmit.

• Mites.

• Nematodes.

• Rodents. These are gnawing animals such as mice, rats, squirrels, porcupines, hedgehogs and moles.

• Birds such as Sudan Diouch, Mouse bird, Domestic fowl and weaver bird.

• Large animals such as elephants, buffaloes, monkeys, apes, wild pigs, antelopes and hi ppopotamuses. 2.

Storage pests which include;

• Rodents.

• Insects.

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SpeciesScientific Name Stored crop affected Weevil Sitophilusspp Maize, Sorghum, Wheat,
Rice
Lesser grain borer Rhizoperitadominza Rice, Maize, Wheat
Khapra beetle Trogedermagrananium Maize, Wheat, Pulses, Sorghum
Saw-toothed grain beetle Oryzaephilus spp. Maize, Wheat, Groundnut
Pulse beetles Callosobruchusobtectus Beans
Flat beetles Laemophiloeuspusillus Grain flour
Agoumois grain moth Sitotragacerealella Maize, Wheat
Tropical/warehouse moth Ephestiacoutelle Rice, Maize, Wheat Po tato tuber moth
Pthorimaeaoperculella Stored Irish potatoes

• Fungi.

CONTROL OF CROP PESTS

If pest population causes damage beyond tolerance, it is said to have reached economic injury level (EIL) . Control
measures should be affected before this level. Pest control methods include:

i. Legislative method/ Quarantine

This is a government regulation stating that any planting materials from other countries or areas known to have
pests must be tested before they are accepted for planting.

ii. Physical measures.

They include:

Use of lethal temperatures.

Proper drying of produce.

Flooding.

Suffocation.

Use of scarecrows.

Physical destruction.

Use of electromagnetic radiation i.e certain wavelengths of electromagnetic radiations may be used to
deactivate enzymes in some insects. For example, moths are attracted by ultra -violet and aphids by yellow
light.

iii. Cultural methods

These include all farming practices employed to alter the environment making it unfavourable for the survival
of pests, hence allowing the crop to escape injury. These include:

Timely planting.

Timely harvesting.
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Proper tillage.

Close season. This is a period when a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest or
group of pests.

Trap cropping. A trap crop is one which is planted before or together with the main crop purposely for
attracting pests away from the latter.

Crop rotation.

Resistant varieties.

Field hygiene.

Alteration of environmental conditions. Creation of certain micro-climates that is not conducive to some
pests. Open pruning in coffee discourages antestia bugs, while mulching reduces thrips.

Crop nutrition.

Destruction of alternative hosts.

Use of clean planting materials.

Proper spacing.

Use of organic manure. FYM manure has been found to discourage various pests, particularly eelworms.

Irrigation. Overhead irrigation is known to control aphids in cabbages.

iv. Chemical control measures

This is the use of pesticides to control pests. The pesticides used should be efficient, selective, safe to
the user and the environment, persistent and cheap.

v. Biological pest control

It involves the use of living organisms to control pests. It is based on predator-prey relationships. A
predator is a living organism that kills another for food while a prey is a living organism that is killed by
another for food. E.g. known predator-prey relationships:
Predator Target pest
Ladybird Aphids
Wasps Coffee mealy bugs
Praying mantis Giant looper
Majimoto ants White scales
Chicken Cotton strainers
Cats Moles, rats, mice
Chameleons Most insects

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TOPIC 7 CROP ROTATION

Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainee should be able to:

a. Define crop rotation

b. Explain the importance of crop

rotation

c. Explain the principles, sequences and

limitation of crop rotation.

Definition

Crop rotation is the growing of different types of crops or crops of different families on the
same piece of land in an orderly sequence. It is made possible by sub-dividing the land into
plots. In each of these plots different crops are grown in a particular season. In the following
season the crops are rotated or grown in the next plot. This practice is commonly carried out
in annual crops.

In designing a good crop rotation, the farmer must decide what crops to have in the rotation,
in what sequence the crops should occur, and for how many years or season each cycle of the
rotation must run. A good rotation that provides for maintenance or improvement of soil
productivity usually includes a legume crop to promote fixation of nitrogen, a grass or legume
sod crop for maintenance of humus, a cultivated or inter-tilled crop for weed control and
fertilizers.

Family Crops
Solanacea (potato family) Tomatoes, Irish potato, Brinjals, Tobacco
Graminae (grass family) Maize, Sorghum, Wheat, Barley, Rice, Sugarcane
Leguminosae (Legume family) Beans, Peas, Groun dnuts, Lucerne Cruciferae (Cabbage family)
Cabbages, Kales

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Season/Year 1
Plot A Plot B
Maize Beans
Plot D Plot C
Sweet potatoes Cabbages

Season/ Year 2
Plot A Plot B
Sweet potatoes Maize
Plot D Plot C
Cabbages Beans

IMPORTANCE OF CROP ROTATION

This is a cultural practice which is recommended for the following reasons:

i. Maximum utilisation of nutrients.

Different crops vary in their nutrient requirements in terms of type of nutrient and the depth of
absorption. For example, maize plant absorbs a lot of nitrogen from the soil but low amount of
potassium. Cassava on the other hand needs a lot of potassium but low amount of nitrogen. Alternating
maize with cassava, therefore leads to the maximum or better utilisation of these nutrients.

ii. Control of soil-borne pest and disease build-up.

Some pests and diseases are specific to various crops. Such pests and diseases will always attack crops
of the same family when grown in succession. To control them such crops should be alternated with
crops from different families.

iii. Control of weeds.

Parasitic weeds such as witch weed (strigaspp), which are specific to grass fami ly crops, can be
controlled by planting non-grass crops for a period of time.

iv. Improvement of soil fertility.

When leguminous crops are included in the rotation programme, they help in improving the soil fertility
through fixation of nitrogen with the help of the Rhizobia bacteria.

v. Improvement of soil structure.

Establishment of a grass ley in the rotation programme leads to little disturbance of the soil at the same
time, roots of grasses are so extensive that they bind soil particles together thus improvin g the
structure. vi. Control of soil erosion.

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Crops planted in rows such as maize, should always be alternated with cover crops to control erosion.

vii. It offers the farmer some insurance against crop failure, and enables him to spread out his
labour needs.

Factors that affect crop rotation

The choice of a rotation for a particular farm depends upon the following:

1. Adaptation of the crops to a particular soil, climate and economic conditions.

2. Prevalence of weeds, plant diseases and insect pests may also limit the kinds of crops that can
be grown in a locality.

3. Crops may be selected for rotation so as to spread labour throughout the year.

Principles of crop rotation (Factors to consider in deciding the sequence of crops)

i. Crop root depth

Deep rooted crops should be alternated with shallow rooted crops.

ii. Crop nutrient requirements

Heavy or gross feeders should come first in a newly opened land which is relatively fertile.

iii. Weed control

Crops which are associated with certain weeds should be alternated with those that are not. Crops
that are not easy to weed should be alternated with those that are easily weeded.

iv. Pest and disease control

Crops from the same families should not followone another in the rotation programme as they are
attacked by the same pests and diseases.

v. Soil fertility

Leguminous crops should be included to improve soil fertility.

vi. Soil structure

When the soil is used continuously, it becomes loose and pliable; a grass ley should be included in the
soil structure. The grass ley should be allowed a duration of 3-6 years.

vii. Deep-rooted crops should be alternated with shallowrooted crops.

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Factors determining the choice of the rotation programme

Type of the soil

Prevailing climatic conditions in the area.

Economic consideration of merits and demerits of crop systems.

Crops adapted to a particular area.

Personal tests and preferences of a farmer.

Incidences of pests and diseases.

Limitations of crop rotation

The growing of one crop means that the demand for labour occurs in peaks. Labour demand is more
evenly spread if many crops are grown simultaneously.

The risk of crop failure is ever present, and the risk is greater where only one crop is grown.

Since each crop occurs on the farm only once every several years, specialized facilities for the
target crop, can only be utilized once in several years, a situation which is definitely inefficient.

There is scarcity of land.

TOPIC 8 CROPPING
SYSTEMS
Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainee should be able to:

a. Explain a given cropping system

b. State the advantages and disadvantages of a given crop system

INTRODUCTION

Sustainable agricultural systems imply successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy
changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of the environment and conserving
natural resources. High productivity is an important aspect of agricultural sustainability in the humid
regions.

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CROPPING SYSTEMS

The term cropping system is used to describe the pattern in which crops are grown in a given area
over a period of time and includes the technical and managerial resources that are utilized.

CLASSIFICATION OF CROPPING SYSTEMS

Cropping systems are classified basing on the following criteria:

1. The distribution of crops in time i.e whether shifting cultivation, continuous cropping,
monoculture or crop rotation is practised.

2. The distribution of the crops in space on the field i.e whether intercropping or sole cropping is
practised.

3. The level of management and resources utilized to produce the crop i.e whether production is
intensive or extensive.

4. The type of crop grown i.e whether orchard, arable cropping, pasturing, forestry etc is practised.

CROPPING SYSTEMS

1. Shifting cultivation

This is where a piece of land is cleared, farmed for a few years and then abandoned in preference for a
new site. While the new site is being farmed, natural vegetation is allowed to grow on the old site.
Eventually, after several years of bush fallows, the farmer returns to the original location.

Advantages of shifting cultivation

It has low capital investment.

Self-sustaining and therefore for simple farmers is convenient if other issues are not [Link]
self-sustaining depends on:

- Recycling of nutrients

- Fallen leaves add a lot of organic matter and nutrients.

Forest and/or savannah provide good soil cover.

Reduced leaching under the fallow.

Reduced losses due to pests and diseases.

No land disputes as land ownership is not individualized.

Disadvantages of shifting cultivation

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Difficult to increase productivity of labour and land i.e it is extensive and difficult to intensify thus
low productivity.

A lot of time is wasted when the farmer is shifting and building structures.

Farmers have no incentives to develop land and conserve water and soil.

Not applicable in areas of high population density or where there is a high population increase.

It tends to discourage high level of inputs.

2. Monoculture/single cropping/Monocropping

This is a practice of instantly cultivating the same type of crop on the same piece of land year after year.

It is also a practice of repeated growing of crops on the same field each year at the same time onr one
after another or a continuation of both.

Limitations of monocropping

Crops which are grown become highly susceptible towards pests and diseases; which bring about
crop failure.

Advantages of monocropping

It allows for plant adaptation to changing soil condition because of difference in quick demand by
the evolving crops for nutrients and water.

It facilitates vertical and horizontal variation thus allowing cultivation of crops that may be adopted
to light and shed.

It permits phased harvesting and distributing of workload.

It provides reasonable soil cover which protects soil erosion while supressing weed growth.

It provides higher total yields and the land itself become adapted to small scale hand operated
farming.

3. Multiple cropping i.e., intercropping and sequential cropping

Intercropping

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This is a system that involves the growing of two or more crops on the same field at the same time.
This can be:

a. Mixed intercropping –growing of two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row
arrangement.

b. Row intercropping – growing two or more crops simultaneously with one or more crops planted
in rows.

c. Strip intercropping – growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips wide enough to
permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for crops to interact agronomically.

d. Relay intercropping – growing two or more crops simultaneously during part of each othe r’s cycle
i.e second crop planted after first crop has reached its reproductive growth but before its ready for
harvest.

Advantages of intercropping

There is yield advantage in growing crops together than growing each one separately.

There is a more efficient utilization of the resources available.

The component crop may complement each other in their use of space.

An intercrop may be able to utilize resources which the main crop may not be able to utilize or
which may even be disadvantageous to it.

Certain crops may exert specific beneficial effect on others.

The farmer is more or less buffered against failure of one of the crop.

Intercropping allows for a more uniform distribution of labour throughout the year.

The spread of diseases and pests is less rapid than in sole cropping.

When one component of an intercrop combination fails, the other combinations are able to utilize
the resources that would have been available to the failed crop, and so yield better than they would
have done otherwise.

Disadvantages of intercropping

Since many crops exist together on the field, it is not possible to tailor production practices to the
needs of any particular crop.

Control of pests and diseases is particularly difficult.

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It is difficult to mechanize operations such as planting, weeding and harvesting.

Sequential Cropping

This is the growing of two or more crops in sequence on the same field per year. This can be done as:

a. Double cropping – growing two crops a year in sequence.

b. Triple cropping – growing three crops a year in sequence.

c. Quadruple cropping – growing four crops a year in sequence.

d. Ratoon cropping – cultivation of a crop re-growth after harvest e.g. sugarcane.

3. Agro-forestry systems

Agro-forestry systems involve growing woody herbaceous species and perennials in association
with food crops and livestock on the same piece of land.

They are known to increase ecological diversity within a landscape unit and optimize the use of
limited resources through the integration of complementary components.

Disadvantages

The yield of individual components may be decreased probably due to allelopathic effects

Yield reduction may also happen due to competition for nutrients between perennials and

animals High labour requirements is another limitation of agroforestry systems

The systems is labour-intensive and complete mechanization is often difficult and not feasible to
achieve.

TOPIC 9 PASTURE GRASSES AND FODDER

CROPS
Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainee should be able to:

a. Classify pastures and fodder crops into their species and varieties
b. Describe growth requirement
c. Describe the establishment of a given pasture and fodder crop

INTRODUCTION

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Grassland is a plant community in which pasture grasses and legumes are found with little to no
tree cover. The grasslands are classified on the basis of whether natural grasslands or ley
grasslands. Other classification is on the basis of life forms, water/moisture requirement.

Natural grassland

This is divided into five zones, namely:-

Zone I. Coastalgrassland.

Zone II. Low tree, high grasslands.

Zone III. Arid and semi-arid grasslands.

Zone IV. Low tree, low grasslands.

Zone V. Highland grasslands.

1. Zone [Link] grasslands.

The coastal belt is characterized by low altitude. Grasses in this zone must tolerate high temperatures,
high humidity and the shading effect of cashew nuts, mangoes and coconuts. Examples of grasses
include:-

- Masai love grass, Rhodes grass, guinea grass (Panicum maximum), congo signal
(Brachiariaruziziensis).

Legume species include;-

- Centro (Centrosemapuescens), Tropical nudzu(Puerariaphaceoloides), Njahi(Dolichoslablab).

2. Zone II. Low tree, high grasslands.

The area is characterized by high temperatures, low erratic rainfall with an altitude of 300 – 1500m
above sea level.

Adaptable varieties in this region include:-

- Acacia, Thatching grass (Hyparrhemiarufa), Horsetail love grass (Chlorisroxburghiana), Masai

love grass (Eragrostissuperba), Guinea grass, African fox tail.

Legume species include Leucaena(Leucaenaleucocephala), Stylo (Stylosanthesscabra).

3. Zone III. Arid and semi-arid grasslands

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- Grasses found here can tolerate low erratic rainfall and high temperatures. The type occupies
about 80% of the country. Grasses spring up at the start of rains and complete their cycle
within a very short time of the year. They grow in tufts. They include:-

Horsetail grass, Maasai love grass, African foxtail, Guinea grass, Acacia etc

4. Zone IV: Low tree, low grass grassland

Altitude is 1800 – 2300 m above sea level.

• Areas include Naivasha and Laikipia.

• The area is characterized by low temperatures and low unreliable rainfall.

This is the region of most economically important grasses which include:-

Combretum, Red oat grass, Themedatriandra, Rhodes grass (chlorisgayana), Nandi setaria
(setariasphacelata), Congo signal (brachiariaruziziensis), Star grass (cynodondactylon)

Legume species found in this area are;-

Silver leaf desmodium (Desmodiumuncinatum), Green leaf desmodium (Desmodiumlutortum),

Sesbania (Sesbaniasesban), Lucerne (Medicagosativa), Sweat lupin(Lupinusalba).

Most of the pasture improvement that has gone in this country has concentrated in this because it is
suited for mixed farming.

5. Zone V: Highland grasslands

• Areas such as Molo.

• Altitude is 2300 – 3000 m above sea level.

The grasses in this zone are characterized by low temperatures and high reliable rainfall. Predominant
grasses include:-

Kikuyu grass ( pennisetumclandestinum, Oats (avenasativa), Perennial rye grass (loliumperenne),

Cocks foot (dactylic glomerata),Manyatta grass (eleusinejaegari) – this type in areas tending
towards zone 4 supports a lot of dairy farming in the country.

Legume species include;-

Vetch (Viciasativa), white clover (Trifoliumsemipilosum), lupins (Lupinusalba).

Tropical and sub-tropical natural grasslands are predominant in the natural grasslands. The distribution
of natural grasslands is influenced by:-

i. The amount of rainfall and its distribution.

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ii. [Link]. Soil types. iv. Salinity.

v. Solar radiation. vi.

Relative humidity.

- The amount and distribution of rainfall influences the structure and composition of the natural
grasslands. Soil moisture has an influence and therefore shows a wide seasonal variation on the
basis of amount and distribution. These natural grasslands provide ideal habitat for many
animals such as the herbivores, carnivores and micro-organisms. The patterns of growth are due
to climatic and fertility factors which can be induced by cutting either through grazing, mowing
and the various fertilizers to create habitats that are used for grasslands.

GRASSLAND IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS

They include:- i. Forage collection.

ii. Forage introduction.

iii. Forage evaluation.

Forage collection, introduction and evaluation is the first major discipline in the grass programme with
the following objectives:-

i. Collection and evaluation of pastures including assembling and maintaining suitable forage
species from either local areas or introducing species from areas with similar agro-ecological
zones.

ii. To improve on the genetic potential of the identified forage species through selection and
breeding i.e creating and implementing pasture gene bank for plant material.

iii. To establish suitable cultural practices for pasture development, management and utilization &
conservation.

iv. Evaluation of collected, introduced forage germplasm with particular reference to their
usefulness in forage improvement.

v. Multiply the promising forage species and carry out on-farm trials and to further test the
suitability of the forage materials in various agro-ecological zones.

- Plant introduction, collection and evaluation is a continuous process that allows

the regeneration of new plant germplasm from local or exotic origin over the
years. Many grasses, legumes, fodder trees and shrubs have been collected or
introduced from outside the country and have contributed to the development
and improvement of grassland in Kenya. The majority of this forage germplasm
have undergone initial screening, testing and evaluation and the promising types
isolated for further multiplication.
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- Some of the species that are still given attention include: Rhodes grass, Nandi

setaria, Kitale molasses, Star grass, Congo signal

Fodders include:

Napier grass, Guatamala grass, Giant panicum, Giant setaria

Temperate grasses include:

Cocks foot, Perennial rye grass, Italian rye grass oats

Legume species include:

Greenleaf desmodium, Silver leaf desmodium, Kenya white clover, Red clover, Lupines, Glycine.

Forage crops include:-

Sweet potatoes (ipomeabatatus)

Forage is a term widely used to cover grasses, legumes, fodder trees& shrubs and Forbes.

Forages therefore are compared in terms of establishment, management, conservation and utilization.

LIFE FORMS CLASSIFICATION

Classification of grasses based on life forms is categorised into three forms. Namely:-

a) Annuals – These grasses germinate, grow and complete their life cycles in one season.

b) Biennials – They germinate, grow and complete their life cycle in two seasons.

c) Perennials – They grow and complete their life cycle in more than two seasons.

WATER REQUIREMENT CLASSIFICATION

i. Xerophytes – grow in arid and semi-arid conditions. They have

adaptations to live in harsh environments such as needle-like
leaves to reduce evapotranspiration.

ii. Mesophytes – grow in wet areas. iii. Hygrophytes – grow in

mashes.

iv. Hydrophytes – grow in water.

PERMANENT OR TEMPORARY LEYS.

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Permanent grasses will grow for more than four years, while temporary leys will grow for less than four
years and mostly grown in a rotational basis. Ley grass is established by use of seeds and easier to
destroy. Examples include:-

Rhodes grass, Setaria, Brachiaria, Guinea grass, Coloured guinea (panicumcoloratum)

Seed of ley grass are available in commercial scale.

METHODS OF PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

The methods used are largely dictated by the prevailing environmental conditions and their demand for
grazing.

1. Direct drilling

• This method involves land preparation to the required tilth and compaction that is fine and firm.

• Seeds are then mixed with phosphatic fertilizers at the rate of 40-60 kg of p2o5/ha.

• Seeds are then drilled or broadcasted. If seeds are drilled, a carrier such as saw dust is necessary to
make the seed flow freely.

• Direct drilling is recommended when rain is expected and for the fi rst growing pastures such
as Rhodes grass.

• The developing seedlings should be kept free from weeds by use of 2,4-D amine,72% at 1.5 litres/ha.

• A new stand is ready for grazing in 3 – 4 months.

The success or failure of the establishment phase is influenced by the following:-

i. Choice of species.

ii. Provision of favourable environment for germination and seedling development. iii.

Use of compatible species when planting grass legume mixtures. iv. Seed

treatments and inoculation.

v. Physical loss of seed by harvesting.

vi. Ants or physical movement of seeds by water. vii. Mortality of emerged

seedlings because of environmental stresses.

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2. Under sowing

This is planting of pasture species under a nurse crop such as maize, wheat and sunflower.

When maize is used as a nurse crop, pasture seeds are mixed with phosphatic fertilizers at the
rate of 40-60 kg/ha and then broadcasted after the second or final weeding.

At the end of the growing season, the arable crop is harvested.

Weeds are then cut back and Stover removed from the field to reduce the shading effect over
the developing pasture seedlings.

If wheat is used as a nurse crop, the variety selected should be short but with strong straw.
Wheat is drilled in rows 15 cm apart and then pasture seed is mixed with phosphatic fertilizer
and drilled at the same time with wheat. After harvesting wheat, the sole pasture establishes.

Under sowing is recommended in the final year of an arable crop and when early grazing is not
expected.

3. Over sowing

This is the introduction of improved pasture species into unimproved grassland. Before introducing the
pasture species, it is important to reduce the existing vegetation cover by any of the following
methods:i. Intensive grazing.

ii. Burning.

iii. Mowing and racking the existing vegetation cover. iv. Use of herbicides

such as round-up.

v. Strip ploughing.

Grazing should be delayed until the introduced species has established properly. Pastures
should be top-dressed at the beginning of rains using 100kgN/ha or 10 tons of FYM per
ha depending on whether it is pure grass stand or grass legume mixture regime.

Under stocking or low grazing interval encourages undesirable plant species to invade and
replace the desired pasture species.

The grazing of new pasture should be done at the booting or early flowering stage when the
pasture quality is high.

Subsequent grazing should be done at two monthly intervals depending on the species.

Different grazing systems are adopted to suit the local situation.

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The quality of the available feed to greatly extend depends on the species and in general,
legumes have higher nutritive value than grasses. Legumes also maintain the quantity more
than the grasses.

FODDER CROPS

Fodder crops are defined as annual or perennial crops cultivated on arable land and are cut and carried
to the livestock. Fodder crops are usually grown in rotati on with other arable crops. They are
characterized by dry matter (DM) yield of high digestibility prepared to pasture grasses.

The main fodder crops used include:-

Napier grass ( Pennisetumpurpureum), Sorghum, Guatamala grass (Tripsacumlaxum), Giant

panicum( Panicum maximum), Giant setaria ( Setariasplendida), Edible cana (Canna
edulis),Lupins (Lupinus alba), Lucerne (Medicagosativa), Oats (Avenasativa), Brassica (Turnips,
swedes, Radish, marigolds, Fodder beets, Kales etc)

FODDER ESTABLISHMENT

Land should be prepared during the dry season to ensure that rhizomatous weeds are got rid of. The
spacing of fodder depends on species and the area fodder is to be established. For example,

1 .Napier grass

i. Spacing for Napier grass is as follows:-

0.5 x 0.5 m or 1.0 x 0.5 m in wet areas.

- 1.0 x 1.0 m for medium potential areas.

- 1.5 x 1.0 m for semi-arid areas.

ii. Climatic requirements

- Altitude – 0 – 2100m

above sea level- Rainfall –

high rainfall of

1200mm/year.

- Fertile soil.- Wet

weather.

iii. Varieties of Napier grass

-French cameroons, Ex-meru, Bajra, Clone-13, Bana grass, Ex- Limuru, Uganda hairless.
iv. Land preparation & Planting

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Napier grass should be planted in a well prepared seedbed free from Rhizomatous weeds such as
couch grass (Digitariascalarum), Kikuyu grass (Pennisetumclandestinum), Nut grass ( Cyperusrotundus).

It can also be established by inter-planting in maize crops after the final weeding.

Napier grass can also be intercropped with legumes such as silver leaf or green leaf desmodium. The
inoculated legume should be broadcasted at the same time as the Napier grass is planted.

• Planting materials

Napier grass is established using canes with 3 – 4 nodes, root splits or whole stem. Root splits establish
faster than canes and whole stems but are not readily available. When canes are used for
establishment, it is important to ensure that 2/3 of the cane is buried at an angle of about 45o.

• Spacing

The closer spacing is suited for high rainfall areas and there is demand for more pl anting material than
the wider spacing.

Wider spacing is suited for semi-arid environment and there is a reduction for competition for moisture.

• Fertilizer requirements

Fertilizer rates of 40 – 60 kg of P2O5/ha is recommended at planting.

v. Field management practices.

- Weeding especially after cutting Napier.

- Top-dressing with 60 – 80 kg of N/ha preferably when it is wet.

vi. Harvesting.

The productive life of Napier grass depends on management but maximum yields are usually
achieved during the first four years. The grass does not have major diseases within the first four
years of the lifespan although show mould fungus is reported as a problem of
Benioswkiaspareoides. The fungal infection is particularly acute for French Cameroon.

Napier grass is difficult to eradicate when not required but if it is grazed directly, particularly
during dry season, and followed by immediate ploughing it can be eradicated.

Under normal circumstances, grazing the crop is not recommended because it weakens the root
system of the crop. It is recommended that Napier is left 2-3 months before the onset of the dry
season to ensure there is sufficient quantity of dry matter to cater for dry season. If the crop is
left uncut for more than 3 months, it becomes stemmy and unpalatable.

The grass should be cut at the onset of rainy season, weeded and top-dressed to enable it to
produce sufficient dry matter.

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2. Guatamala grass

• It is a perennial fodder which grows between 0 – 2300 m above sea level.

• It is slow to establish and has a weak rooting system.

• It has a high yield to stem ratio compared to Napier grass.

• It is highly digestible.

• The grass should not be grassed on directly but should be cut and carried to livestock.

• This fodder is easily eradicated if not required.

3 . Oats.

• Oats are recommended in high altitude cool areas i.e 2000-3000m above sea level.

• It can be grown in pure stand or in mixture with vetch ( Viciasativa).

• Varieties of oats include:- Sure grain, Jasiri and Lampton 518.

• Planting :-

The seeding rates are 70-80 kg/ha for pure stand and 40 kg/ha for mixed stand.

The seed should be mixed with fungicide and insecticide before planting to prevent further diseases and
insects.

The seed can either be broadcasted or drilled and fertiliser applied at the rate of 40-60kgp2o5/ha.

After harvesting, the crop should be top-dressed at 20-30 kg of N/ha to enhance growth and subsequent
yield of fodder.

4. Fodder Maize

Sometimes fodder maize is also grown as high energy rich crop.

It is suited in areas between 1500 – 2300 m above sea level.

The most complete utilization of fodder maize is inform of silage especially if the crop is harvested at
dough stage i.e after the milk stage but before the grains harden.
Small scale farmers in high potential areas grow the crop continuously throughout the year and feed the
livestock without having to make silage.

5. Sweet Potatoes

Sweet potatoes provide energy for both livestock and humans. It is utilized as either vines or tubers.
Vines are a good source of proteins and roughages. Sweet potatoes grow well on fertile soils with a PH

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of above 5. They should not be grown in areas where night temperatures fall close to 0oC because the
vines are affected and turn brown. Cuttings or tubers can be used as planting materials but vines are
more available than tubers. 2/3 of vines should be covered with soil at planting. Spacing of 50-60 cm is
used. The plants can be harvested after every four months leaving stubble of 15 cm for quick vine
regrowth. Planting material should be dipped in an insecticide to prevent sweet potato weevil. Fertilizer
at the rate of 40-60kg P2O5/ha or manure of 10 tons should be used during planting.

Sweet potato varieties

Musinya, mukunungu&Namunjuna are mainly for vines.

Bisale&Omito are for tubers.

Muibia is a dual purpose crop.

6. Sorghum.

This is a drought tolerant fodder that is suitable for arid & semi-arid areas. The varieties commonly
grown include:-

Velvet sorghum.

Sudan grass.

Columbus grass.

E 6508 (cold tolerant).

Establishment.

Seed rate of 20-30kg/ha is recommended in rows of 17-30 cm apart in wet conditions.

Seed rate of 5kg/ha is drilled at 100cm apart in arid areas.

At the time of planting, 40-60kgP2O5/ha fertiliser is required. The growth should be established in a
seed bed free from weeds.

GRAZING MANAGEMENT

Objectives of grazing management

i. To maintain high production of a good quality herbage for the longest possible period.

ii. To maintain a favourable balance between a favourable species.

iii. To achieve efficient utilisation of the herbage produced by conserving excess herbage at the
peak of the growing season.

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iv. To achieve high annual production in terms of milk, meat, wool and hides& skins from the
herbage.

GRAZING SYSTEMS

1. Continuous grazing

2. Rotational grazing

3. Zero grazing

4. Semi zero grazing

5. Tethering

CONTINUOUS GRAZING

This is a grazing system where animals are kept in an area continuously throughout the year.

ROTATIONAL GRAZING

Pasture is divided in a number of paddocks and livestock is moved in a regular sequence around the
paddock. The number of paddocks is determined by dividing the rotational cycle by the grazing period.

No. of paddocks=rotational cycle/grazing period.

If the rotational cycle is 20 days, and animals stay for 4 days in each paddock, then the number of
paddocks are 5, that is;-

20/4= 5 paddocks.

If the number of time to complete a cycle is 60 days, where animals stay 6 days, that

is;- No. of paddocks = 60/6 = 10 paddocks.

Rotational cycle is the number of days from the beginning of one grazing period until the beginning of
the next grazing period.

The grazing period is the average number of days within a cycle during which each cycle is occupied by
grazing animals.

The rest period is the number of days within a cycle when there are no grazing animals in a paddock.

No. of paddocks = Rest period + 1

Grazing period

If the rest period is 54 and then the grazing period is 6, then;-

= 54/6 + 1
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=9+1

= 10 paddocks.

The objective of rotational grazing is to utilise the pasture when it is highly nutritious and also allows
adequate time for the pasture to regrow.

ZERO GRAZING

This is a term used to describe the practice of cutting fresh herbage carrying it and feeding livestock at a
confinement. This may lead to improved use of forage compared to other grazing systems.

Zero grazing is an intensive system used for dairy animals. The stage of cutting forage is important
because the nutritive value tends to decrease with maturity of the crop.

Booting stage or initial head emergence is suitable time for pasture grasses because it combines both
quality and quantity.

The process of hay making should be turned regularly for it to dry before collecting and baling the
material.

NB; There are some terms used in pasture management. These include;-

1. Stocking rate: It is the actual number of animals per livestock unit for high potential and low
potential areas respectively.

2. Carrying capacity: This is the maximum number of animals that can survive the greatest period of
stress each year on a given land area.

3. Grazing pressure: This is the actual number of animals to forage ratio at a specific time i.e the
number of animals per ton of standing forage or hay.

4. Sustainable range: This is the range which is accessible to livestock that can be grazed on
a sustainable yield basis without damage to other resources.

SILAGE

Silage is fermented fodder which is stored to feed cows during dry season (preserved herbage). The
herbage is preserved in air tight structures called silos. There are different silos such as stack silo, bunker
silo, clamp silo, trench silo and pit silo. The most common one is the trench and bunker silos. The crops
used for silage making should contain adequate levels of substrates in form of carbohydrates, high dry
matter content and should also have ability to resist PH changes. Silage can therefore be made from
Napier grass, Sorghum, Maize stems, oats or Sugar Cane tops.

Requirements for silage making

• Chopped forage such as Napier grass.

• Molasses.

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• Water.

• Silage plastic bag.

PROCEDURE OF MAKING SILAGE.

1. Collect the Napier grass after it is chopped and put i t onto a plastic sheet on the ground. Do
this where you plan to store the bags as they will be heavy.

2. Mix 1 kg of molasses with 3 kg of water in a watering can.

3. Sprinkle the molasses-water mixture onto the cut Napier grass and mix well.

4. Put the mixed Napier and molasses and water into a silage bag.

5. Press down to make sure no air is left in the bag. If there is air, then it will not ferment well.

6. Tie the top of the silage bag tightly with sisal twine.

7. Put stones or rocks on the tied bag to ensure it is pressed down.

8. Store somewhere dry and out of the sun.

9. Ants, rats and birds will be attracted to the silage so check the bags often.

10. It will be ready in 8 weeks but it can be stored for a lot longer and used to feed cows during the
dry season.

Qualities of good silage

PH level of 4.2.

Sweet smelling.

Yellowish green in colour.

NB; the quality of silage made depends on the species of the crop, type of silo, the chop length and
the prevailing temperature.

HAY

Hay is grass, legume or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried and stored for use as
animal fodder. Hay can be used as animal fodder when or where there is not enough pasture or
rangeland on which to graze an animal, when grazing is unavailable due to weather.

Commonly used plants for hay include legumes such as alfalfa, lucerne and clovers. Oat, barley and
wheat plant materials are occasionally cut green and made into hay for animal fodder.

HAY MAKING
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i. Hay plant materials are harvested or cut when the seed heads are not quite ripe and the leaf is
at its maximum by use of a mower or a swathe machine designed to cut hay.

ii. The cut material is the allowed to dry so that the bulk of the moisture is reduced to about 15 –
20% moisture content.

iii. The cut plant materials are then raked into long, narrow piles known as windrows and baled
ready for storage by use of a baler machine.

iv. The bales are then stored under a shade to prevent rotting and moulding due to wet conditions.

STANDING HAY

This is a practice where a farmer plants grass and it is kept until times of need especially in dry season
when the pastures are utilised by being cut and fed to the animals or allowing animals to graze on it
directly, depending on the pasture species.

TOPIC 10
STAPLE FOODS
Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainer should be able to:
a. Explain the origin and history of a given staple food crop

b. Describe the ecology of a given staple food crop

c. Describe the field establishment and management of a given staple food crop

MAIZE
Maize is the staple food in most areas of Kenya. It is also a very important feed for livestock. It is
processed in industries to produce oil and starch. Large scale maize production goes on in Trans Nzoia,
Nakuru and Uasin Gishu districts.

ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS

i. Altitude – 0 – 2200 m above sea level.

ii. Temperatures - maize prefers medium temperatures.

iii. Rainfall - iv. Soil - Fertile alluvial or loam soils which are free draining.

Soil pH should be neutral or alkaline.

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Maize is drought resistant during the early stages of growth and does not require much rain towards
maturity but, it must have enough rain at silking stage.

VARIETIES

Several hybrids and composites are produced in various research stations like the National
Research Station [Link], Embu Research Station, Katumani Research Station Machakos and
Coast Agricultural Research Station – Mtwapa.

Hybrids are bred by crossing inbreed lines or varieties under conditions of controlled
pollination. Composites are bred growing a number of varieties together under uncontrolled
pollination, there is free inter pollination.

These hybrids and composites are produced for specific altitudes in the country. For example,
Kitale hybrids include; 614, 622, 625, 626, 627 and 632. They are generally grown in medium
to high altitude zones. Embu hybrids include 511 and 513, they grow best in medium altitude
zones. Katumani composites have been developed for lower altitude zones. Coast composites,
Pwani hybrid 1 and Pwani hybrid 4 have been developed at the Coast Agricultural Research
Station – Mtwapa for Coast province. Others include double cob varieties for example DH01 and
DH02.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS

Kenya Seed Company contracts specific farmers to grow maize for seed. Maize is then harve
sted and treated using Thiram-dindane to prevent pest attack and sold to farmers as seed.
Farmers are advised to buy fresh seed for planting every season. This is because of the problem
of reduced hybrid vigour in the first generation.

LAND PREPARATION

Maize should be grown on a land prepared early enough to allow stubble enough time to rot.
Ploughing is done using disc or mould board ploughs. Harrowing is done where the seedbed is
rough, although a fine seedbed is not necessary for maize.

Maize does well when grown in rotation with other crops such as beans, tobacco, cotton,
groundnuts and irish potatoes. Maize takes a lot of fertility out of the soil. Continuous cropping
of maize should be avoided unless the soil is very fertile or where a lot of fertil isers are applied.

FIELD OPERATIONS

i. Planting.

Planting should be done quite early in the rains so that the crop can make maximum use of available
moisture. Dry planting should be practised in areas with short rainy seasons. Time for planting always
reduces yields. Early planting also reduces attack by stalk borers.

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The depth at which seeds are placed varies from 2.5 cm to 10 cm. seeds are placed shallowly in moist
soils and deeply in dry soils, such as when dry planting is done.

One or two seeds are placed in every hole.

The spacing is 20 cm to 30 cm by 75 cm to 90 cm. the spacing depends on the ecological conditions

and the cultivars to be planted.

Planting is done by hand on small farms, while tractor-drawn planters are used on large farms.

ii. Fertiliser Application

Fertiliser application starts at the time of planting when 100-150 kg of double super phosphate
per hectare is applied. Other compound fertilisers can be applied at the time of planting, for
example 20-20-0 is used at the rate of 200 kg/hectare. Organic manures also give good
responses. Some nitrogenous fertilisers such as C.A.N is top dressed when the maize is about 45
cm or knee high. In some cases the nitrogenous fertiliser can be split so that one half is applied
when the plants are 45 cm high and the other half, just before tasselling. 200 kg of A.S.N
orC.A.N are applied per hectare.

iii. Weed control.

Weeds in maize should be controlled right from the early stages of growth to reduce competition for
moisture and nutrients. Two to three weedings would give the crop a chance to grow properly to the
point where it can suppress the weeds. Hand weeding is mainly practiced. Herbicides can also be used,
for example simazine, and triazine which are applied before the crop germinates and MCPA and 2, 4-D
which are applied after the crop has emerged.

iv. Pest and Disease Control

PESTS

a) Field Pests

i. Maize stalk borer (Buseolafusca)

This is a larval stage of a moth which attacks maize from the early stages of growth. It makes holes in the
leaves, resulting in windowing.

Control:

Early planting.

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Rogueing.

Burning infected maize crop remains after harvesting.

Pesticides such as endolsulfan, diazinon, dipterex, malathion and stalk borer dust, may be applied
down the funnel of each plant when it is about 30 cm high.

ii. Army worm ( Spodopteraexempta)

Army worms are larvae of a moth. The caterpillars are greyish-green in colour with characteristic black
stripes at the back and both sides. They cause damage by eating the leaves, thus causing defoliation.
Only midribs are left.

Control: Dusting with malation, diazinon etc.

iii. Aphid (Rhopalosiphummaidis)

This pest sucks sap from the green husks of cobs and leaves. The attacked leaves and husks appear black
in colour.

Control:Spraying the crop with insecticides such as diazinon, malathion etc.

iv. Birds.

These eat the grains at the milky stage. The removal of husks by birds allows water to get in and cause
rotting.

Control: Use of scare crows.

b) Storage pests

i. Maize weevil (Sitophiluszeamais)

It makes tunnels beneath the seed coat and circular holes on the surface of the grain.

Control:

Dusting the maize cobs or shelled maize with malathion.

Stored maize can also be fumigated with methyl bromide.

Proper storage hygiene (sweeping and removing old crops) is also effective in weevil control.

ii. Red Flour Beetle (Triboliumcastaneum)

This is a small reddish-brown beetle which feeds on flour and previously damaged and broken grains.

Control: Proper storage hygiene.

iii. Rats (Rattusrattus)

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They attack stoked and fallen maize in the field, but they are more serious pes ts in the store.

Control: Use of rat proof stores, cats, traps and poisoned baits. Bush clearing around stores
discourages rats.

DISEASES

i. White Leaf Blight

This is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Helminthosporiumturcicum. It causes oval, grey and thin
lesions on the leaves.

Control: Planting resistant varieties.

ii. Maize Streak

This is a viral disease spread by grasshoppers. It causes yellow longitudinal stripes which run parallel
to the midrib.

Control: Use of certified seeds, earlyplanting, uprooting and burning affected plants to prevent further
spread.

iii. Rust

It is caused by Pucciniasorghi and Pucciniapolysora. It forms red or brown pustules on the leaves.

Control: Planting resistant varieties.

iv. Smut

This is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Ustilagozeas. It destroys grains and tassels, causing masses
of black powder.

Control: Crop rotation.

HARVESTING

The period between planting and harvesting of maize varies depending on the altitude and
variety planted. Therefore, maize takes between three and nine months. Stalks are cut and
stoked in the field to allow the cobs to dry properly. The cobs are then removed by hand and
placed in the store. De-husking directly in the field without first stoking is common. Harvesting
can also be done using combine harvesters.

Harvesting is done when the grains have 20% moisture content and then sun dried to 12%
moisture content before storage.

The maize stalks are then ploughed in the soil, in most farms, this helps in returning some of the
nutrients such as potassium and calcium into the soil.

Yields of 3,000 kg to 4,500 kg per hectare can be obtained.

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STORAGE

Maize can be stored on cobs or it can be shelled and bagged. The stores should be properly
constructed to keep out moisture and pests like rats. Proper store hygiene should be observed to
prevent losses through pests, diseases and other damages. The seeds should be dried properly to
reduce the chances of rotting and also minimise the extent of insect damage.

MARKETING

The National Cereals and Produce Board purchases shelled maize and stores it in large stores which are
found in many parts of the country. Private buyers purchase maize directly from the farmers due to
liberalisation in marketing. Maize dealers such as millers and livestock feed companies obtain their
maize supplies from the board. Large consumers like institutions also purchase their grains from the
board.

WHEAT (Triticum aestivum)

Introduction
This is the most important large-scale crop in Kenya after maize. Wheat originated from Middle East
and was introduced in Africa 20th century. In Kenya it was introduced by Lord Delamare around Njoro
area. It is grown in large scale Mau Narok to Narok,Uasin gishu, and Nakuru.
The crop is grown for bread baking and pasta. Residues serve as mulch or used as hay. The by- products
are used as animal feed.
Plant description
• Wheat is an annual grass which grows to a height of 1-1.5m -. It tillers freely and has leaves
with jagged, membranous ligules and short hairy auricles

• The inflorescence is a terminal cylindrical spike and is mainly self-pollinated by wind.

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• The fruit is oval with a central groove on the ventral surface and a terminal tuft of hairs. The
palea and lemma enclose the fruit. The lemma may be awned or awnless. Seed coat colour
ranges from red to white

Physical differences between wheat and barley

Barley has long beards/awns but wheat has shorter awns.

Barley has long clasping auricles and leaves are hairless and smooth while wheat has shorter
auricles with small hairs

The glume and palea of barley adhere to each seed and cannot be removed by threshing but in
wheat, they are easily removed during threshing to become part of chaff.

Barley has a finer seed head with a lighter gold colour at harvest time than wheat.

Barley has 2 rows of grains in each spikelet, one opposite the other while wheat has 3 rows of
grain in each spikelet.

Climatic requirements

Altitude: Does well at 1800-2900 m AS.L At low altitudes rainfall is low while at high
altitude it is humid causing a high incidence of pests and diseases.

Altitude also affects maturity in that a rise or fall in altitude of 300m causes respectively a 15 day
lengthening or shortening of the time of maturity.

Temperatures: 24-270C

Rainfall: Wheat is moderate resistant crop but for best yields needs a well distributed supply
of soil moisture. In Kenya it is grown in areas that receive 750-1000 mm or more rainfall per
year.

During early stages of growth water demand is low but drought at this stage will retard growth
permanently.
At 23cm high tillering begins and water demand consequently rises steeply until flowering.
Drought at this time restricts the number of tillers, sometimes none develops at all.
Ear initiation occurs towards the end of tillering drought at this stage causes the initiation of few
flowers and heads that emerge are short.
At flowering water demand almost levels off and drought soon after cause’s low grade grains which
are narrow and misshapen.
At cheese-like stage(when the grains are forming), heavy rains is damaging as it causes; slow grain
drying, sprouting (germination of the grain in the head),discoloration or lodging, and may create
muddy conditions which prevent combine harvesters working.

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Heavy rains when the grains are ripening/drying cause germination of the seeds in the head and
discolourationof the grains.
Soil requirements

Wheat does well in a wide range of soils however; ideal soils should be well drained silty loams of
reasonable fertility and good lime content at a PH of 6-7.5. Acidic soils produce small wheat grains
with a low test weight. Also, aluminium toxicity occurs and this leads plant deficiencies of nutrients
such as phosphorus. Sticky poorly aerated soils susceptible to water logging produces poor quality wheat
and low yields.
Varieties

Low alt(1200- Medium alt (1500- High

1500m 1800) alt(>1800)

k. fahari Tembo Mbuni

Ngamia Kwale Mwamba
Duma Kifaru Fahari
Chozi Paka Kongoni
Njoro Bw1 Njoro Bw11

The above varieties yield differently though higher altitudes wheat grow slowly and harvested 2-3 weeks
later than medium and low altitude wheat. Average yield is 20-32bags/acre depending on soils, climate
and seed type. Growing period is 120days for early maturing and 160 days for late maturing varieties.
Important characteristics to consider when choosing wheat varieties

Maturity-early maturing varieties escape damage from hot winds, drought and rusts.

Disease and pest resistance-against serious pests and diseases such as Hessian fly and wheat rust
respectively.

Resistance to lodging and shattering-since wheat id harvested by a combine harvester, varieties

that do not lodge or shatter are the best. The shorter semi dwarf varieties are the best.

Grain quality-the grain should be of a quality that is required by the millers and bakers to
produce quality end products. The classes of whet have different characteristics related to
milling, baking or other food use.

• Durum is the hardest of all wheat and provides semolina for spaghetti, macaroni
and other pasta products

• Soft red winter (SRW) is high yielding wheat, low protein (10%) and is used for
cakes, pastries, flat breads and snack foods.

• Hard white (HW) is for noodles, yeast and flat breads

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• Hard red winter (HRW) is the bred wheat having moderate proteins (11-12%).has
good milling and baking quality.

• Hard red spring (HRS) is also bread wheat with high protein content (13-14%) with
good milling and baking characteristics.

NB; Generally, wheat for bread making should have high gluten content, should be elastic and able to
retain co2 during baking giving bread of good structure. For biscuits it should have low protein content
and high starch content.

Acid tolerance-many soils are becoming acidic due to continuous use of DAP and N-fertilizers.
Such soils have more AL which can burn root tips. Therefore, a good wheat variety should be
tolerant to low soil PH.

Coleoptile length-many semi dwarf varieties have short coleoptiles which cannot emerge from
deep planting. A good variety should have a coleoptile length of more than 3 inches.

Grazing potential-extra income can be earned from grazing livestock on wheat fields. Awnless
varieties are the best for cattle because the awns do not injure livestock during feeding.

Wide adaptability-a good variety should be able to be grown in wide geographical areas and
yield well.

Field operations

1. Land preparation

Early seedbed preparation immediately after harvesting ensures thorough decomposition of organic
matter before sowing. A clean, firm seedbed of fine tilth is required by wheat because its seeds are small
and for even rapid germination.
Burning stubble and straw
Follows immediately after harvesting in preparation for the next crop. Consideration to burn or not
to burn is affected by the following;

The presence of straw may impede cultivation. True when disc plough are to be because they
penetrate slowly when there is much straw on the ground.

Presence of soil borne diseases; Like Glume blotch and leaf blight that may be carried over to the
following season through infected straw if ploughed in. Burning prevents any such carry over.

Soil structures; farmers who have light Powderly soils with little organic matter sometimes prefer
incorporate the straw to improve soil structure.

The weather; Rain makes burning impossible. In case of any delay until the straw dries out,
weeds and volunteer wheat grows amongst the straw preventing efficient burning.

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The speed of straw decomposition; slow or absent in dry soil with low microbial population or at
high altitudes where is cool. Presence of un-decomposed straw restricts growth of the following
crop. To avoid this farmer may incorporate the straw as early as possible, they may add nitrogen
when sowing to compensate for that which is locked up or they may burn the straw.

Reason for early ploughing

Being the slowest operation in mechanical wheat cultivation it should be done early to allow all
the land to ready for sowing at the correct time.

Allows reasonable time for decomposition of incorporated straw or if grassland is being broken.

Helps dry out kikuyu grass or couch grass.

Allows plenty of time to prepare a clean a seedbed by several harrowing. The germinating
seed from previous crops are killed by each harrowing.

If done immediately after harvest of previous crop; the soil is easier to work with because there is
usually a little moisture and soil moisture conservation because less moisture is lost from a bare
surface than one covered with vegetation

It’s easier to work the soil because of less moisture before the rains

Dis advantage
Stubble becomes unavailable for grazing.

2. Planting
Early planting is recommended at the beginning of the rains to achieve high yields and also for
harvesting to coincide with the dry weather. In Rongai (low altitude) planting is done in March-May
and harvested in September and October while in Molo (high altitude area) planting is June/July and
harvesting in Jan/Feb.
Phosphatic fertilizer is applied at the rate of 50-100kg/ha P2O5 depending on soil types, cropping and
fertilization history.
Seed is dressed against soil borne diseases and pests with Copper oxychloride. Carbofuran+Thiram
at the rate of 0.85kg/Ha to protect the seeds from fungal soil borne diseases and stem rust. The seeds
are obtained from previous crop or buy from dealers in case of new varieties or growing for the first
time.
The seed rate is 70-85kg/acre at a spacing of 18cm between the rows and 2.5cm deep. The seed
are sown mechanically using drills then followed by rolling to ensure good contact with the soil
and for rapid even germination. The disadvantage is that it may encourage soil erosion. Qualities
of good seeds

True to variety

High seed purity(freedom from other crop seeds, weeds, foreign materials)

Should be dense/plump to ensure high germination %

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Larger seeds tiller more than small seeds

High protein content promotes early seedling vigour

Should have a higher germination %

Growth stages of wheat

Growth and development of wheat are divided into the stages below;
a) Germination leads to seedlings(1st stage)

A wheat seed begins germination by absorbing water and CO2. The embryo/germ gives rise to
the radicle (root) and the scutellum (first leaf).the endosperm which contains food supports the
germinating seed. The coleoptile (2nd leaf), penetrates the soil and results in emergence of the
seedling usually 5-7 days after planting. The first roots on the seedlings are known as
primary/seminal roots. They are temporary. Only the main stem has primary roots which are
retained throughout [Link] also contains secondary/crown roots that arise from underground
nodes after the seedling emerges. Many of the stems on the main stems and he tillers are
secondary roots. Most roots are found in the top 6 inches of the soil. The extensive distribution
of roots throughout the soil and the large root surface area makes the wheat plants efficient and
drought tolerant.
b) The growing point and seedling growth

The growing point contains the stem parts-nodes and internodes and wheat head in miniature
which later differentiates and the plants begins to joint and eventually heads. c) Tillering

Tillers are shots that develop from nodal buds on older wheat shoots. The number of tillers
depends on seed rate, soil moisture, soil fertility, temperature and variety. The develop soon after
the seedling emergences from the soil and have all other growth stages as the main stem. Tillers
can be encouraged by fertilizing with N, early planting, low seed rate, and irrigation. Tillers
increase yields. Herbicides should not be applied art this stage.
d) Overwintering

Especially when the temperatures are low. When the growing point remains below the soil
surface and changes colour white-brown.
e) Jointing

This is the development of nodes and internodes that form the stem of the wheat plant. This
begins when the growth of the tillers is complete. This phase marks the change from vegetative
growth to reproductive growth. Stage is important for these reasons because growth of the
internodes pushes the growing point above the soil. Jointing occurs when the plants have been
exposed to winter temperatures otherwise it would continue to produce more leaves. Splitting open
the stem during jointing shows the growing point is well differentiated into young head. f)
Booting

During the boot stage, the head is enclosed in the flag leaf sheath at the top of the plant.
g) Heading

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At the heading stage, the spike emerges from the boot, within 1-7days after heading, the
flowering stage and pollination occurs and the grain begins filling.
h) Flowering

Flowering begins at the center of the spike and progresses towards the end. Appearance of
yellow anthers outside of the florets marks the completion of flowering. The actual number of
kernels which will form in the spike is determined at this stage.
i) Maturation or development of the grain

Is divided into milk, soft dough, hard dough and physiological maturity, (the stage when kernel
weight is maximum). The grain begins growing immediately after flowering and reaches its
max size (not weight) in 2weeks. At the first stage, the endosperm has the colour and consistency
of [Link] the kernel fills, the endosperm thickens into a soft dough stage and finally a hard
dough stage.
j) Ripening-last stage before harvesting where moisture reduction occurs. Ripening includes
the changes that occur after the grains reaches physiological maturity. This is characterized
by;

• Drop in moisture to 30-35% and later to 12-13%

• Hardened kernels/grains

• Changes in colour of grains

• Senescence and drying of leaves

• Kernels accumulate high dry matter content.

k) Harvesting

Should be done after ripening to reduce loss of yields by lodging, preharvest sprouting and due to
birds.
3. Fertilizer application

Nitrogen- is the most limiting nutrient should be applied as pre plant (before planting).rate
of application is 75kg/acre or 200kg/Ha. The remaining N is applied during the tillering
stage. For maximum economic yields, split applications of N are recommended as
follows.40% pre plnat,10% in starter,25% at tillering and 25% at stem elongation.
Additional N application of 10-12kg/acre at swollen boot stage affects head fill and grain
protein levels.

Roles includes; structural constituent of protein, chlorophyll formation and promotion of

vegetative growth.
Excess causes; reduced yields, lush succulent growth causing lodging, delayed maturity,
susceptibility to diseases such as rusts & powdery mildew.

Phosphorus-Rate is 30-40kg/Ha applied as band application during planting. Recommended

fertilizers are MAP (11-52-0), DAP (18-46-0) and NPK (23-23-0). Deficiencies cause
stunting, pale to reddish leaves, bluish green leaves, and small leaves.
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Potassium at the rate of 20-30kg/acre. Deficiencies cause shortening of the internodes, tips
and margins of lower leaves become dry and scotched.

Copper- Copper is required for grains production and applied at the rate of 0.85kg/ha as seed
dressing and another 1.1-1.7kg/ha with herbicide spray during weed control.

Deficiencies cause discoloration of young leaf tips, curling of the leaves, bleached and sterile
spikes, on emergence of spikes.
4. Weeding
Most common weeds include oat grass, field bind weed, goat grass and mustards.
Weed control measures include;
• Cultural control which includes; preparation of clean seed bed, crop rotation, burning,
deep ploughing to burry the weeds, manipulating of planting dates.

• Chemical control; Application too early or late may result in stunting and yield reduction.
It is most tolerant when fully tillered but before jointing. No herbicide applied at early
boot to soft dough stage. Application would cause sterility, poor grain fill and reduced
yields.

5. Irrigation
Effects of moisture stress;
• Stunting of the plants

• reduce tillering and

• reduced root development,

• reduced number of spikes and florets

• Curling and rolling of the leaves during midday

• Late booting and sterility of grains

• Reduced yields.

Harvesting
In small scale, it is done with a sickle or a sharp knife but in large scale is done with a
combined harvester.

• Wheat matures in 4-7 months depending on variety and altitude. They are harvested
using combine harvesters in large scale or by cutting individual heads using knives.
Delayed harvesting leads to sprouting of the grain on the ear, rotting and grains are prone
to insect damage during storage.

• Once harvested the wheat is cleaned of any foreign matter e.g. weed seed, chaff, and
earth particles etc. Then bagged ready for delivery to the buyer.

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• They are dried if wet to required moisture content of 13%.

• Lodging hinders harvesting caused by weak straw variety, excessive seed rate, high
application of Nitrogen, strong winds and heavy rains in later stages of growth. Use of
combines with pick up reels and guards on the cutters bar enable lodged to be harvested but
slows the operations. Also lodged plants dry slowly as they are close to the ground, ripen
poorly and grains fail to fill out properly. Late lodging leads to production of many tiller
late in growth and un even ripening hence unclear sample.

• Yield

The average yield is about 1100kg/ha

• Grading

Is done based on;

Moisture content lees than 14%

Foreign matter less than 2%

Broken grain less than 2%

Immature grain less than 2%

No insects and disease damage

No germinated seeds

No mixed seeds.

Wheat Quality
Baking quality;

It is the ability of the dough to retain carbon dioxide bubbles and thus to produce a good, light
loaf, depends on genetically governed grain characteristics. Gluten, which is a mixture of
proteins, determines the baking quality. Strong wheat has a high content of good quality gluten
and their dough is able to retain the carbon dioxide bubbles. Weak wheat, on the other hand has
insufficient or poor quality gluten.
Bread wheat cultivars in Kenya are categorized into 4 classes depending on the baking characteristics:

• Group I: Weak wheat not ideal for baking. Can be used for fodder or blended with
superior wheat for baking. These include Kenya Bongo. Kenya Kudu, Kenya
Kongoni, Kenya Tumbili Kenya Tausi, Kenya Chiriku and Ngamia.
• Group II: Strong stable wheat. Fairly good baking qualities. These include Kenya
Mamba, Nyangumi, African Mayo, Kenya Tembo, Nyumba, Popo, Ngiri, Nungu,
Kifaru, Mbweha, Kwale and Duma.
• Group III: Strong dispensable wheat. Good baking quality. Also used for
pasta. Varieties include:
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Kenya Zabadi, Kiboko, Swara, Paka, Fahari, Kuro, Nyati and Mbega.
• Group IV: White wheat used for confectionary and pasta. Good for home baking.
Include following varieties: Kenya Kulungu, Nyoka, Leopard as well as Bounty,
Mbuni, Pasa,Kenya Paa.

Milling quality

Milling quality depends on whether the endosperm is hard, enabling it to pass through sieves
readily, or soft, causing it to block sieves.
Disease control
The main components of integrated disease management programme in wheat production include;

Scouting and monitoring to identify problems early in the season

Resistant varieties

Crop rotation

Crop residue destruction

Control of volunteer wheat

Delayed planting

Balanced fertilization

Seed treatment before

planting Use of foliar

fungicides

Bio control

Use of certified seeds.

1. Stem rust
Most important/serious wheat disease cause by the fungus Puccinia graminis fsp. Tritici
Symptoms:
• Pustules (a pimple-like or blister-like structure) containing masses of spores are dark
reddish brown and occur on both sides of the leaves, on the stems and on the spikes.

• With light infections the pustules are separate and scattered but coalesce with time.

• Before the spore masses break through the epidermis, the infection sites feel rough to
the touch and as they break through the surface tissue takes a ragged and torn
appearance.

• Reduced tillering and grain weight and quality.

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• The grains may be shrunken to one-half or two-thirds normal size.

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Predisposing factors;
Free moisture, rain or dew and moderate temperatures of 200C or more.

Control

- Certified seeds for sowing

- Crop rotation

- Spraying foliar fungicides

- Early planting

- Control of wild grass which may act as alternative host

2. Glume blotch
Caused by two fungi namely; Phaeosphaeria (Leptosphaeria) nodorum and Septoria tritici .
It can cause considerable damage in wet years, especially where wheat has been grown for several
years in succession.
Symptoms occur at early milk stage through maturity causing infected glumes and awns to develop grey
brown blotches starting at the tips of the glumes. Consist of brown lesions on the glumes and around the
nodes. At advanced stage of the disease black spots just like dots can been seen on the lesions. These are
fungal spore bodies (pycnidia). The affected leaves become shriveled with light brown patches on them.
Glume blotch is spread by use of infected seeds, rain splash and infected crop residues.
Control:
-Use certified disease-free seeds and seed treatment with fungicides
-Burn stubble and crop debris after harvest
-Rotate with non-susceptible crops such fodder grasses or maize
-Avoid excess Nitrogen and also deficiencies
-Use of foliar fungicides before infections
-Use of resistant varieties
3. Ergot
Caused by the fungus Claviceps purpurea. Symptoms; found in all small grain crops especially if
sterility occurs for some reasons. Sterile florets open and become susceptible to [Link] flowering,
infected florets produce yellowish sticky exudates containing conidia, visible on the glumes. As the
spikes mature, kernels of infected florets are replaced by brown to purplish black fungal structures
(sclerotia/ergot bodies).
Control .same as for glume blotch.
4. Barley yellow dwarf virus (BYDV)
Caused by Luteovirus
Symptoms include; leaf discolouration from tip to base and from margin to center. The discolouration
takes on different colours depending on the plant. In barley, the leaf turns bright yellow; in oat, an orange,
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red or purple discoloration is seen and in wheat, rye and triticale, the infected leaves are generally
yellow and sometimes red. Plants are usually stunted, with a decrease in tiller number and biomass and
a weak root system. Suppressed heading, sterility and failure of grains to fill occur in the most severe
cases. In the field, symptoms appear usually as yellow or red patches of stunted plants. The disease is
most damaging in terms of yield reduction, if it infects a crop at an early stage of growth. The virus is
spread by cereal aphids (e.g. Rhopalosiphum padi, R. maidis, Sitobion avenae, etc.). It is neither seed-
borne nor mechanically transmitted. It also attacks maize, rice and several grasses.
Control:
-Plant resistant varieties, if available
-Control aphids -
Control weeds
5. Take-all disease
Caused by ( Gaeumannomyces graminis [Link]) , a soil-borne fungus.
Predisposing factors; neutral to alkaline soils, poorly drained soils, early planting, continuous cropping,
volunteer wheat.
Symptoms; the fungus invades and blackens the roots, frequently killing them in the process and can
easily be uprooted. Affected stems are black and shiny just above the soil level. This symptom can only
been seen by peeling away the leaf sheaths. A shiny black discolouration is present under the leaf
sheaths at the bases of diseased plants. The disease occurs in slowly widening patches, and in these areas
plants with poorly filled or empty ears (whiteheads) may be present. Tillers that emerge are usually
sterile and turn white. Premature death of tillers may also be noted. The pathogen survives between
crops on cereal roots and stubble. It also attacks barley, oats and rye.
Control:
-Rotate with non-susceptible crops such as alfalfa, sweet clover or maize for 1-2 years
-Remove stubble from the fields
-Avoid continuous cropping with wheat, barley, oats or rye
-control grass weeds
-delayed planting
-seed treatment
6. Yellow rust
Caused by the fungus Puccinia striiformis
The disease is also called stripe rust. Yellow or orange-yellow pustules develop on the glumes or chaff,
on the leaves, and on the leaf sheaths. These lesions are arranged in parallel lines along the leaves. The
disease may also attack the stems and the kernels. Infected leaves show distinct chlorosis. Damage to the
disease is most serious, if plants are attack at milk stage or earlier. Under severe infection kernels may
be shriveled. Rapid disease spread is favoured by warm weather with frequent rainfall. Yellow rust also
attacks barley, rye, and over 60 species of grasses.
Control:
Plant resistant varieties, if available

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Control weeds
Avoid cropping of wheat in succession

7. Loose smut of wheat and barley

Cause; The fungus Ustilago tritici

Symptoms; Are seen at heading time as the diseased heads emerge from the boot. The kernels and
glumes have been converted to masses of black spores. These spores are soon blown away, leaving the
rachis of the head bare. Heads of infected plants emerge from the boot earlier than normal. Prior to
heading, infected plants may have dark green, erect leaves sometimes with chlorotic streaks.

Pests
The Russian Wheat Aphid (Diuraphis noxia)
It is one of the most damaging pests of small grain cereals (e.g. wheat, barley, triticale, rye, and oats) in
the world. This aphid is a relatively new pest of wheat in Kenya. It was first identified in farmer’s
fields in 1995. It then spread quickly to all the wheat growing areas of the country and it is nowadays
the most important pest of wheat and barley. It is also a major pest in South Africa, but has maintained
minor pest status in Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia.
The Russian wheat aphid is pale to light green in colour with an elongated, spindle shaped body and
grows to up to two mm long. It has short antennae with rounded very short, nearly invisible cornicles.
The feature that easily distinguishes it from other cereal aphids is the presence of an appendage above
the cauda, which gives the aphid the appearance of having two tails. They prefer to live in the leaf
whorls or in tightly rolled leaves, and thus are partially protected from natural enemies and from contact
insecticides. They are hardy and can survive extremely low temperatures. Dry weather favours rapid
increase of the aphid.
Unlike many important cereal aphids, the Russian wheat aphid is not a known transmitter of diseases,
but causes damage by injecting a toxin into the plants during feeding. This toxin prevents the
production of chlorophyll and causes, in susceptible cultivars, leaf chlorosis, longitudinal leaf rolling
and white/yellow (warm weather) or purple reddish (cold weather) streaking on the leaves. Extensive
chlorosis leads to death of plants while leaf rolling retards plant development causing stunted growth.
The tight rolling of flag leaves delays ear emergence, leading to floret sterile heads resulting in
reduction of seed set. Aphid infestation also reduces the quality of the seeds produced, as shown by
low kernel weight, increased rate of seed deterioration under accelerated ageing conditions, and
reduced seedling vigour. The effect of infestation on seed quality is more pronounced under dry
conditions. Infestation also may result in reduced seedling vigour.

In Kenya, the damage usually appears when crops have attained the tillering stage. Yield losses
ranging from 25 to 90% have been reported.
Control:
• Scout your crop regularly. Check for damage signs (first noticeable sign is slight to moderate
yellowing of small areas of crop within the field; in addition the crop may appear to be under
drought stress, even if there is no drought.)

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• Use the correct seed rate to ensure good plant density, as low plant densities are susceptible to
heavy attack by the aphid.
• Plant early as possible for your area.
• Provide good growing conditions for the crop. A crop that is not stressed is more tolerant to
aphid attack.
• Remove volunteer plants and grasses because they act as the aphid's hosts even before the main
crop has been planted.
Use insecticides.

Assignments

1. Name two soil and plant factors that affect tillering in wheat (4marks)

2. Importance of early land preparation in wheat production (6marks)

3. Differentiate between wheat and barley (4marks)

4. Discuss stem rust of wheat under the following sub-headings;

(a) Cause

(b) Symptoms and

(c) Control

5. List six criteria that are used in wheat variety selection (6marks)

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BARLEY (Hordeum distichum)

Barley originated from Ethiopia and south eastern [Link] is grown in Molo, Mau summit, Londiani, Mau
Narok,timau and little is grown in Nakuru and Naivasha.

Uses:

• The grain is used in brewing of beer, livestock feed and as an ingredient of baby food in
processed food

• It may be cut and hay made while still green

• Baking industry when pearled as a rice substitute.

Plant description

Barley is an annual grass which grows to a height of 1m. It tillers freely and has leaves with prominent
ligules and large hairless auricles. The inflorescence is a terminal cylindrical spike self pollinated by wind.

The grain is pointed at both ends and is united with the awned palea. It has one grain in each spikelet
therefore each head has two rows.

Difference between wheat and barley

Barley has one grain in each spikelet and each head therefore has two rows of grain, one
opposite each other. While wheat has three grain in each spikelet and the rows are less obvious.

Barley seedlings leaves are hairless with smooth auricles while those of wheat have small
hairs on their leaves and hairy auricles.

In commercial barley the glume and the palea adhere to each seed and cannot be removed by
threshing: in wheat they are removed during threshing and constitute the chaff.

Ecological requirements

Rainfall and water requirement

It should be more than 500mm of rain during the growing period of the crop.

Periods of drought causes premature ripening, thin and steely grains with high nitrogen content, due to
insufficient accumulation of carbohydrates in the grain. To produce a plump mealy grain with low
nitrogen content the crop must grow steady without check.

Altitude and temperature

Barley does well at 2100m a.s.l below this rainfall is unreliable.

Soil requirements

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It requires well drained silty-loams of reasonable fertility and good lime content. Heavy soils seldom
produce good barley as the crop is intolerant of water logging.

Varieties

Proctor; is suited to high altitude areas because of its short stiff

straws Research is suited to low lands

Midas and imbar

Variety Year Owner(s) Maintainer Optimal Duratio Grain Special
name/code of and seed production n to yield attributes
releas source altitude maturity (t ha-1
e range (months ) )
(Masl)
Tumaini 1978 EABL/ East African 2100-2400 4.5 4.3 Malting
KARI Breweries
Ltd and
KARI
Bima 1984 EABL East African 1800-2400 4.5 3.0 Malting
/KARI Breweries Resistant to

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Seed bed preparation and planting

Early seedbed preparation gives the incorporated organic matter enough time to rot and form humus

It should have a fine tilth and be free from weeds achieved through several ploughing and harrowing
operations.

Sowing is done at the beginning of rains using certified seeds give best results.

It is drilled in rows 20cm apart at a depth of 2.5-5cm and at a rate of

60-90kg/ha Fertilizer application

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50-60kg/ha of p2o5 used when planting the first crop afterwards 11:54:0 compound fertilizer is applied
at the rate of 80-200kg/ha depending on soil fertility.

Copper if deficient is applied at the rate of 2kg/ha of copper oxy-chloride in two splits half as seed dress
and the other as foliar spray 5-6 weeks after crop emergence.

Weeding

It is done chemically by use of herbicides. It is recommended to use the right concentration and at the
right time.

Harvesting

Barley matures in 3-6 months depending on altitude and cultivar and is combining harvested. Barley
should be harvested at the right time because too early harvesting of barley results to shriveled,
steely seeds with high nitrogen content. Therefore the crop should be harvested when completely
dry. Yields average 1500kg/ha
Malting

Good quality barley is used for making malt which is an essential ingredient of bottled beer. Good
quality barley should be plump, uniform, high in quality, low in nitrogen and protein, and bright in
colour.

Procedure of malting;

To malt, barley is first soaked in water for 2 days and is then spread in a shallow layer in a long box
where it germinates for 4 days. The germinated grains are then dried and the shriveled roots are
removed by screening. Germination produces enzymes which changes the starch to sugars. During
brewing the action of yeast on the sugar produces alcohol.

Malting quality

Measured through the following;-

a) The nitrogen content

Barley is rejected if it contains over 1.8% nitrogen because it causes a cloudy suspension of
proteins in the beer. Ideally it should contain 1.4-1.6% nitrogen

b) Co-efficiency of mealyness

When grains are cut in half they should a white mealy endosperm. Mealy grains absorb water
quickly and therefore germinate quickly and uniformly. Hard and steely grains germinate slowly
and unevenly and tend to have higher nitrogen content. Therefore a sample that has 50% or
more mealy grains is acceptable over 80% is ideal.

c) Germination %

95% or more is acceptable

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d) Size

It should be plump and well filled; this ensures that it is mature and will germinate well. Thin
barley which passes through a 2.4mm screen is rejected.

e) Moisture content

It must be 14% or lower so that the barley can be stored safely.

Others

Must not be discolored this would causes moulds and poor germination.

Should not be damaged by weevils or improperly set combine harvesters as it results to poor
germination

Different varieties should not be mixed because they have different germination characteristics.

The grain should have fine wrinkled husks a sign of well filled mature grain; coarse wrinkled skin
may be caused by premature ripening and is disliked by the maltsters.

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RICE (Oryza sativa)

Rice originated from south eastern Asia and spread to the other parts of the world. Rice is Kenya’s
third staple food after maize and wheat. Rice Farming in Kenya is estimated at between 33,000 and
50,000 metric tonnes, while consumption is between 180,000 and 250,000 tonnes. About 95% of rice
in Kenya is grown under irrigation in paddy schemes managed by the National Irrigation Board (NIB).
The remaining five per cent is rain fed. (Upland rice)

The crop is grown mainly for its grain which may be prepared and consumed in various ways by man
and livestock. It is grown mainly in Mwea, Bunyala Ahero, Mbalambala and in Kano plains.

Plant description

-Rice is an annual plant which may grow to a height of 0.5-1.5m depending on the variety.

-The roots have specialized tissues, the aerenchyma enabling the crop to grow under low oxygen
concentrations. -The plant tillers freely and has leaves with triangular and membranous ligules.

-The leaves may have or not have auricles and are triangular in shape.

-the plant tillers (production of shoots)

-The inflorescence is an open panicle and self- pollinating crop. It takes average of 30days from
flowering to ripening.

-The shape of the fruit varies with cultivars, directly sown rice takes 3-4 months while transplanted rice
takes 2-3 weeks longer.

-The husked rice grain is white and translucent; some cultivars may be red, brown and blackish.

-98-99% of all rice varieties are self- pollinated

Ecological requirement

Altitude

Rice does well below 1200m a.s.l where mean annual temperature is 20-300c, those that mature in
cold period yield poorly.

Sunlight

Rice flowers when day length decreases. Towards the last 45 days in the field there should be sufficient
sunlight to enhance proper fertilization and grain filling.

Rainfall

Rice grows in water logged conditions and also in standing water to suppress weeds. It’s capable of
transporting oxygen from the leaves to the submerged roots.

Heavy rains at flowering stage discourage seed setting.

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Paddy rice requires 1500-2000mm of rainfall per season while for upland rice requires 750mm of rains
well distributed throughout the growing season. Heavy rains discourage seed setting causing annual
variation in mwea.

Soils

The best soils are heavy alluvial soils commonly found in river beds and river deltas as they can retain
water for a long time at a PH range of between 5.5-6.5.

Cultivars

We have

Sindano;-commonly grown in Kenya especially under irrigation.

Basmati 217 (pishori); yield per unit area is very low but quality is very high.

Others are; IRR1 from Philippines

IR1, IR22, IR8, IR227 they have advantages over others like;

High yielding

Produces high quality grains

Resistant to blast disease

They are short and therefore not susceptible to logging.

Land preparation

The land is cleared previous vegetation either manually or by hand. Trash is burned if any to reduce
incidence of blast disease and leaf rust. Also to discourage the formation of good soil structure so as to
encourage good water holding capacity.

The land is portioned into smaller plots by erecting banks (bunds or ridges). The plots are then flooded
with water up to a depth of 7.5-10cm. a few days later they are cultivated either by jembe, ox plough,
or rotary cultivator. Finally leveling is done by hand to ensure even distribution of water in the plots.
After which the nursery is made.

Planting

• Direct seeding

The seeds are broadcasted before onset of rains at a rate of 110kg/ha. Use of pre-germinated
seeds gives good results in well managed, leveled field and can survive some degree of flooding.
Early flooding is discouraged in un-germinated field it should be delayed to enable the seed get
oxygen needed for germination. Then after germination water level should be carefully
managed as the seedling are small and may be submerged in water and die. Also the field
should be well leveled and weeds controlled for better yields.

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• Use of transplants

Nursery operations;

Used for paddy rice. The seeds are soaked in warm water for 24hrs and kept moist. Seeds are
put together for further 24-48hrs until germination is observed by emergency of the radical. It is
then that seeds are broadcasted evenlyin a well prepared nursery and are covered with fine
soil.
Seeds take one month (3-4weeks) to be transplanted when they are 15cm high.
The seed rate is 44-45kg/Ha or 18kg/acre of seeds are planted in a nursery measuring 18.5m by
18.5m which is enough for 1Ha.
Water is drained from the nursery to leave a thin film of water immediately before sowing.
Nitrogen fertilizer (as Ammonium Sulphate) at the rate of 80-110kg/Ha is applied. Seeds are
broadcasted in the mud. The main aim of the nursery is to grow healthy seedlings as soon as
possible.

Advantages of planting in nursery compared to direct planting

Easy to manage seedlings in a nursery.

Easy to control water level in a nursery than in the field.

Transplanted seedlings take a shorter time to mature compared to those direct planted.

It is impossible to direct plant the seeds in the water soaked soil while maintaining the correct
spacing.

Transplanting

Before transplanting the water is drained from the field immediately before transplanting to leave wet
mud or thin film of water. The super phosphate fertilizer (56kg P 205/Ha) and 15KgN/Ha is distributed
evenly on the seedbed before transplanting, and then it is flooded with water afterwards. Another
15KgN is broadcasted 3-4 weeks later. Different rice varieties differ in the spacing depending on tillering
ability. Too wide spacing encourages prolonged periods of tillering which also causes prolonged ripening
which pose difficulties during harvesting.

Spacing

10cm by 10cm or 20cm by 20cm is adopted depending on the cultivar tillering capacity. Wider spacing
encourages prolonged period of tillering formation, pronged ripening period hence harvesting problem.

Water management/control

Qn. Explain water level management in rice production after transplanting to harvested. (7marks)

3-7 days after transplanting, the water level should be increased to 10cm until the rice starts
to tiller.

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When the rice starts tillering, the water level should be reduced to 3cm and maintained at that
level during the tillering stage.

When the rice starts flowering(booting stage),the water level is increased to 5-6cm and
maintained at that level until the grains starts forming

During grain formation (heading) the water level is further increased to 10cm and maintained
until grains mature well.

When the grains are fully mature, the water level is gradually reduced such that there will be no
water in the field 2weeks before harvesting.

As rice grows level of water is increased such that a third of the plant is submerged. Water should be
warm as cold water results to empty heads.

Freshness of water is maintained by either ensuring that the water flows very slowly but continuously
through the plots or by changing the standing water in the plots every 2-3 weeks.

Three weeks before harvesting the field should be drained to enhance drying usually when 50% of the
heads have started bending over because small lumps of clay can contaminate the final product.

Objectives of flooding rice fields

a. To control weeds by suppressing them

b. To prevent loss of Nitrogen released by decomposing organic matter through the process of
denitification.

c. Ammonia released during decomposition of microorganisms is conserved since it’s not

converted to nitrates.

d. To save the seedlings from the effects of high concentration of toxic substances generated by
decomposition. Some of them are leached.

e. Increase the humidity in the environment which is required during pollination and fertilization.

Fertilizer application

In the nursery 25kg of sulphate of ammonia is broadcasted because of its solubility.

In the seedbed double super phosphate is broadcasted after ploughing at the rate of 120kg/ha.

They are top dressed with sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 250kg/ha through split application. The
first split is usually applied two weeks after transplanting and the second split is applied 40 days later.

Weed control

It is not a major issue in rice production but where problematic they can be controlled chemicallyby use
of 2,4-D and MCPA. They can also be uprooted manually by hand. Types of weeds common in rice fields

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are grasses (paspalum), sedges (purple/yellow nut), and broad leaved weeds (Commelina benghalensis)
Harvesting

It takes 130-150 days to mature depending on cultivar and altitude. Harvesting is done by use of sickles
whereby the stems are cut and heaped into bundles and left to dry in the field to ease thr eshing.

Threshing is done manually by hitting the heads of rice on a flat surface. Seeds are then winnowed to
remove the chaff. The rice grains are then dried to a moisture content of 13% ideal for milling, bagged
and dispatched to various stores for milling.

Yields 1100-1700kg/ha of direct sown rice

Milling

It is done to remove lemma and palea which adheres closely to the grain. The embryo is removed which
contain more proteins minerals, fats and vitamins.

Parboiling

It involves soaking the paddy (harvested grains before they have been separated from their husks by
milling) in hot water and then steaming it before milling. The main purpose of parboiling is to avoid
removal of soluble B-vitamins and minerals during milling. Steaming in warm water causes these soluble
substances to move to the inner layers of the endosperm hence retained.

Importance;

To harden the grain and reduce milling loses through breakages.

Resulting rice is less sticky when cooking.

Retain nutrients as water soluble vitamins are transferred from the outer layer of the
endosperm to the inner part therefore retained during milling.

Resulting rice has a greater nutritive value.

Pests
a) Hispid beetles (Trichispa sericea)

Hispid beetles are serious pests of rice in some countries in Africa, causing severe defoliation
and as vectors of the Rice Yellow Mottle Virus. Adult beetles have numerous spines on thorax
and abdomen. Trichispa sericea is the most common of the hispid beetles. The adult is a dark
grey beetle covered with spines, and about 3 to 4 mm long. Females lay eggs singly in slits made
under the epidermis of the upper portion of the leaf. Eggs are white, boat-shaped and about
one mm long. Upon hatching, the grubs (larvae) mine within the leaf. Grubs are slender, yellow
and about six mm long. They pupate in the mine. When infested leaves are held against the
light, the grub or pupa may be seen as a dark spot in the mine. Hispid beetles attack the crop in

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the early growth stages. Larval feeding occurs during the tillering stage. The first attack in a
field is highly localised, but the infested area spreads rapidly.

Feeding by adults on the leaves causes characteristic narrow white streaks or feeding scars that
run along the long axis of the leaf. Mining by grubs within the leaf shows as irregular pale brown
blister-like patches. Feeding results in loss of chlorophyll and the plants wither and die. The
most serious damage occurs in nurseries, which may be completely destroyed. Severe
infestations sporadically occur on transplanted rice and can kill the plant. When the plants
survive, they usually recuperate and produce some grain. However, damaged plants often
mature late. Hispid beetles are prevalent in wetland environments, especially irrigated lowland
fields. They are generally most abundant during the rainy season. Control;

• Use close spacing. Populations of adult hispid (T. sericea) are affected by the spacing of
transplanted seedlings. Studies in West Africa have shown that population of this hispid beetle
were higher in close spacing of 10 x 10 cm than in wider spacing of 20 x 20cm (WARDA).
• Keep bunds and surroundings free of grass weeds.
• Destroy stubbles and avoid ratooning.
• Ensure balanced nutrition. Avoid excessive nitrogen application.
• Spraying with insecticides

b) Stem borers: Spotted stem borer (Chilo partellus)

Several species of stem borers attack rice. The more important are the striped borer ( Chilo
partellus), Chilo zacconius, Chilo orichalcocilielus, the white rice borer (Maliarpha separatella),
the yellow borer (Scirpophaga sp.) and the pink stem borer ( Sesamia calamistis).
The caterpillars bore into the stem of rice plants. Caterpillars of the yellow borer bore into the
stem below the growing point, destroying tillers. The white borer and the pink stem borer
attack rice at full tillering stage preventing grains from filling up and ripening. This damage
results in empty panicles known as "whiteheads". The striped borer feeding on rice plants at
all stages.
Young caterpillars cause "dead hearts".
Control:

• Practice field sanitation. Burn or feed debris to livestock after harvest.

• Plough and flood after harvest. These practices destroy diapausing stem borer caterpillars
• Practice early and synchronized planting. Synchronized planting over a large area allows the
most susceptible stage of rice to escape from stem borer damage.
• Practice proper water management
• Conserve natural enemies. Wasps that parasitize eggs and caterpillars, and predators such as
ants, dragonflies, assassin bugs, carabid beetles and spiders are important natural enemies of
stem borers.

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• The following cultivars are reported to be resistant to stem borers: Oryza sativa japonica
subspecies: "LAC 23", "ITA 121", "TOS 4153", and upland "NERICA"s ("NERICA 1", "NERICA
2",
"NERICA 4", "NERICA 5", and "NERICA 7") (WARDA).
• Timely spraying.

c) Sudan dioch (Quelea spp)

They feed on ripening seeds

Control:

• Scaring/physical control or use of scare crows

• Destroying their breeding sites by using explosives

Diseases
a) Rice Blast caused by the fungus (Pyricularia oryzae)

Symptoms: This disease can cause serious losses to susceptible varieties during periods of blast
favourable weather. Depending on the part of the plant affected, the disease is often called leaf
blast, rotten neck, or panicle blast. The fungus produces spots or lesions on leaves, nodes,
panicles, and collar of the flag leaves. Leaf lesions range from somewhat diamond -shaped to
elongated with tapered, pointed ends. The center of the spot is usually grey and the margin
brown or reddish-brown. Both the shape and colour of the spots may vary and resemble those
of the brown leaf spot disease. Blast differs from brown leaf spot in that it causes longer lesions
and develops more rapidly.

The blast fungus frequently attacks the node at the base of the panicle and the branches of the
panicle. If the panicle is attacked early in its development, the grain on the lower portion of
the panicle may be blank giving the head a bleached whitish colour, giving the name "blasted"
head or rice "blast". If the node at the base of the panicle is infected, the pani cle breaks
causing the "rotten neck" condition. In addition, the fungus may also attack the nodes or joints
of the stem. When a node is infected, the sheath tissue rots and the part of the stem above
the point of infection often is killed. In some cases, the node is weakened to the extent that
the stem will break causing extensive lodging. Blast generally occurs scattered throughout a
field rather than in a localized area of the field. Late planting, frequent showers, overcast skies,
and warm weather favour development of blast. Spores of the fungus are produced in great
abundance on blast lesions and can become airborne, disseminating the fungus a considerable
distance. High nitrogen fertilization should be avoided in areas that have a history of blast.
Control:

• Plant early.

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• Avoid excessive or high levels of nitrogen.

• Proper flood management.

• Plant resistant varieties (e.g. "Nerica". This is the most effective method
of controlling rice blast.

• Fungicide application.

b) Rice Yellow Mottle Virus (RYMV)

Rice yellow mottle virus is endemic in Africa, was first reported in Kenya in 1966, but is now
known to occur in almost all irrigated rice growing areas in Africa. This disease can cause up to
92% yield loss on "super", the most popular rice variety in Tanzania.

RYMV causes severe infections mainly in irrigated rice and is transmitted by beetles (Sesselia
pusilla, Chaetocnema pulla, Trichispa sericea and Dicladispa viridicyanea) and mechanically. It is
not seed transmitted.

Major symptoms of the disease are yellowing of leaves, stunting of affected plants,
reduced tillering of the affected plants and sterility of the seed/grain. Control:

• Plant resistant varieties. The following cultivars are reported as resistant to RYMV:
Oryza sativa japonica sub-species: 'LAC 23', 'Moroberekan', 'IR 47686-1-1' for direct
seeded rainfed lowlands, and Oryza sativa indica sub-species: "WITA 9", "WITA 11"
and "Gigante" (tete) for irrigated lowlands (WARDA).

• Avoid / minimise mechanical injuries.

• Avoid exposing healthy seedlings and plants to virus contaminated and infected
material (water, soil, cattle faeces and plants).

• Control insect vectors (see above under pests Hispid beetle and Flea beetle)

• Transplant early before the outbreak of Hispid beetles occur. Trichispa sericea, with
reduction in spacing of plants.

• Destroy crop residues after harvest and ratoons that harbour the virus and insect
vectors.

• Synchronous planting. Wide range and non-synchronous planting dates increases the
risks of RYMV outbreaks.

• Plant diverse varieties on a single plot

• Change of site for nurseries.

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• Rough infected plants.

• Reduce fertilizer application on attacked plots.

• Weed timely. Early and double weeding helps reduce the weed reservoir of the virus
and insect vectors.

• Withhold irrigation water between plantings to provide a rice free period and so restrict
the build-up of the virus and insect population.

c) Damping-off diseases

Failure of seedlings to emerge is the most obvious symptom of seed rot and pre -emergence
damping off. Examination may reveal a cottony growth of mycelium (mould) in and around seed
coats and the emerging seedlings, indicating attack by water mould(s). The growing point or
root of germinated seedlings has a dark brown discolouration or rot. The base of the leaf sheath
and the roots of emerged seedlings have a similar dark brown or reddish-brown rot. Affected
seedlings appear stunted and yellow and may soon wither and die (seedling blight). Water
moulds are particularly severe in water-seeded rice culture. In areas where fields are frequently
water-seeded, it has become difficult to obtain adequately dense and uniform stands. Seed rots
caused by the water moulds Pythium and Achlya, and to a lesser extent by the fungus Fusarium,
have been identified as the causes of the problem. These fungi often act as a complex within
affected fields.

Symptoms of water mould can be observed through the flood water as balls of fungal strands
radiating from seeds on the soil surface. When the flood is removed using the critical point
method of water-seeding, affected seeds are surrounded by a mass of fungal strands. This
results in circular, copper brown or dark green spots on the soil surface, about the size of a
quarter, with the rotted seed at the centre. The colours of the spots are the result of bacterial
and algal growth. Seed rot by water moulds is favoured when the water temperature is
unusually high or low. If seedlings are attacked after germination at pegging, seedlings become
yellow and stunted and grow poorly. Control:

Use certified disease-free seeds for planting

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Sorghum (Sorgum bicolar)

Sorghum originated from Ethiopia and was introduced to east Africa before 100 A.D. Sorghum is the
fifth most important cereal crop and is the dietary staple of more than 500 million people in 30
countries. It is grown on 40 million ha in 105 countries of Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Americas. The
USA, India, México, Nigeria, Sudan and Ethiopia are the major producers. Other sorghum producing
countries include Australia, Brazil, Argentina, China, Burkina Faso, Mali, Egypt, Niger, Tanzania, Chad and
Cameroon. Grain is mostly used as food (55%), in the form of flat breads and porridges (thick or thin) in
Asia and Africa, and as feed (33%) in the Americas. Its Stover is an increasingly important source of dry
season fodder for livestock, especially in Asia.

Sorghum farming in Kenya is an important agricultural activity in the economy. Sorghum is grown in
western, northern Rift Valley, eastern and some parts of Central Province.

Advantages of sorghum over other cereals;

Is drought resistant and yields well in the drier parts of E. Africa.

Tolerates water logging/poorly drained soils

Yields reasonably well in poor infertile soils

Adapted well in wide AEZs

Can be ratooned from season to season (without planting seeds each season).

Recommended for the sick e.g. Diabetic persons, aged persons etc.

Tolerant to soil salinity and alkaline soils

Has a more efficient type of photosynthesis(C-4)hence suitable to tropical environment.

Disadvantages

Sorghum varieties have lower yielding potential than maize in areas of good/moderate rainfall

Is heavily attacked by birds than maize

Harvesting, threshing and cleaning exercise is laborious

Not preferred by consumers compared to maize.

The crop is fairly drought resistant and thus it is quite popular in drier areas of the Kenya.

Uses

• Grown for its grain which can be consumed in diverse ways by man and livestock.

• Stems and leaves may be utilized as forage and silage feed for livestock.

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• The stalks are used for thatching huts (roofing).

• Stovers can be used as source of fuel(firewood)

• The grains are fermented and used to make local brew.

Plant description

Sorghum is a vigorous grass which grows to a height of 0.5-6m with a very efficient, well branched
root system thus a drought resistant crop. The roots are found within the top 1m of soil.

It may or may not produce tillers depending on the cultivar.

The endodermis contains considerable amounts of silica which may prevent its roots from collapsing in
dry soil.

The inflorescence is a panicle borne at the terminal end of which may be open or compact; they may
be erect or goose necked. The glumes may be large or small with or without awns. The seed coat may
be easily removed by pounding or persistent; it may be white or almost any shade of brown or red and
the endosperm may be flinty or mealy.

Sorghum is self-pollinated and a ratoon crop.

Ecological requirements

Rainfall and water requirements;

It is drought resistant crop because of its dense and well developed rooting system. Also it can reduce
its transpiration during period of water shortages by rolling its leaves, stomata closure in this way it will
remain dormant. It also has waxy leaf covering.

Sorghum needs a rainfall of at least 300-380mm during its growing period. It withstands short periods of
water logging.

Altitude and temperature

Sorghum prefers warm conditions of 300C, and grows at an altitude of below 1500m a.s.l above this they
are affected by disease as downy mildew , attacked by pests such shoot fly and poor yields.

Soil requirements

It grows best in well drained fertile soils.

Varieties

We have; Brown or red varieties have persistent testa, are bitter and best for brewing.

White varieties have a non-persistent testa and are more palatable.

These varieties perform well at altitudes between 0 and 2300 m above sea level.

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AVAREGE PERIOD TO
VARIETY YIELD/Acre. MATURITY SPEACIAL ATTRIBUTES
(90kg) (MONTHS)

It is a brown seeded variety

It has a long stem and good root system
Fairly tolerant to striga, rust, leaf blight and
grey leaf spot.
SERENA 3-4
12 Performs well in the moist mid altitude region
and the semi-arid lowland.
is as a result of crossing Dobbs and a variety
from Swaziland

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Field establishment Early seedbed preparation usually results to high yields. It requires a seedbed of
fine tilth since the seeds are fairly small. During this period weeds especially grass weeds should be
eradicated Planting

The seeds should be dressed with copper.

The crop may be broadcasted or sown in rows. When sown at a spacing of 65cm by 15cm at the
highlands and 90 by 15 cm in dry lands. The seed rate of 7-10kg/ha and at a depth of 2.5-5.0cm, three
seeds are always planted per hole.

Field maintenance/management

Fertilizer application

It is recommended to apply 20-40kg/ha P2O5 at planting, 20kgN/ha as a top dress 3 weeks after planting.

The Small scale holders rarely hold this recommendation. Manure at the rate of 10T/Ha before sowing.
C.A.N should be applied as top dress 3 weeks after sowing to boost vegetative growth.

Weeding

Important at the early growth stages of sorghum

Where the crop is broadcast they are normally uprooted while in rows they are controlled by use of
hoes, jembes and pangas.

Use of herbicides for broad-leaved and grass weeds like striga is practiced.

Thinning

This is done when the crop is 25cm tall and two vigorously growing seedlings are left in each hole.

Harvesting

They mature in between 2.5-8 months depending on varieties and altitudes.

They are harvested by breaking off the heads by hands, then sundried.

The grains are detached from the heads during threshing, winnowed and finally dried to moisture
content of 10-11% before storage.

Yields range from 550-1700kg/ha. Under good husbandry, yields up to 3400-4500kg/ha. Sorghum can be
ratooned for one or two seasons.

Ratooning

A ratoon is a crop that emerges or develops after a previous crop has been harvested. The stem and
root primordia of the rootstock will develop when ecological conditions are favourable to give rise to a
ratoon crop.

Advantages

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• Economical. No need for replanting each season hence reduced cost of production.
• Agronomically,the crop is already established and will make use of most of the available
moisture and shoot tillers easily
• The crop can better withstand drought and other adverse conditions
• A ratoon crop yields better than local varieties because of better nutrient usage.

Disadvantages

-Spread of pests and diseases from season to season.

-Hybrids such as serena and seredo do not tiller well compared to the local varieties. Hence low yields.

Marketing

The crop is marketed through the National Cereals and Produce Board. Private buyers also purchase
sorghum directly from farmers.

Pests
1. Birds –Sudan dioch (Quelea quela aethopica). They are the major causes of crop loss in
sorghums they feed on ripening grains.

Control;

• Growing of resistance varieties like those that are bitter tasting seed coat, goose
necked, brown grained varieties, varieties with large glumes etc.

• The Ministry of Agriculture has a quelea control unit, which kills large numbers of birds
using flame throwers, explosives or poison sprays in their breeding colonies.

• Use of scare crows or physical methods e.g sound to scare them away

2. Sorghum shoot fly (Antherigona varia)-

The adult fly lays eggs on the underside of very young plants. After hatching, the young larvae
enter the funnel and moves down to feed on the young stem, killing the young shoot i.e attacks
the plant during the early stages of growth damage.
The central shoots become yellow and then die. Plant responds by producing several tillers.
Control

• Use of resistant varieties

• Early planting

• Chemically by use of six endosulfan sprays at intervals of three days.

• Having a closed season.

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3. Stem borers- Busseola fusca

Feeds on funnel and developing tissues

Control

• By use of insecticides

• Refer to pests of maize

4. Sorghum midge contarina sorghicola

Cause grain hollowing

Diseases
Several fungal diseases affect this crop they include; leaf blight (Helminthosporium spp),
anthracnose (Colletotrichum graminilola), smuts (Sphacelotheca spp)
They affect the leaves while the smut affects the inflorescence.

They are controlled by planting resistant varieties and seed dressing.

FINGER MILLET (Eleusine coracana)

This is the third most important food crop after maize and sorghum especially in western Kenya. The
crop originated in Africa but was first cultivated in [Link] can grow in diverse environments ranging
from 300m ASL and in less fertile soils and black cotton soils where other crops would do poorly. Most
of the finger millet is produced in western and Nyanza Kenya around Busia,Bungoma,Kakamega and Rift
valley.

Advantages over other cereals

Can be stored for longer periods without use of insecticides than other cereals

Less pest problems attributed to the small size of the seeds. difficult for the pest to live in them

The seeds take shorter periods to dry to the required moisture levels Lower sugar levels hence

nutrionally recommended for diabetic persons.

Used as a food security crop in shortages of maize.

Superior to maize, sorghum and rice due to high levels of Iron and calcium. Hence highly
recommended for special groups of the population. E.g. Infants, elderly etc.

Plant characteristics

-Plant rarely grows taller than 1.2m in height

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-Tillers freely and has narrow grass like leaves.

-Have 6 spikes about 10cm long which are digitally arranged giving the crop name finger millet -

Self pollinated

-Tolerates drought in early stages of growth

-yields well on infertile soils

Varieties

Katumani Fm-1 for the highlands

Lanet Fm-1

Gulu

Poso millet-for medium potential areas e.g. Embu, Meru and [Link]

P224 (fox tail millet)-for coast region

Two varieties (Gulu and P224) are highly recommended for the following reasons;

Early maturing i.e. 3 months

Less susceptible to finger millet blast disease

Easy to harvest since they are not too tall

Uniform maturity of the heads

High yielding

Easy to thresh using less energy.

Field establishment and management

A fine seed bed is required due to the small size of the seed for better germination% and establishment.
Proper land preparation is necessary to produce a clean seedbed free of perennial weeds. The seeds are
usually broadcasted at the beginning of the rains. However, some farmers drill the seeds uniformly in
shallow furrows at 30cm apart.

Thinning is done 4weeks after emergence to leave one seedling every 15cm interval along the furrow.

First weeding should be done 2 weeks after germination and repeated 2 weeks later.

A 100kg bag of the Compound fertilizer 20:20:0 is applied during planting. Also 10T of manure should be
incorporated before sowing. The crop is not usually top dressed.

Harvesting

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The crop should be harvested as soon as the seeds are hard to avoid loss of grain through birds feeding.
A sickle is used to cut the heads and is later dried to 13% moisture level before e threshing and
winnowing.

Challenges of production among the farmers

• Lack of certified/improved seeds. Less research on the crop improvement

• Lack of market and low prices per kg

• Most farmers do not apply fertilizers and manure hence low yields

• Poor weeding practices

• Poor planting methods and land preparation.

ROOTS AND TUBERS CROPS

CASSAVA ( Manihot esculenta )
Order; Euphorbiales: Family; Euphorbiaceae
Cassava is native of Latin America and was introduced to the African continent by Portuguese traders in
the late 16th century.
It is important food security root crop because:

• it is drought resistant,

• It requires few production skills or inputs.

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• has ability to give good yields on poor soils,

• resistance to pests (especially locust)

• Has ability to remain in soil as famine resistant

• Requires little labor

• Source of carbohydrate

• Used in making livestock feeds

• There are no labour peaks because the necessary operations in its production can
be spread throughout the year, and

• Its yields fluctuate less than those of cereals.

Limitations

• Its gynogenic glycoside content can lead to hydrocyanic poisoning unless precautions
are taken during preparation of tubers like proper peeling/soaking in
water/fermenting/drying/cooking.

• Poor nutritive value as it contains mainly starch and fiber

• Low yield potential at altitudes above 1500m ASL

Plant characteristics
-They are swollen lateral roots which are cylindrical and un-branched numbering 5-10 per plant
and measuring up to 15cm in diameter and up to 0.9m in length.
-The stems are woody and much branched growing to a height of 4.5m.
-Flowers and seeds are produced but not used for field planting (propagated vegetatively).
Ecological requirements

Rainfall and water requirement

Drought resistant crop growing where rainfall is low and unreliable. In dry periods many leaves
are shed thus reducing transpiration and water requirement.
Does not do well in areas with bimodal rainfall because rains are too short to allow satisfactory
tuber expansion eg. Eastern and coastal areas.

Altitude and temperature

Needs warm areas at an altitude below 1500m but is occasionally found at higher altitude like
central province and kisii highlands where they are grown on the edge of terraces or on wash
stops in gullies or water cause to prevent them from eroding

Soil requirements
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Best growth and yield are obtained on fertile sandy loams. Cassava is able to produce reasonable yields
on severelydepleted or even eroded soils where other crops fail. Gravelly or stony soils cause problems
with root penetration and are unsuitable, as is heavy clay or other poorly drained soils.
Cassava growth and yield are reduced drastically on saline soils and on alkaline soils with a pH above
8.0. The optimum pH is between 5.5 and 7.5, but cultivars are available that tolerate a pH as low as 4.6
or as high as 8.0. Reasonably salt-tolerant cultivars have also been selected. Very fertile soils encourage
excessive foliage growth at the expense of storage roots.

Varieties

A number of both local and improved varieties exist in Kenya:

Vircra is resistant to viral diseases, high yielding (30-40t/ha/yr.),

1. Coast region

a.) Local types I Kibanda meno - very sweet

II Katsunga - leaves taste like wild lettuce when cooked
b) Improved types I Kaleso (46106/27) - high yielding, for human consumption
II Guso - Better yielder than Kaleso. Also for human consumption
III 5543/156 - It is a high yielding variety for livestock. It is bitter.
2. Eastern Region Katumani I KME - Sweet, less fibrous and has low cyanide content II KME 61
- Bitter and more fibrous than KME
3. Western Kenya I 2200, Tereka, Serere, Adhiambo lera, CKI, TMS 60142, BAO

Land preparation and planting

Usually grown in a rotation normally on the flat seedbed but establishment on ridges is highly
recommended.

It is vegetatively propagated by use of stem cuttings/setts. The cuttings should be selected from disease
free plants to avoid transmission of diseases.

Ideal stem cuttings should be 30-45cm long and 2.5-4.0 cm thick

The cuttings should also contain at least two buds and a single leaf to speed up the germination rate
They are planted at an angle of 450 or less at least half buried in the soil and the buds facing upwards.
The cutting should be from hard wood stem of mature plants

Spacing in pure stand is 1.5m -0.9m

Cuttings usually sprout from 7-14 days from planting

Field maintenance

Weeding

Weeding is necessary every 3-4 weeks until 2-3 months after planting. Afterwards the canopy may cover
the soil and weeding is less necessary.

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Fertilizers

Potash is essential for good yields 10:10:20 NPK mixture on acid sandy soils sulphate of potash are also
used

Harvesting

Take 9-18 months to mature according to variety they can be harvested either piecemeal or by
uprooting the whole plants depending on local customs, purpose or age of the plant. It is sometimes
harvested earlier if needed for food. Storage roots become too woody if harvesting is delayed. Early
maturing varieties are ready for harvesting at 7 months while late maturing varieties are ready 12
months after planting.

Storage
Cassava does not store well when fresh and therefore has to be peeled, chopped and dried in the sun. It
can then be stored in the form of chips or flour under dry conditions.

Yields

10-25 tonnes/ha in less fertile soils and 30-50kg tons/ha for best cultivars/variety

Cassava Diseases
i. Cassava Mosaic

Caused by a virus which is transmitted through infected planting materials and sometimes by
white fly vectors (Bemisia spp)
The disease is mostly spread by use of infected planting materials.
Symptoms
-Mild twisting of leaves
-Severe stunting accompanied by
-distortion and yellow molting of the foliage and above ground parts
Control

• Use of mosaic disease free cuttings

• Use of resistant varieties

• Controlling the insect vectors

• Crop rotation

• Proper crop husbandry e.g. irrigation and fertilization to boost plant growth.

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ii. Cassava Brown Streak

Also a Viral disease particularly serious in coastal areas of Kenya, Zanzibar, Mozambique and
Tanzania and lakeshore region of Malawi and in Uganda and is a threat to the whole of
subSaharan Africa.

The virus is vectored by whiteflies (Bemisia spp.) and also transmitted through infected
cuttings.
Symptoms
-Brown streaks occur on green stems. The marks remaining and appearing as sunken areas on
mature stems
-Brown horse shoe –shaped marks can be seen by cutting away the leaf scars and
Black necrotic lesions are found on the roots. The leaves may appear healthy even
when the roots have rotted away. Control;

• Use diseased-free cuttings.

• Use tolerant/resistant varieties (e.g. 5543/156, TMS 30572) Remove diseased plants
from the field.
• Controlling the insect vectors

• Crop rotation

• Proper crop husbandry e.g. irrigation and fertilization to boost plant growth.

Utilization

• Cooked as food

• Firewood

• Brewing

• Manufacture of starch

• Leaves used as vegetables which contain a high level of Vitamin A and up to 17

% protein,

• Animal feed

SWEET POTATOES (Ipomea batatus)

Most important root crop in East Africa.
Used as food while the vines are used as animal feeds

Plant characteristics

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Is a perennial vine but often treated as an annual crop in Africa

Each plant produces many trailing stems that seldom rise to more than 45cm above the
ground

When nodes touch the ground they produce tubers

Leaf shape, tuber shape, tuber color and tuber/vine ratio differ widely depending on the
variety.

Ecology

a) Rainfall/water requirement

They are drought resistant crops –the vines remain green and healthy during severe
drought although tuber growth is negligible
They grow well in areas with annual rainfall of 750mm or more.

b) Temperature /altitude

Does well in warm and cool areas at an altitude of 2100m arid and semi-arid land and
above

c) Soils

Grows in wide variety of soils

Responds well to farm yard manure and fertile soils
The soils should be well drained to avoid water logging and rotting of the tubers.
The soil PH should also be neutral

Varieties
White tubered
Red tubered
Useful varieties have been evaluated by Agric dept. include; lagos white,
SPK 013, mafuta, Exdiani, KSP20, Kemb20, large leaves, 0116

Land preparation and planting

Methods of land preparation differ widely in east Africa e.g. in UG they are grown in moun ds which are
0.9m apart and 3-4 cutting are planted. In central province Kenya they grow on flat ground. However
establishment on ridges is recommended for the following reasons

Easy to harvest where they can uprooted by hand or simple tools

Higher yields are realized since most/many buds are covered

Less incidences of greening of the tubers since they are less exposed to the sun
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Less incidences of the tuber moth

More water and soil conservation which is available for plant use

Better root establishment, spread and expansion hence bigger tubers

Apical pieces of vines taken from mature points are used as cuttings and are planted at any angle with
½3/4 of their length buried. The cuttings vary from 23-90cm in length. Ridges are 0.9-1.5m apart with
vines 0.3-0.6m apart. When pieces are short in supply maybe taken from middle or a basal part wilted
for a few days to initiate rooting

Fertilizer and manure application

Farm yard manure is the only manure found to give a good response

Weeding

Not a great problem because sweet potatoes are hardy. Hand weeding can be done during the first two
months

Harvesting

The 1st tuber can be harvested 4-5 months after planting and is done piecemeal (progressive) harvesting
because of storage problems. Can be sliced and dried so that it can be stored for a considerable period.
Sharpened sticks are always used

Yields vary from 2.5t/ha to 50 t/ha with average 35t/ha

Pests

i) Sweet potatoes weevils ( Cylas spp )

Larvae tunnels vines and tubers causing bitterness and discoloration in tubers dwarfing and yellowing of
vines

Control

• Crop rotation Chemical control ii) Sweet potatoes virus

It is the stunting disease transmitted by whiteflies. It causes stunting, excessive branching and
yellowing of the vines and cork symptoms may develop in the tubers

Control

• Use of resistant varieties

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IRISH POTATOES ( Solanum tuberosum )

It belongs to the solanaceae family and Originated from highlands of South America (Peru) and was
introduced by British farmers in 1950s.

It is important root crop in Kenya and grown at high potential areas, also it is world largest food crop
after maize, rice, wheat and more suitable substance crop than maize because it takes less than a year
to mature. It acts as a staple food crop as well as cash crop for many rural and semi urban dwellers
playing an important role in improving national food security and income generation for those involved
in its value chain development.

Plant characteristics

A potato tuber is a swollen underground stem.

On its surface are a number of eyes of which is a bud axil of a scale leaf. After undergoing a period of
dormancy for 3-4 months some of these buds sprouts and produces stems.

One eye can produce more than one stem owing to branching at the base of the ori ginal stem. The
nodes of the stem produce roots and later shoot stolons whose ends well into tubers. It produces
flowers whose petals are white, pink, blue or purple according to variety; as a general rule coloured
flowers give rise to coloured tubers while White flowered ones give white skinned tubers.

Ecology

• Rainfall and water requirements

Crop requires 500 -100mm well distributed rainfall/year. Steady rainfall of about 25cm a week is
needed to maintain optimum growth. The rains should continue for three and half months for good
yields.

• Altitude and temperature

Does well in cooler conditions above 1800m .The optimum day temperature of 20- 25oC are ideal. At
this altitude potatoes grow faster than maize and produce more energy and protein per ha per day.
Such areas include those surrounding Mt. Kenya namely; Meru, Embu and Kirinyanga; parts of Laikipia
and both sides of the Aberdare range which include parts of Nyeri, Muranga, Kiambaa and Nyandarua
Districts. Other areas include Mau Narok, Molo, Tinderet, Nandi Escarpment and Cherangani hills.
Kericho, Kisii and around Taita hills have also been reported to grow potatoes too but in small acreages.

• Soil requirement

Soils must be well drained and fertile with high organic matter content. Heavy soil restricts tuber
expansion and makes harvesting difficult. Soil PH of between 4.8 and 6 are ideal, higher soil PH causes
incidence and severity of potato scab diseases.

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Varieties

Duta Robijri- Ngorobu

Rosin Eburu

Kerr pink

Kenya akiba

Tigoni

At samba

Field operations

Planting/Propagation

Small tubers (seed/setts) are used for propagation. Before planting, they should be pre -
sprouted/[Link] involves spreading them in a thin layer not more than 2-3 tubers deep in
presence of diffuse light and very well ventilated environment. Complete darkness should be avoided as
it causes development of long, white, thin sprouts that are etiolated and easily broken during planting.

Reasons for chitting include;

Encourages the development of short, green, strong and healthy seedlings

Stem growth starts immediately the seed is planted making use of the available rainfall

Causes even and rapid emergence covering the soil and conserving moisture

Gives rise to multi sprouts, hence many stems. This translates to higher yields.

Pre sprouted tubers can be stored for 2-3 months before planting

The tubers are planted in ridges 0.75m apart and 10cm deep and 23- 30cm apart in rows

Planting should be done at the beginning of the rains.

Botanical seed can also be used but takes longer to develop than tuber [Link] addition, there is a lot
of segregation due to crossing hence the resulting potatoes are not uniform and true to type and are
therefore not desirable for commercial purposes.

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Tissue culture technique achieves rapid multiplication of planting materials that are disease free.

Fertilizer and manure application

Nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers increases yields 22-45 kg/ha of P2O5

FYM gives good respond

Weeding

Done within the first six weeks afterwards, it is not necessarily if there is a good stand and ground cover.

Ridging done soon after emergency because it prevents;

-Spores of late blight from reaching the tubers

-Control weeds

- Prevents greening of developing tubers

Harvesting

Done by hand and should be protected from direct light to avoid greening

The tops are cut or pulled off two weeks before harvesting to harden the skin of the tubers thus less
bruises during transport potatoes cannot be stored for long periods in East Africa because of high
temperature which encourages sprouting

They can be stored in soil conveniently in the dry season although there is a risk of nematode damage.
They can be also left for more than 4-6 weeks or under specialized care in cold warehouse

Yields vary from 5.0-7.5t/ha to as much as 40t/ha in commercial farms

Pests

Potato aphid

Aulacorthum solani transmit virus disease

Diseases

Late Blight
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Late blight is caused by fungus Phytophthora infestans. Severe in east Africa and most important factor
limiting yields because;

a. There is absence of prolonged dry periods to check the disease growth or winters

b. Same climatic requirements for the fungus and the crop i.e favored by cool cloudy, wet
conditions

Predisposing factors/environmental conditions influencing manifestation of potato

late blight.

i) Moisture
Moisture on the surface of the leaves creates an environment suitable for spore
germination. Well watered plants especially using sprinkler irrigation are vulnerable
to the fungus. ii) Temperature

A low temperature favours Phytopthora infestans growth. Low temperatures also

weaken the resistance of the potato plant.
iii) Relative humidity
The fungus requires a high relative humidity for spore germination and penetration
of the germ tube.

Symptoms

There are irregular brown necrotic patches on the leaves. These spreads rapidly if weather is wet and
humid and finally all vegetative part are destroyed spread by infected seeds infected debris in the soils
spores

Control

• Plant resistant varieties e.g. Kenya Akiba

• Use of fungicides

• Crop rotation

Bacterial wilt

Bacterial wilt is destructive at lower altitudes. Once the soil is contaminated it remains so indefinitely
and is caused by bacteria Pseudomonas/Rastonia solanacearum.

Symptoms

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Characterized by rapid wilting of vegetative parts and death without yellowing and spoiling of leaves.

A white bacterial mass oozes from the vascular tissue when the base of the stem or a tuber is cut. It
is spread by seed tubers and furrow water

Control

• Use of clean certified seeds

• Soil fumigation-

• remove wilted plant to reduce spread of diseases

• Crop rotation

• Resistant varieties

Utilization

Boiling

Frying

Roasting

Constrains facing potato industry

• Production is bi-modal, that is, it is only produced twice a year following the rainfall pattern of
Kenya. Around July to August period, potatoes are usually in high volumes and fetch low prices
while in December, April and May they are usually in low supply fetching higher prices for
farmers involved.
• Due to continuous production of potatoes in the same piece of land, soil degradation has been
inevitable.
• Fertilizer application has been done below the recommended rates with the most common one
being Di-Ammonium Phosphate. It should be noted that fertilizer leads to increased soil acidity.
• Poor use of certified seeds. About 1% of the planted area only has recorded use of certified
seeds. The other plantations are done using seeds raised locally through retention from
previous harvest which farmers obtain from their stores or buy from local markets, friends and
relatives. Yield reduces with each successive generation.
• Diseases such as brown rot and late blight,
• Lack of crop rotation where farmers cultivate potatoes in the same piece of land over and over
again,
• Poor storage facilities and
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• Lack of enough capital for capital intensive production which can see their overall production
increase as result of employing motorized machinery.

LEGUMES (PULSES)
Economic importance of legume crops

Source of proteins to animals and human-Beans are referred to “poor man’s meat”

Help fix Nitrogen into the soil e. g beans hence less need to apply inorganic fertilizers

Acts as a cover crop to prevent soil erosion

Suppress weeds by providing ground cover-Most of them are broad leaved and low
growing

Leguminous trees produces wood fuel

Provision of organic matter to the soil which helps improve soil structure.

Crop labour requirements are low, therefore lower production cost

Fast maturing, require less water and frees land for establishing other crops

Not seriously affected by many pests and diseases hence less frequency of spraying.

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1. BEANS (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Introduction:

Beans are the most important legume in Kenya except the coast. Commonly referred to as ‘’poor man’s
meat’’ since they are inexpensive sources of proteins compared to meat, milk, eggs and fish.

Beans are usually intersown with maize.

Are sold in Kenya for canning or exported to Europe. When cooked in tomato sauce, they are known as
baked beans. It’s difficult to establish acreage since they are mostly intercropped

Plant characteristics

• Annual crop

• Nodules form and fix N

• Most EA varieties are determinate with bush type growth habits but also indeterminate and
climbing types exist.

• Flowers vary in colour depending on variety but white, pink, yellow, red and purple colours
occur.

• Seeds are borne in a pod and vary in size, shape and colour

• Mostly 100% self-pollination

• Broad leaved and well developed feeder roots

Ecology

Requires moist soil throughout the growing period. Rainfall towards end of the growing period is
undesirable as it causes high incidence of pests and diseases and also can dis colour seeds making
such seeds of low market value. Altitude and temperature

Beans do not do well at high temperature and low altitudes because it causes poor pollination hence
poor fruit set. They are best suited to medium altitude areas between 900-2100m ASL.

Soils

Requires well drained fertile soils

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Varieties

1. Pure line varieties include Canadian wonder (GLP- 24)

2. Mixed varieties e.g. Rose coco (GLP-2)

3. GLP-1004 (mwezi mmoja)

4. GLP-585 (Red haricot/wairimu)

5. GLP-92 (Pinto bean/mwitemania)

Field operations

Beans do not need fine seedbed because the large seed sizes hence a medium tilth seedbed is suitable.
Beans are mostly intersown with other crops especially maize. Planting method is by dibbling (random
planting), however row planting is recommended. Spacing in semi-arid areas is 45x10cm when grown as
a mono crop or 40x20cm. 2 seeds are planted per hill. In high potential areas, a closer spacing of
30cmx10 or 30cmx15cm is recommended.

Seed inoculation with the right strain of rhizobium before sowing is recommended to improve the
nitrogen fixation.

Fertilizer application

Nodules are sometimes small or absent. Therefore the amount of N fixed by BNF is insignificant. Beans
show response to N and P and therefore 46KgP2O5/Ha and 18KgN/Ha are recommended. If the beans
are grown as pure stand, 150-200kg DAP should be applied. Organic manure should also be applied to
improve the physical conditions of the soil.

Weed control

Small scale farmers use hand weeding. Chemical control is discouraged as beans are susceptible to most
herbicides.

Harvesting

Small holder farmers uproot whole plants. They are then taken to homesteads and dried on bare
earth or mats. Drying time depends on weather and extends of drying before harvesting. The
recommended safe moisture content for safe storage is 14%. Once dried, they are beaten with sticks
to separate the seeds from the pods. Cleaning is done by winnowing to separate the seeds from chaff.

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Pests

Bean flies (Melanogromyza spp)

This is the most important damaging pest of beans causing a yield loss of 60%.The adult flylays eggs
on the bean leaves or hypocotyl and after hatching the larvae (maggots) starts feeding on the
cotyledons for 10days and bores downwards and pupates in the stems at the ground level. The bases
of the attacked plants become swollen and crack. Such plants are ineffective in absorption of water
and nutrients and most die. Survivors become stunted and yellowish with poor yields.

Control

• Seed dressing with insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, endosulphan

• Furrow application with carbofuran during planting

• Early planting allows disease escape

• Use more tolerant varieties e.g. mwezi mmoja. They tend to produce adventitious roots.

• Removal of volunteers and crop residues in the field

• Hilling/Mounding-This encourages formation of adventitious roots

• Avoid overwatering during irrigation Mulch the plants.

African boll worm (Heliothis armigera)

Young larvae make circular holes in the sides of the pods and eat the contents .

Bean aphids (Aphis fabae)

These are black, sap sucking insects occurring in clusters around growing points, stems, leaves and
flowers. If present in large numbers, they can prevent normal growth. Yellowing and distortion of leaves
is common symptom of attack. Spraying with endosulphan is recommended.

Bean bruchids (Anthoscelides obtectus)

This is the main storage pest of beans and also attacks most of other pulses. Adult beetles lay their eggs
in the field on the developing pods. The larvae bore through the pod walls and into the seeds. They are
so small that their entry holes are almost invisible. As the seed grows, the damage holes disappear. The
larvae feeds inside the seeds and each makes a tunnel almost to the surface in which case only the seed
coat is left intact, forming a window at the end of the tunnel. After pupation, the adult beetle emerges
by pushing out the flap of the seed coat, leaving a circular hole. Although some eggs are laid in the field,

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most are lid by adults emerging in the stores loosely among the beans and can cause rapid increase in
the number of infested seeds.

Control

Mixing seed with gamma-BHC dust or grain storage dust as actellic super.

Diseases Bean rust (Cause: Uromyces phaseoli)

Many small red pustules grow on the underside of the leaves. A characteristic dark green spot
surrounded by a small yellow circle appears on the upper side of the leaf above each pustule.
Severely infected beans become deformed and fall early.

Bean anthracnose (Cause: Colletotrichum lindemuthianum)

Causes brown or black lesions on the underside of leaves, stems, petioles and pods. Stem and
petiole lesions are sunken and longitudinal. Pod lesions are sunken and circular. Each has a
welldefined black mark on the underside of the veins.

Halo blight (Cause: Pseudomonas phaseolicola)

It’s a Cool and wet disease characterised by irregular dark spots on the leaves or pods. Each
dark spot is usually surrounded by a yellow halo. Well-developed lesions have a water soaked
appearance and their centres fall off.

Angular leaf spot (Phaeoisariopsis griseola)

Causes brown spots on the upper surface of the leaf. Lesions are irregular in shape as they are bounded
by veins. The underside of each lesion is black and hairy.

General control of bean diseases

Use of fungicide sprays e.g. Dithiocarbamates

Certified/disease free planting materials

Use of Disease resistant varieties

Field hygiene and sanitation

Crop rotation

Control of insect vectors in case of viral diseases.

PIGEON PEAS (Cajanus cajan) Introduction

Most important pulse crops in lower altitude areas of E.A particularly lower parts of East and Central
provinces. Origin: Africa or India.

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Plant characteristics

• Pigeon peas are short lived perennials legumes.

• Have deep woody tap roots

• Stems grow up to 3.5m

• Leaves are trifoliate with narrow leaflets

• Usually yellow flowers but also red and orange flowers occur in some varieties.

• Pods have 4-6 seeds but up to 8. Marked depressions on pods between each seed.

• Mostly Self-pollinated but up to 40% cross pollination occurs

• First pods are ready for harvesting 5months after sowing in case of local varieties.

• Life of crop is 2-3 years but in Kenya its only 1 year due to soil borne diseases e.g. Fusarium wilt

TOPIC 11
AGROFORESTRY
Specific objective
At the end of the topic the trainee should be able to:

a. Define Agroforestry
b. State the importance of agroforestry
c. Name the common species and use of trees in agroforestry
d. Name the agroforestry systems

Definition

Agroforestry refers to land use practices in which trees or shrubs (woody perennials) are grown
together with crops or pasture. This association has both ecological and economic benefits. It
combines agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse, productive, profitable,
healthy and sustainable land use systems.

SYSTEMS/FORMS OF AGROFORESTRY

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The main components of agroforestry systems are trees or shrubs, crops, livestock and pastures.
The systems or forms of agroforestry can be classified according to the main components
present.

1. Agrisilvicultural

This system involves simultaneously growing crops and trees on the same piece of land. The
piece of land may be as smell as half hectare or as big as thousands of hectares. During this
period, insects, pests, diseases and weeds associated with the previous crops are
controlled. The land also regains its fertility through leaf fall and decay and erosion.
Recycling of leached nutrients back to the top soil also takes place.

2. Agrisilvopastoral

• This system involves a three-way mixture based on a combination of crops, trees and animals.
This system requires skilful management, and can be sustainable even in harsh environments
and fragile soils.

3. Silvopastoral

• This system involves raising livestock on improved pastures grown in association with trees and
shrubs. It can be practiced on small farm or a large rangeland. Large scale silvopastoral system
on rangeland involves cutting down unwanted trees and shrubs and selective protection and
management of naturally growing trees and shrubs. The trees provide shade and fodder to the
livestock as well as other uses to the farmer.

4. Entomoforestry

• In this system insects are reared within trees and shrubs. Silkworms, for example, are reared
using mulberry trees to produce silk.

5. Apiforestry

• This involves deliberate growing of certain species of trees and shrubs to provide nectar or
pollen for bees to make honey.

6. Aquaforestry

This is the growing of trees or shrubs to provide forage or breeding places for aquatic animals.

IMPORTANCE OF AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry has many benefits to the farmer depending on the form in use. Some of the benefits
include the following:

a. Conservation of soil and water

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Agroforestry helps to conserve soil and water through the ground cover, and root system, to
protect soil from erosion and improve soil fertility. The effect of agroforestry also increases the
seasonal availability of water for plant growth.

b. Shelters

Trees provide shade and shelter for animals. They also give protection to wildlife from adverse
weather. Trees and shrubs act as home to wildlife and give them protection.

C. Cash income

Through the sale of agroforestry products, farmers get extra income. Some people are also
employed in tending trees and earn monthly salaries.

D. Medicine

Trees and shrubs provide herbal medicines which can cure various human and livestock diseases.
For example, barks of cinchoma trees are used to produce quinine for curing malaria.

E. Raw materials for crafts

Trees provide materials for carving craft items which can be sold locally or exported.

F. Energy supply

Trees provide wood fuel used to supply energy for various uses including cooking, warming or
boiling water.

G. Food supply

Fruit trees like mangoes when included in agroforestry provide fruits which supply the much
needed vitamins and other food values.

H. Savings and investment

By establishing a woodlot or an orchard, a farmer is investing for the future. This is better than
saving the money as the investment appreciates much faster.

I. Animal fodder

High protein trees like Calliandracalothyrsus provide valuable fodder for livestock. The fodder can
be used to supplement normal grazing or can be used during dry seasons.

J. Pollen and nectar

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Trees and shrubs provide valuable pollen and nectar which bees use to make honey, propolis
and royal jelly. Apiaries are usually located in woodland which not only provides nectar and
pollen but also shelter for the bee hives. Bees get excited if they are overheated and may even
swarm away.

K. Improvement of soil fertility

Agroforestry trees planted with crops or in rotation with crops improve soil fertility. The leaves
that drop decay and increase organic manure in the soil. The trees also recycle the nutrients
from the lower soil horizons where crop roots cannot reach. The nutrients are recycled back to
the top soil for use by crops.

L. Provide building materials

Trees provide timber and poles used for building and making furniture. Various types of farm
structures are built of wooden materials.

M. Used as windbreak

Trees planted around the crop field protect the crops from being damaged by strong wind. They
also protect buildings and other structures from wind damage.

N. Improves micro-climate

Trees improve micro-climate suitable for the growth of crops. For example, trees grown inside a
coffee plantation create a cool climate suitable for coffee growth.

Important trees and shrubs and their uses

1. Cassia siamea

2. Casuarinaequisetifolia

3. Acacia albida

4. Azadirachtaindica

5. Gmelinaarborea

6. Grevillearobusta

7. Leucaenaleucocephala

8. Acacia Senegal

9. Markhamialutea

10. Cajanuscajan

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11. Calliandracallothyrsus

12. Croton macrostachyus

13. Gliricidiasepium

14. Sesbaniasesban

15. Cordia Africana

16. Erythrinaabyssinica

17. Fruit trees such as citrus, guava, loquat, mango etc

TREE NURSERY

DEFINITIONS:

1. Seedbed

This is a piece of land which has been prepared ready to receive planting materials. 2.

Nursery bed

This is a special nursery bed prepared for raising seedlings before transplanting.

3. Seedling bed

This is a special type of nursery bed used for raise planting materials.

Importance of nursery beds

They facilitate production of many seedlings in a small area.

Routine management practices are easily and timely carried out.

They make provision of best conditions for growth, such as fine tilth, levelled field and shade
possible.

They facilitate the planting of small seeds which develop into strong seedlings that are easily
transplanted.

They ensure transplanting of only those seedlings that are healthy and vigorously growing.

They facilitate transplanting of seedlings that are already established thus reducing the period taken
in the field.

Excess seedlings from the nursery may be sold, thus become a source of income to the farmer.
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Factors considered when selecting a nursery site

Nearness to the water source.

Type of soil.

Topography.

Previous cropping.

Security.

Well sheltered place.

Establishment of vegetative propagation nurseries

Select the suitable site.

Clear and level the site.

Establish vegetative propagation unit measuring 3.66m by 1.22m.

Fill polythene sleeves measuring 7-10 cm in diameter and 23-30 cm long with a rooting mixture.

Water the sleeves.

Insert the cuttings seedling at the centre of each sleeve. Arrange the sleeves in the vegetative
propagation unit.

Erect wooden loops over the sleeved cuttings.

Place polythene sheet into the ground at the edges.

Nursery management practices

Mulching.

Watering.

Weed control.

Pricking out.

Shading.

Pest and disease control.

Hardening off.

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Care and management of trees

After transplanting tree seedlings, they should be properly cared for and managed until they grow
into big trees. As they grow big the amount of care decreases. The following care and
management practices are important:

I. Weeding – proper weeding should be done to remove weeds by light cultivation when the
seedlings are still young. As they grow bigger only the area around the base of the trees should
be weeded.

II. Mulching – seedlings planted in dry areas should be mulched using either dry organic mulch or
synthetic mulch materials.

III. Protecting seedlings – individual seedlings should be protected if they are planted where
livestock or wild animals can destroy them. This is done by erecting stakes or constructing wire
fence around each seedling.

IV. Watering – young seedlings should be watered regularlydepending on the rainfall pattern area.

V. Application of insecticides–the seedlings may be attacked by insects which not only impair their
growth but may also kill them depending on severity of attack and the age at which they are
attacked.

VI. Applying fungicides – Fungicides should be sprayed onto the seedlings or trees to stop the
spread of the fungal diseases.

VII. Pruning and training – as trees grow; they should be pruned and trained to grow into a
desirable shape. In branch pruning the branches are cut to shape the foliage as desired. In root
pruning lateral roots that would compete with crops or interfere with structures are cut. A
trench is dug to expose the roots at an appropriate distance from the tree line and the exposed
lateral roots cut in clean angled cuts.

VIII. Grafting – grafting is the art of joining parts of plants together in such a manner that they will
unite and continue to grow as one plant. It helps to perpetuate plants that cannot be
conveniently reproduced by cuttings, layering or other asexual means. Grafting enables farmers
to get the benefits of plants species with desirable root characteristics.

IX. Trapping moles–where there are many moles, traps can be laid in their underground tunnels to
catch them. Moles usually destroy trees by eating their roots.

Transplanting of trees

Sites for agroforestry trees

a. Boundaries

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Trees and shrubs are usually planted to demarcate boundaries. However trees also provide

useful products, offer protection and help in soil and water conservation, as well as adding

aesthetic value to the farm. Trees meant to demarcate boundaries are planted at different

spacing from those meant for live fence and whose aim is to act as physical barriers. b. River

banks

Land adjoining the river is normally exposed to soil erosion particularly during rainy seasons or
when there is a heavy downpour. During such times the river overflows its banks and flood
water is likely to carry away large volumes of soil from the banks. It is therefore recommended
to plant trees along river banks including trees, grasses and shrubs combined together resist soil
erosion along the river banks, streams, ponds or lakes.

c. Terraces

Trees or shrubs can be grown alongside soil and conservation structures like terraces or
diversion ditches and ridges for the following reasons:

- To stabilize the slope.

- To conserve soil and water.

- To modify the temperature and soil moisture.

- To increase fertility for the benefit of crops.

- To strengthen the terraces through their deep root network which grow into the sub-soil.

- To shelter crops from wind damage.

- To add to the value and diversity of products from the terrace by including fruits and fodder.

AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES

Agroforestry practices are aimed at sustainable land use which helps to achieve high production
combined with conservation of resources on which that production depends, thereby
maintaining high productivity.

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For a land use system to be sustainable, it requires not only the conservation of soil and water
but the whole range of resources on which production depends. However, the most basic
requirement for sustainable land use is the maintenance of soil fertility.

1. Alley cropping (Hedgerow intercropping)

- In this practice, rows of woody perennials are interplanted with annual crops. The woody plants
are regularly cut and their leaves and twigs are left on the ground to provide mulch. This litter
reduces evaporation, suppress weed growth, and on decomposition, adds organic matter and
nutrients to the soil. The main aim of alley cropping therefore is to improve crop yield by
increasing soil fertility, controlling weeds and improving the micro-climate. In the course of
production, farmers also benefit by obtaining fuel wood, building poles and fodder. Ideally alley
cropping tree or shrub should have the following characteristics:

The trees should have a sparse and small crown to permit sunlight to penetrate and reach the
crops below it.

The tree should be able to sprout quickly after cutting or pruning.

It should have a deep taproot system to recycle the nutrients and few lateral roots near the surface.

The leaf litter should decompose fast to provide the needed nutrients.

The tree should be able to fix nitrogen in the soil.

It should produce wood, food, fodder, medicine or other useful products for the farmer.

The selected trees should be drought and flood resistant.

The tree should be able to do well in a variety of soil conditions.

2. Multi-storey cropping

Multi-storey cropping involves a wide variety of woody and herbaceous crops grown together in a
dense pattern. Home gardens consisting of plots about a half hectare or less are planted with
diverse mixtures of vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants and sometimes fodder grasses. Because
of the dense litter and ground cover all the year round, erosion control is very effective. The
success of home gardens can be attributed to the following activities:

Intensive intercropping using various vegetables and other herbaceous crops to spread the risk of
crop failure.

Occasional watering of the plants using either waste water or water harvested from the compound
during a heavy downpour.

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Soil enrichment using refuse wastes from home kitchen and livestock wastes.

Intensive gardening because of availability of labour considering the small size of the plot to be
taken care of.

Erosion control by dense ground cover and canopy is very good.

Protection of the garden from livestock and wildlife by a living or artificial fence.

3. Woodlots in farms

Farmers can establish woodlots anywhere in their farms to provide them with fuel wood,
fodder, building materials and other [Link] woodlots, once established, become
part of the landscape features and acquire many qualities similar to a forest.

HARVESTING TREES

There are different methods of harvesting trees depending on the initial purpose of establishing

them. Most harvesting methods are aimed at managing the agroforestry trees. Different tools

such as panga, axe, saw (power or manual) are used to harvest trees. a. Felling

Felling is cutting down a tree close to the ground. In agroforestry all trees planted at the same
time can be felled if all of them have reached the intended maturity stage. Selective cutting of
trees may be done leaving some to grow for certain purposes like providing shade for livestock
in a pasture, acting as windbreaks, for soil erosion control on grass strips or to provide fodder
in a rangeland. All the trees felled are prepared accordingly by removing branches and cutting
them to size, before sawing for timber or for use as poles for construction.

b. Coppicing

Coppicing is a management practice applied when harvesting trees. Young and vigorously
growing trees are cut at a clean angled cut about 30 cm above the ground. The young trees
are left on the ground to drop their leaves which decay to provide organic manure. The dry
branches can later be collected for various uses e.g firewood. The stool left will soon sprout to
produce new growth.

c. Pollarding

In pollarding the entire tree crown is cut off leaving only the tree trunk. This method also
promotes a vigorous multistem regrowth at a higher storey than in coppicing. The harvested
tree branches can be used for various purposes.

d. Lopping

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Established trees can be lopped by cutting excessive branches to maintain only the required
crown size. Lopping as a practice helps to manage agroforestry trees so that the foliage does
not excessively shade the crops and interfere with their growth and yield.

e. Pruning

Some agroforestry trees are pruned by cutting selected branches and shoots. Pruning is a
technical operation and the farmer must know which branches or shoots to remove. Pruning is
done to reduce overbearing of fruits, open up the tree for easy spraying and to have a
microclimate which is not conducive to the development of fungal diseases. Pruning involves
removing of soft foliage, small twigs, dead, diseased or curved branches or shoots. Tools used in
pruning include a pair of secateurs, pruning saws, or pangas. Prunings can be used for various
purposes including mulching, fodder, fuel wood, or composting manure.

CHALLENGES TO AGROFORESTRY
Lack of developed markets for products
Competition between trees, crops and animals
Lack of demonstration sites
Lack of training or expertiLack of knowledge about where to market products.
Lack of infrastructure.
Insufficient land.
Lack of seed/seedling sources.
Access to high quality planting material of proven suitability remains a challenge, especially at the
start of a farmer-tree planting phase of a landscape.
There is lack of reward mechanisms for environmental services provided by agroforestry and
plantation.

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