INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

MODULE I: STRUCTURING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH CREDIT 2

Unit [Link] Research
(a) Meaning and scope of educational research.
(b) Meaning and steps of scientific method. Characterisitics of Scientific Method
(Replicability, Precision, Falsifiability and Parsimony). Types of Scientifc Method
(Exploratory, Explanatory and Descriptive).
(c) Aims of research as a scientific activity: Problem-solving, Theory Building and
Prediction.
(d) Types of research: Fundamental, Applied and Action.
(e) Approaches to educational research: Quantitative and Qualitative

Unit [Link] Proposal

(a) Identification of a research topic: Sources and Need.
(b) Review of related literature.
(c) Rationale and need of the study.
(d) Conceptual and operational definition of the terms.
(e) Variables.
(f) Research questions, aims, objectives and hypotheses.
(g) Assumptions, if any.
(h) Methodology, sample and tools.
(i) Scope, limitations and delimitations.
(j) Significance of the study.
(k) Bibliography.
(l) Time Frame.
(m)Budget, if any.
(n) Chapterization.

Unit [Link] and Hypotheses

(a) Variables:
• Meaning of Concepts, Constructs and Variables
• Types of Variables (Independent, Dependent, Extraneous, Intervening and
Moderator)
(b) Hypotheses
• Concept of Hypothesis
• Sources of Hypothesis
• Types of Hypothesis (Research, Directional, Non-directional, Null)
• Formulating Hypothesis
• Characteristics of a good hypothesis.
MODULE II : FOUNDATIONS TO SCIENTIFIC DATA COLLECTION (CREDIT 2)
Unit 4. Sampling
(a) Concepts of Universe and Sample
(b) Characteristics of a good Sample
(c) Techniques of Sampling. Probability Sampling (Simple Random Sampling, Stratified
Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Cluster Sampling,Matched Pair Sampling, Multistage
Sampling, Multiphase Sampling) and Non- Probability Sampling (Convenience
Sampling, Quota Sampling, Expert Sampling,Snowball Sampling)
(d) Types of Sampling in Internet-based Research
(e) Determining Sample Size

1
Unit 5. Tools and Techniques of Research
(a) Steps of preparing a research tool.
• Validity (Meaning, types, indices and factors affecting validity)
• Reliability(Meaning, types, indices and factors affecting reliability)
• Item Analysis ( Discrimination Index, Difficulty Index)
• Standardisation of a tool.

(b) Tools of Research

• Rating Scale
• Attitude Scale
• Questionnaire
• Aptitude and Achievement Tests
• Inventory

(c) Techniques of Research

• Observation
• Interview (Strucutured, Unstructured, Focus Group and Internet-based)
• Projective

(b) Meaning and steps of scientific method. Characterisitics of Scientific Method

(Replicability, Precision, Falsifiability and Parsimony). Types of Scientifc Method
(Exploratory, Explanatory and Descriptive).
Exploratory Research
Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions
and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type
of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet.
Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not
intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of
the problem. When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to
change his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights.[1]
Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the
research questions, but merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth. It
has been noted that “exploratory research is the initial research, which forms the basis of
more conclusive research. It can even help in determining the research design, sampling
methodology and data collection method”[2]. Exploratory research “tends to tackle new
problems on which little or no previous research has been done”[3]. Unstructured
interviews are the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory studies.
Examples of Exploratory Research Design
The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in business
studies:
 A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing communication
channel
 An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services within
hospitality sector in London
 An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer behaviour in
pharmaceutical industry in the USA
Differences between Exploratory and Conclusive Research
The difference between exploratory and conclusive research is drawn by Sandhursen (2000)
[4]in a way that exploratory studies result in a range of causes and alternative options for
a solution of a specific problem, whereas, conclusive studies identify the final information
that is the only solution to an existing research problem.

2
On other words, exploratory research design simply explores the research questions, leaving
room for further researches, whereas conclusive research design is aimed to provide final
findings for the research.
Moreover, it has been stated that “an exploratory study may not have as rigorous as
methodology as it is used in conclusive studies, and sample sizes may be smaller. But it
helps to do the exploratory study as methodically as possible, if it is going to be used for
major decisions about the way we are going to conduct our next study”[5] (Nargundkar,
2003, p.41).
Advantages of Exploratory Research
1. Flexibility and adaptability to change
2. Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
3. Exploratory studies can potentially save time and other resources by determining at the
earlier stages the types of research that are worth pursuing
Disadvantages of Exploratory Research
1. Exploratory studies generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of
information is subject to bias
2. These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not
adequately represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research
cannot be generalized to a wider population.
3. Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical
level.

Explanatory Research is the conducted for a problem which was not well researched before,
demands priorities, generates operational definitions and provides a better-researched
model. It is actually a type of research design which focuses on explaining the aspects of
your study in a detailed manner. The researcher starts with a general idea and uses
research as a tool which could lead to the subjects that would be dealt in the incoming
future. It is meant to provide details where a small amount of information exists for a
certain product in mind of that researcher. For starting your research, you need to create
a research outline or speech outline to pitch your research idea to your professor or a boss
or in a board meeting.

Explanatory Research is conducted in order to help us find the problem that was not studied
before in-depth. The Explanatory research is not used to give us some conclusive
evidence but helps us in understanding the problem more efficiently. When conducting
the research, the researcher should be able to adapt himself/herself to the new data and the
new insight that he discovers as he/she studies the subject.
It does not aim to provide final and conclusive answers to the research questions but allows
the researcher to explore the research with a varying level of depths. “It has been noticed
that “exploratory research is the examination, which shapes the base for different
inquiries about, it is the building obstruct for alternate looks into.”, it is the building block
for the other researchers. It can even help in deciding the exploration configuration,
testing philosophy and information gathering strategy”. Research allows the researcher to
tackle such problems where no or less research has been done.
Purpose of Explanatory Research:
 Increasing Understanding:
The purpose of explanatory research is to increase the understanding of a researcher on a
certain subject. It does not provide conclusive results because of lack of its statistical
strength, but it makes the researcher determine how and why things happen.

3
 The flexibility of Sources:
Secondary sources, such as published literature or data, are commonly used in the
explanatory type of research. Care ought to be taken to choose a scope of fair-minded
sources to give a wide and balanced comprehension of the subject.
 Better Conclusions:
Exp-Research can be very advantageous in directing subsequent research approaches. A
great understanding of the subject allows the researcher to hone subsequent research
questions and can greatly increase the usefulness of a study’s conclusions. This
exploration is likewise exceptionally valuable in deciding the best way to deal with
accomplish a specialist’s goal.
Explanatory Research Challenges:
 Bias information:
Exp-Research generates such types of information and interpretations which could
sometimes lead to banal information.
 Useless samples:
Exp-Research studies make use of modest number samples which could not be for a
targeted/ specific type of audience.

Descriptive Research
Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present with
the researcher having no control over variable. Moreover, “descriptive studies may
be characterised as simply the attempt to determine, describe or identify what is,
while analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to
be”[1].
Descriptive research is “aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a
process of data collection that enables them to describe the situation more
completely than was possible without employing this method.”[2]
In its essence, descriptive studies are used to describe various aspects of the
phenomenon. In its popular format, descriptive research is used to describe
characteristics and/or behaviour of sample population.
An important characteristic of descriptive research relates to the fact that while
descriptive research can employ a number of variables, only one variable is required
to conduct a descriptive study. Three main purposes of descriptive studies can be
explained as describing, explaining and validating research findings.
Descriptive studies are closely associated with observational studies, but they are not
limited with observation data collection method. Case studies and surveys can also
be specified as popular data collection methods used with descriptive studies.

Examples of Descriptive Research

Research questions in descriptive studies typically start with ‘What is…”. Examples of
research questions in descriptive studies may include the following:
 What are the most effective intangible employee motivation tools in hospitality industry
in the 21stcentury?
 What is the impact of viral marketing on consumer behaviour in consumer amongst
university students in Canada?
 Do corporate leaders of multinational companies in the 21stcentury possess moral rights to
receive multi-million bonuses?
 What are the main distinctive traits of organisational culture of McDonald’s USA?
 What is the impact of the global financial crisis of 2007 – 2009 on fitness industry in the
UK?

4
 Advantages of Descriptive Research
1. Effective to analyse non-quantified topics and issues
2. The possibility to observe the phenomenon in a completely natural and unchanged natural
environment
3. The opportunity to integrate the qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection
4. Less time-consuming than quantitative experiments
Disadvantages of Descriptive Research
1. Descriptive studies cannot test or verify the research problem statistically
2. Research results may reflect certain level of bias due to the absence of statistical tests
3. The majority of descriptive studies are not ‘repeatable’ due to their observational nature
4. Descriptive studies are not helpful in identifying cause behind described phenomenon

(c) Aims of research as a scientific activity: Problem-solving, Theory Building and

Prediction.
Theory Building
To construct theories or models that allow for a better understanding of criminal behavior and
permit development of strategies to address the problem of crime.

A series of interrelated propositions which attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately to
control some class of events

Role of Research
• Knowledge is built on experience and observation
• Scientific research requires data collection
• The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge

SAMPLING METHODS FOR INTERNET-BASED SURVEYS

This section describes specific types of Internet-based survey and the sampling methods that
are applicable to each. We concentrate on differentiating whether particular sampling
methods and their associated surveys allow for generalization of survey results to populations
of inference or not, providing examples of some surveys that were done appropriately and
well, and others that were less so. Examples that fall into the latter category should not be
taken as a condemnation of a particular survey or sampling method, but rather as illustrations
of inappropriate application, execution, analysis, etc. Couper (2000: 465–466) perhaps said it
best,

Any critique of a particular Web survey approach must be done in the context of its intended
purpose and the claims it makes. Glorifying or condemning an entire approach to survey data
collection should not be done on the basis of a single implementation, nor should all Web
surveys be treated as equal.

Furthermore, as we previously discussed, simply because a particular method does not allow
for generalizing beyond the sample does not imply that the methods and resulting data are not
useful in other research contexts.

Similarly to Couper (2000), Table 11.2 lists the most common probability and nonprobability
sampling methods, and indicates which Internet-based survey mode or modes may be used

5
with each method. For example, it is possible to conduct both web and e-mail surveys using a
list-based sampling frame methodology. Conversely, while it is feasible to conduct an
entertainment poll by e-mail, virtually all such polls are conducted via web surveys.

Surveys using a list-based sampling frame

Sampling for Internet-based surveys using a list-based sampling frame can be conducted just
as one would for a traditional survey using a sampling frame. Simple random sampling in this
situation is straightforward to implement and requires nothing more than contact information
(generally an e-mail address for an Internet-based survey) on each unit in the sampling frame.
Of course, though only contact information is required to field the survey, having additional
information about each unit in the sampling frame is desirable to assess (and perhaps adjust
for) nonresponse effects.

While Internet-based surveys using listbased sampling frames can be conducted either via the
web or by e-mail, if an allelectronic approach is preferred the invitation to take the survey
will almost always be made via e-mail. And, because e-mail lists of general populations are
generally not available, this survey approach is most applicable to large homogeneous groups
for which a sampling frame with e-mail addresses can be assembled (for example,
universities, government organizations, large corporations, etc). Couper (2000) calls these
‘list-based samples of high-coverage populations’.

In more complicated sampling schemes, such as a stratified sampling, auxiliary information

about each unit, such as membership in the relevant strata, must be available and linked to the
unit’s contact information. And more complicated multi-stage and cluster sampling schemes
can be difficult or even impossible to implement for Internet-based surveys. First, to
implement without having to directly contact respondents will likely require significant
auxiliary data, which is unlikely to be available except in the case of specialized populations.
Second, if (nonInternet based) contact is required, then the researchers are likely to have to
resort to the telephone or mail in order to ensure that sufficient coverage and response rates
are achieved.

An example of multi-stage sampling procedure, used for an Internet-based survey of real

estate journalists for which no sampling frame existed, is reported by Jackob et al. (2005).
For this study, the researchers first assembled a list of publications that would have
journalists relevant to the study. From this list a stratified random sample of publications was
drawn, separately for each of five European countries. They then contacted the managing
editor at each sampled publication and obtained the necessary contact information on all of
the journalists that were ‘occupied with real-estate issue’. All of the journalists identified by
the managing editors were then solicited to participate in a web survey. Jackob et al. (2005)
concluded that it ‘takes a lot of effort especially during the phase of preparation and
planning’ to assemble the necessary data and then to conduct an Internetbased survey using a
multi-stage sampling methodology.

e) Determining Sample Size

6
 • Projective

Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which

have been developed by the psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring
about underline motives, urges or intentions which cannot be secure through direct
questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out
himself. These techniques are useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their
attitudes without personal embarrassment. These techniques helps the respondents to
project his own attitude and feelings unconsciously on the subject under study. Thus
Projective Techniques play a important role in motivational researches or in attitude
surveys.

Important Projective Techniques

1. Word Association Test.
2. Completion Test.
3. Construction Techniques
4. Expression Techniques

1. Word Association Test: An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to

respond to the first thing that comes to mind. The association can take the shape
of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list
of words is given and you don’t know in which word they are most interested. The
interviewer records the responses which reveal the inner feeling of the
respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the
amount of time that elapses before the response is given are important for the
researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people associate the word “ Fair”
with “Complexion”.
2. Completion Test: In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete
sentence or story. The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind.
3. Construction Test: This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a
picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The initial structure is limited
and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a
dialogue is to written.
4. Expression Techniques: In this the people are asked to express the feeling or
attitude of other people.

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

1. Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.
2. Interpreters bias can be there.
3. It is a costly method.
4. The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire population

7
8
9