Md.

Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Work Study
Work Study:
Work study is the investigation of the work done in an organization by means of a consistent
system in order to attain the best utilization of men, machines and materials at a period of time.
In another way, work study may be defined as "The systematic, objective, critical and imaginative
examination of all factors governing the operational efficiency of any specified activity in order to
effect improvement."

Fig: Methods of work study

Purpose / Objectives / Importance of work study:

Work study is a systematic examination of the methods and processes used in an organization to
perform a task with the aim of improving efficiency and productivity. The purpose of work study
includes several key objectives:
o Increased Efficiency: Work study helps identify inefficient methods and processes within
an organization. By analyzing how tasks are performed, it becomes possible to streamline
operations, eliminate unnecessary steps, and reduce the time and resources required to
complete a task.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Productivity Improvement: Work study aims to enhance productivity by optimizing the use
of resources, including time, manpower, and machinery. By identifying and implementing
more efficient ways of working, organizations can produce more output with the same or
fewer resources.
o Cost Reduction: By eliminating waste, reducing unnecessary movements, and optimizing
resource utilization, work study contributes to cost reduction. This is crucial for
organizations aiming to improve their competitiveness and profitability.
o Standardization of Processes: Work study involves the development and documentation of
standardized methods for performing tasks. Standardization ensures consistency in output,
quality, and resource utilization, making it easier to train employees and manage workflow.
o Improved Working Conditions: Work study considers the ergonomics and safety aspects
of work. By analyzing the work environment and processes, organizations can identify and
address issues related to worker comfort, safety, and health, leading to improved working
conditions.
o Better Utilization of Human Resources: Work study helps organizations understand how
human resources are utilized and how tasks are allocated among employees. This
information can be used to assign tasks based on employees' skills and strengths, leading
to improved job satisfaction and performance.
o Training and Development: Work study provides a basis for training programs by
documenting best practices and standardized methods. This helps in the efficient
onboarding of new employees and continuous improvement through ongoing training and
development initiatives.
o Optimized Machine Utilization: In addition to human resources, work study also considers
the optimal use of machinery and equipment. This includes analyzing machine utilization,
identifying bottlenecks, and ensuring that equipment is used efficiently.
o Facilitates Continuous Improvement: Work study is not a one-time activity; it is an ongoing
process. Organizations can use the findings from work study to implement continuous
improvement initiatives. Regular reviews and updates to processes ensure that efficiency
gains are sustained over time.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Importance of work study:

1. Increased Efficiency and Productivity:
✓ Work study identifies and eliminates inefficiencies in work processes, leading to
improved productivity.
✓ It helps organizations accomplish more with the same resources or achieve the same
output with fewer resources.
2. Cost Reduction:
✓ By streamlining processes and reducing waste, work study contributes to cost savings.
✓ It enables organizations to identify and eliminate unnecessary expenses, making
operations more cost-effective.
3. Resource Optimization:
✓ Work study optimizes the use of various resources, including time, manpower, and
equipment.
✓ It ensures that resources are allocated efficiently to maximize output and minimize
waste.
4. Improved Quality and Consistency:
✓ Standardizing processes through work study helps maintain consistent quality in
products or services.
✓ It reduces errors and variations in output, leading to higher customer satisfaction.
5. Enhanced Working Conditions:
✓ Work study considers the ergonomics of workspaces and processes, leading to
improved working conditions.
✓ It addresses factors that contribute to employee comfort, safety, and well-being.

6. Employee Satisfaction and Motivation:

✓ Optimizing work processes through work study can lead to a more satisfying work
experience for employees.
✓ When employees see the positive impact of their efforts, it can boost morale and
motivation.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

7. Training and Development:

✓ Work study provides a foundation for effective training programs by documenting
standardized methods.
✓ It facilitates the training of new employees and ongoing development initiatives for
existing staff.
8. Facilitates Continuous Improvement:
✓ Work study is a continuous process that encourages organizations to regularly review
and improve their methods.
✓ It fosters a culture of continuous improvement, adaptability, and innovation within the
organization.
9. Better Utilization of Human and Machine Resources:
✓ Work study helps match tasks with employees' skills and strengths, improving the
overall efficiency of the workforce.
✓ It ensures that machines and equipment are used optimally, reducing downtime and
enhancing operational effectiveness.
10. Competitive Advantage:
✓ Organizations that consistently apply work study principles gain a competitive edge by
operating more efficiently.
✓ Improved efficiency and cost-effectiveness can contribute to a stronger market
position.
11. Data-Driven Decision-Making:
✓ Work study relies on data and analysis to make informed decisions about processes and
resource utilization.
✓ It supports evidence-based decision-making, leading to more effective and strategic
choices.

Means of increasing productivity:

There are six possible lines of attack on productivity problems, which can be classified as follows:
✓ Improve basic processes by research and development.
✓ Improve existing process and provide better plant and equipment.
✓ Simplify the product, reduce and standardize the range.
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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

✓ Improve existing methods of plant operation.

✓ Improve the planning of work and the use of manpower.
✓ Increase the effectiveness of all employees.
In PPC, concept of work study plays an important role to increase productivity as it identifies the
problems and provide direction to overcome those. The following diagram shows how work study
helps in increasing productivity:

Fig: Role of work study to improve productivity

Method Study:
Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed way
of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and
reducing costs. The primary aim is to enhance efficiency, productivity, and overall performance
by eliminating unnecessary steps, reducing waste, and optimizing resources.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Aims / Objectives of method study:

The aims of method study are primarily focused on improving work processes and systems in
organizations. By systematically examining the ways in which tasks are performed, method study
seeks to identify and implement more efficient and effective methods. The primary goals include:
o Increasing Productivity and Efficiency: By streamlining processes and eliminating
unnecessary steps, method study aims to enhance productivity and efficiency. This can lead
to more work being completed in less time and often with less effort.
o Reducing Costs: By optimizing processes and reducing wasteful practices, method study
can significantly lower operational costs. This includes reducing the use of materials,
energy, and labor.
o Improving Quality: Consistent and optimized methods often lead to improvements in the
quality of products or services. By standardizing processes and reducing the potential for
errors, method study helps maintain a high quality standard.
o Enhancing Worker Safety and Ergonomics: Method study often focuses on redesigning
work processes to make them safer and more comfortable for workers. This includes
reducing physical strain and the risk of accidents, which in turn can lead to better employee
health and morale.
o Increasing Worker Satisfaction: Streamlined processes can reduce worker frustration and
fatigue. This can lead to increased job satisfaction, lower turnover rates, and a more
positive work environment.
o Improving Customer Satisfaction: By ensuring that products and services are of high
quality and delivered efficiently, method study indirectly contributes to higher customer
satisfaction.
o Facilitating Growth and Innovation: Efficient processes free up resources and time, which
can be redirected towards growth and innovation. This can help organizations remain
competitive and adapt to changing market conditions.
o Ensuring Better Resource Utilization: Method study aims at optimal utilization of resources
like materials, machinery, and human resources, ensuring that they are used effectively and
not wasted.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Adapting to Change: By regularly examining and updating methods, organizations can

adapt more easily to technological advances, changes in market demand, or new
regulations.
o Standardizing Processes: Establishing standardized procedures ensures consistency in how
tasks are performed, leading to predictable and reliable outcomes.

Steps involved in a method study / Process of method study:

Select

Record

Examine

Develop

Implement

Evaluate

Standardize

Fig: Steps involved in method study Fig: Method study algorithm

1. Select the Work or Process to Study:

✓ Identify a specific task, process, or operation that needs improvement.
2. Record Current Methods:
✓ Document the existing methods used to carry out the task. This may involve creating
flowcharts, process maps, or written descriptions.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

3. Examine and Analyze:

✓ Evaluate each step in the process to identify inefficiencies, bottlenecks, or unnecessary
activities.
4. Develop Improved Methods:
✓ Propose alternative methods or modifications to existing ones that could enhance
efficiency and effectiveness.
5. Implement Changes:
✓ Introduce the recommended improvements into the work environment.
6. Evaluate the Results:
✓ Assess the impact of the changes on productivity, quality, and overall performance.
7. Standardize the New Method:
✓ Once the improved method is proven effective, establish it as the new standard
procedure.

Method Study Activities:

1. Operation: An operation is an action perform for advancing towards desired result.
2. Inspection: An inspection occurs when the product is removed for a time from production.
3. Storage: A storing occurs when the product is removed for a time from production.
4. Delay: A delay occurs when some undesirable event prevents or hinders the next planned
activity.
5. Transport: A transport occurs when there is movement from one place to another.

Method study symbols:

In order to make a vivid presentation of facts, and to enable the mind to understand them quickly
and clearly, we use some symbols instead of words, for the method study activities.

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Fig: Method study symbols

Recording Techniques:
For recording data, the following aids may be utilized:
1. Graphs
2. Tables
3. Schematic models
4. Flow chart
5. Frequency polygons, etc.

Critical Examination Questions:

The objectives of critical examination of recorded facts of an existing or proposed method is to
determine the true reasons underlying each event and to make a systematic list of all possible
improvements for later development in a new and improved method.
o Purpose
✓ What, why, what else might & should be done?
o Place
✓ Where, why, where else & where should it be done?

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 Md. Mehede Hassan
Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Sequence
✓ When, why, when else could & when should?
o Person
✓ Who, why, who else might & should do it?
o Means
✓ How, why, how else could, how else should?

Work Measurement:
Work measurement (WM) is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out specified jobs at a defined level of performance.
We can easily understand that total time to manufacture a product is increased or delayed by:
✓ Adding undesirable features to product,
✓ Bad operation of the processes, and
✓ Ineffective time added because of worker and management.
All this leads to decreased productivity. Work measurement (WM) is concerned with investigating,
reducing and elimination ineffective time, and increasing productivity. However, WM consists of
two basic study techniques:
✓ Direct Technique: Time study and activity sampling (work sampling).
✓ Indirect Technique: Synthetic times, PMTS and analytical estimating.

Aims / Objectives of Work Measurement:

Work measurement is a critical component in industrial engineering and operations management.
Its primary objectives are to establish a basis for fair and efficient work practices. Here are some
key objectives of work measurement:
Establishing Time Standards: One of the main goals of work measurement is to determine the time
required for a qualified worker to complete a specified task under defined conditions. These time
standards are crucial for planning, scheduling, and estimating labor costs.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Improving Work Methods: By analyzing the time taken for various work elements, work
measurement helps in identifying inefficient or unnecessary steps in a process. This leads
to developing more efficient work methods and processes.
o Enhancing Productivity: With improved methods and realistic time standards, work
measurement aims to increase productivity. This is achieved by optimizing the use of
resources, including manpower, materials, and machinery.
o Cost Control: Accurate time standards facilitate more precise cost estimation and control.
Labor cost predictions become more reliable, which is crucial for budgeting and financial
planning.
o Performance Evaluation: Work measurement provides a basis for assessing the
performance of workers. By comparing actual performance against established standards,
managers can identify areas for improvement and opportunities for training.
o Capacity Planning: Understanding how long tasks take and how they are performed helps
in planning the capacity of a facility. This includes determining workforce size, machinery
needs, and work schedules.
o Fair Compensation: Fair labor standards ensure that workers are compensated
appropriately for their efforts. This can aid in implementing incentive schemes or piece-
rate systems based on the quantity and quality of work done.
o Benchmarking and Standardization: Work measurement allows for the creation of
benchmarks and standards which can be used across different departments or even different
organizations within the same industry.
o Facilitating Continuous Improvement: With clear insights into how work is performed and
how long it takes, organizations can embark on continuous improvement initiatives,
applying methodologies like Lean or Six Sigma.
o Enhancing Employee Morale: When work measurement is used to establish fair workloads
and reasonable performance expectations, it can contribute to higher employee satisfaction
and morale.
o Adapting to Change: Work measurement can help organizations adapt to changes in
product design, production methods, or other operational alterations by providing a basis
for adjusting work processes and times.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Time Study:
Time study is defined as a work measurement technique for recording the times and rates or
working for the elements of a specified job carried out under specified conditions and for analyzing
the data so as to obtain the time necessary for carrying out the job at a defined level of performance.

Aims / Objectives of Time Study:

Time study, a fundamental aspect of work measurement and industrial engineering, is focused on
determining the time required for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level
of performance. The aims of time study are multifaceted and play a crucial role in optimizing
operational efficiency and productivity. Here are some of the primary aims:
o Establishing Standard Times: One of the key aims of time study is to set standard times for
tasks. This involves determining the average time a task should take when performed by a
qualified worker, allowing for necessary delays and fatigue.
o Improving Work Methods: By analyzing the time taken for various components of a task,
time studies can identify inefficient or unnecessary steps. This leads to the development
and implementation of more efficient work methods.
o Enhancing Productivity: With established standard times and improved methods, time
study aims to increase the overall productivity of the workforce. It helps in identifying the
best practices and encourages their adoption across the organization.
o Labor Cost Estimation: Time studies enable accurate estimation of labor costs by providing
detailed insights into how long tasks take. This is essential for budgeting, pricing, and
financial planning.
o Performance Measurement and Management: Time study provides a basis for assessing
worker performance. Comparing actual time taken to perform a task with the established
standard time helps in identifying areas where worker training may be needed or where
changes in the work method could be beneficial.
o Workforce Planning and Scheduling: Understanding task times assists in effective
workforce planning and scheduling. It helps determine how many workers are needed for
a given volume of work and aids in scheduling shifts and job assignments.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Establishing Fair Workloads: Fair and realistic time standards help in setting equitable
workloads. This can prevent worker fatigue and burnout, contributing to higher job
satisfaction and morale.
o Basis for Incentive Schemes: Time study data can be used to design incentive schemes.
Workers who complete tasks within or faster than the standard time can be rewarded, thus
motivating efficiency.
o Facilitating Continuous Improvement: Regular time studies can highlight areas for
continuous improvement in processes and operations. They provide quantitative data that
can be used to track the impact of improvement initiatives.
o Supporting Operational Decisions: Time study data supports various operational decisions,
including equipment utilization, process layout, and capacity planning.
o Ensuring Competitive Advantage: In a broader sense, efficient work methods and accurate
time standards can contribute to a competitive advantage by enabling higher quality, lower
costs, and faster delivery times.

Steps in Making a Time Study:

Conducting a time study is a systematic process that involves several key steps. These steps are
designed to accurately measure and analyze the time required to perform a job or task. Here's a
breakdown of the typical steps involved in making a time study:
o Select the Work to Be Studied: Identify a task or job that needs time measurement.
Selection is usually based on factors like frequency of the task, its significance in the
production process, or potential for improvement.
o Define the Task and Break It Down: Clearly define the task or job being studied. Break it
down into distinct, measurable elements or operations to facilitate detailed observation and
timing.
o Choose the Right Time Study Equipment: Select appropriate equipment for timing the task.
This can range from a simple stopwatch to more sophisticated time recording devices.
o Select the Worker and Prepare Them: Choose a worker who is qualified and experienced
in the task. Inform them about the study, ensuring their cooperation and understanding of
the purpose.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Record All Necessary Data: Collect data about the task, including the method used,
working conditions, worker's skill level, and any other factors that might impact the time
taken to complete the task.
o Time the Task: Measure the time taken to complete each element of the task. This usually
involves several repetitions to obtain a representative sample of data. Record all times
accurately.
o Rate the Worker’s Performance: Assess the worker's performance level relative to the
organization’s standard performance. This rating adjusts the observed time to a time for a
"standard" worker.
o Compute Standard Times: Calculate the average time for each task element from the
observed times. Adjust these times for any allowances (like fatigue or delay) to establish
standard times.
o Analyze the Data: Analyze the collected data for insights and potential improvements.
Look for variations in the times, identify bottlenecks, or elements that are inefficient.
o Develop and Implement Improvements: If inefficiencies or opportunities for improvement
are identified, develop new methods or changes to the process. Implement these
improvements and repeat the time study if necessary.
o Document and Communicate the Results: Prepare a final report detailing the methodology,
findings, and standard times. Communicate these results to relevant stakeholders, including
management and workers.
o Regularly Review and Update: Regularly review the time standards to ensure they remain
relevant and accurate, especially if there are changes in methods, equipment, or working
conditions.

Breaking the Job into Elements:

✓ An element is a distinct part of a specified job selected for convenience of observation,
measurement and analysis.
✓ A work cycle is the sequence of elements which are required to perform a job or yield a
unit of production.
✓ For each job, a detailed breakdown of the complete job into elements is necessary.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Types of elements:
1. Repetitive element: It is an element which occurs in every work cycle of the job.
2. Occasional element: it does not occur in each work cycle of the job, but which may occur
at regular or irregular intervals, eg. machine setting.
3. Constant element: The basic time remains constant whenever it is performed, eg. switch
the machine on.
4. Variable element: It is an element for which the basic time varies in relation to some
characteristics of the product, equipment or process, e.g. dimensions, weight, quality etc.
5. Manual element: It is an element performed by a worker.
6. Machine element: It is automatically performed by a power-driven machine (or process).
7. Governing element: It occupies a longer time than any of the other elements which are
being performed concurrently. E.g. boil kettle of water, while setting out teapot and cups
8. Foreign element: It is observed during a study which, after analysis, is not found to be
necessary part of the job.

Recording Time for Activities:

Cumulative timing
✓ The watch runs continuously throughout the study.
✓ At the end of each element the watch reading is recorded.
✓ The individual element times are obtained by subsequent subtractions.
✓ The purpose of this procedure is to ensure that all the time during which the job is
observed is recorded in the study.
✓ Typically, most work study persons attain fair degree of accuracy quickly when using
the cumulative method.

Fly back timing

✓ The hands of the stopwatch are returned to zero at the end of each element and are
allowed to start immediately, the time for each element being obtained directly.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

✓ In a comparative study of Purdue University, the average error in reading the watch
using cumulative method was +0.000097 min per reading and using the flyback method
was 0.00082 min per reading.

Advantages of Cumulative timing over fly back timing:

o Trainees achieve reasonable accuracy more quickly.
o It does not matter if element times are occasionally missed by observer, the overall time of
the study will not be affected by it.
o Foreign elements and interruptions are automatically included since the watch is never
o stopped Temptation to adjust the element time to rating is less compared to Nyback time.
o Workers have greater faith in the fairness as they see that no time can have been omitted.
o Flyback method can have slight delays when the stopwatch is snapped back to zero at the
end of each element

Performance Rating:
The term "Rating" refers to the assessment by an observer about the worker's rate of working
relative to the rate corresponding to the standard pace. Performance rating is the process of
adjusting the actual pace of working of an operator by comparing it with the mental picture of an
operator working at normal speed.

Rating Factor:
The rating factor in work measurement, particularly in time studies, is a numerical value used to
adjust the observed time of a task to account for the worker's performance level relative to a defined
standard. It's a crucial element in establishing fair and accurate time standards for various tasks.
Specifically, this is a numerical value (usually expressed as a percentage) that represents the
performance level of a worker compared to the standard or 'normal' performance. In another word,
rating factor can also be defined as the comparison of rate of working observed by an observer
with the standard.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

How It's Determined? / Calculation of rating factor:

1. Observation: An observer, typically a time study analyst, watches a worker perform a task
and estimates their performance relative to the standard performance.
2. Assigning a Value: The observer assigns a rating factor based on this assessment. For
example, if a worker is judged to be working 10% faster than the standard, they might be
given a rating of 110%. Conversely, if they are 10% slower, the rating might be 90%.
3. Adjusting Observed Time: The observed time is then multiplied by the rating factor to
determine the standard time. For instance, if a task takes 12 minutes (observed time) and
the rating factor is 120% (1.20), the standard time would be calculated as 12 minutes x 1.20
= 14.40 minutes.
The following relationships are considered regarding the rating factor:
1. Observed Time x Rating Factor = Basic (Normal) Time
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
2. Observed Time x = Basic (Normal) Time
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 (𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙)𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
3. x 100 = Performance Rating; (The figure 100 represents standard rating)
𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Factors Affecting Rating Factor / Performance Rating:

The rating factor in a time study is influenced by various factors. Since it's a measure of the
worker's performance relative to a standard, numerous elements can affect how the rating factor is
determined. Understanding these factors is crucial for ensuring that the rating factor is applied
accurately and consistently. Here are some of the primary factors affecting the rating factor:
o Worker's Skill Level: A worker's experience and proficiency in performing a specific task
greatly influence their performance. Experienced workers may perform faster and more
efficiently, potentially leading to a higher rating factor.
o Effort Level of the Worker: The amount of physical or mental effort a worker exerts while
performing the task affects their speed and efficiency. Higher effort can correspond to a
higher rating factor.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Work Pace Consistency: The ability of a worker to maintain a consistent pace throughout
the task can influence the rating. Inconsistency in work pace might lead to a lower rating
factor.
o Quality of Work: The quality of the output is essential. High-quality work done at a
reasonable pace might result in a higher rating factor, while poor quality work, regardless
of speed, might lower it.
o Working Conditions: Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, lighting, noise,
and ergonomics can impact a worker's performance. More favorable conditions generally
lead to a higher rating factor.
o Worker's Physical and Mental State: Factors like fatigue, health, stress, and morale play a
significant role in a worker’s performance. A worker in good physical and mental health is
likely to be rated higher.
o Tools and Equipment: The availability, condition, and suitability of tools and equipment
can significantly affect a worker's performance. Better tools can lead to a higher rating
factor.
o Complexity of the Task: More complex tasks may require greater concentration and skill,
impacting the worker's pace. The complexity needs to be considered when determining the
rating factor.
o Training and Familiarity with the Task: Adequate training and familiarity with the task can
improve a worker's efficiency and speed, potentially increasing the rating factor.
o Observer's Experience and Bias: The experience and potential bias of the observer
conducting the time study can influence the rating factor. Experienced observers can
generally provide more accurate and consistent ratings.
o Organizational Standards and Norms: The established norms and performance standards
within an organization can set a baseline for what is considered 'normal' performance,
impacting how rating factors are assigned.

Importance of rating factor in time study:

The rating factor plays a crucial role in time studies, primarily in establishing fair and accurate
time standards for various tasks. Its importance in industrial and organizational settings cannot be

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

overstated, as it directly influences efficiency, productivity, and labor cost management. Here are
some key aspects of its importance:
o Adjusting for Worker Variability: Not all workers perform at the same pace or efficiency
level. The rating factor allows for the adjustment of observed time to account for individual
differences, ensuring that the standard time is reflective of what can be achieved by an
average, competent worker.
o Establishing Fair Time Standards: Time standards are used for planning, scheduling, and
setting production targets. The rating factor ensures these standards are fair and achievable,
preventing unrealistic expectations that can lead to worker dissatisfaction or burnout.
o Basis for Incentive Systems: In workplaces where pay or incentives are linked to
performance against standard times, the accuracy of these standards is vital. The rating
factor helps in establishing equitable standards, ensuring that incentive systems are
motivating and fair.
o Improving Productivity: By establishing accurate time standards, organizations can
identify areas for improvement in their processes. This can lead to enhanced productivity,
as efforts can be focused on areas that are below the standard performance.
o Cost Estimation and Control: Accurate time standards, influenced by the rating factor, are
essential for precise cost estimation and control. They help in determining labor costs and
setting budgets, crucial for overall financial management.
o Benchmarking and Performance Analysis: The rating factor aids in benchmarking tasks
and processes, allowing for performance comparison over time or across different
departments or locations. This analysis can identify best practices and areas needing
improvement.
o Facilitating Continuous Improvement: With the use of rating factors, time studies can
highlight inefficiencies and areas where worker training or process changes might be
beneficial, fostering a culture of continuous improvement.
o Enhancing Worker Morale: Fair and achievable time standards can improve worker
morale. Workers are more likely to be satisfied with their job and perform better when they
feel that their targets are reasonable and based on accurate assessments.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Legal and Ethical Compliance: In some industries and regions, there are legal and ethical
standards regarding workloads and worker treatment. Accurate time studies, including
appropriate use of rating factors, help ensure compliance with these regulations.

Methods of Performance Rating:

1. Speed rating
2. Westing house system of rating
3. Synthetic rating
4. Objective rating

Speed Rating:
In this technique the speed of the movements of the operator is the only factor considered for
performance rating. The speed rating is found by the observer by comparing pace of operators
working with his own concept of normal pace. An average worker is rated at 100%, better than
average worker is rated at a figure higher than 100 and below average worker will be rated below
[Link] a worker is rated at 125% it means that the speed is 25% higher than the observers concepts
of normal and rating of 80% means the workers is working 20% below the observers’ concept of
a normal worker.
In speed rating, the process of rating is confined to the comparison of speed of movements with a
concept of normal speed. On the basis of assumption, the rating process is made simpler and with
training in developing the concept of normal pace, the observer can become quite proficient in his
judgment.

Westing house method of rating:

Westing house system utilizes a set of criteria to measure the performance of the operators. The
factors are:
1. Effort,
2. Skill,
3. Condition, and
4. Consistency
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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

1. Efforts: measures the speed with which the skill is applied. The effort is divided into six
degrees with ratings A to F
2. Skill: measure the workers proficiency in adhering to a given method, coordination of
proper hand and eye movements, rhythm of the movements. The skill has been classified
into six degrees, each degree indicating a specified class of skill within which an operator
performs the task.
3. Consistency: measures factors which affect the consistency of the operator to perform the
work cycle repeatedly within the same time. Elements which affect the consistency are-
variations in materials, hard spots, presence of foreign elements. Consistency is subdivided
inoi six classes.
4. Conditions: measure the extent to which the conditions like temperature, vibrations, light
and noise affects the operator's performance:
According to westing house system, the classification of skill, effort, consistency and conditions
are shown in the following table:

Table: performance rating table (westing house method)

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

As per this system, the time study observer assigns rating for criteria of particular task. Numerical
values are than obtained from above table and established the performance rating by adding, the
four values and adding the leveling factor to normalize the observed time.

Mathematical Problem-1:
An observed time for an operation is 0.06 minutes and the ratings are as follows:

SL. No. Factors Rating Remarks

1 Skill B1 Excellent

2 Effort C2 Good

3 Condition C Good

4 Consistency C Good

Calculate rating factor / performance rating factor.

Basic or normal time for the operation.

Solution:
The values for the rating are assigned as in westing method of performance rating:

SL. No. Factors Rating Numerical value

1. Skill B1 +0.11

2. Effort C2 +0.02

3. Condition C +0.02

4. Consistency C +0.01

Total +0.16

Performance Rating Factor = 1 + 0.16 = 1.16 = 116%

Basic or Normal Time = Observed Time x Performance Rating = 0.6 x 1.16 = 0.696 minutes.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Synthetics Rating:
The performance rating under this method is established by comparing observed time of some of
the manual elements with those of known time values of the elements from predetermined motion
and time studies (PMTS).
The procedure is to make the time study in a usual manner and then compare the actual time for
the elements with predetermined time values for the same elements.
A ratio is computed between predetermined time value for the element and actual time value for
the element. This ratio is the performance index or rating factor for the operator for the particular
element. Performance rating factor, (R) is given by
𝑃
R=𝐴

Where, P = Predetermined time for elements (minutes)

A = Average actual value (selected time) for the same element P (minutes)

Objective rating:
In this method, the operator's speed is rated against a single standard pace which is independent of
job difficult. The observer merely rates speed of movement or activity, paying no attention to job
itself. After the pace rating is made, an allowance or a secondary adjustment is added to the pace
rating to take care of job difficulty.
Job difficulties are divided into six classes by M. E Mundel, and percentage is provided for each
of the following factors:
✓ Amount of body used,
✓ Foot pedals,
✓ Bi-manual activity.
✓ Eye-hand coordination
✓ Handling requirements,
✓ Weight.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Allowances:
The normal time for an operation does not contain any allowances for the worker. It is impossible
to work throughout the day even though the most practicable, effective method has been
developed. Even under the best working method situation, the job will still demand the expenditure
of human effort & some allowance must therefore be made for recovery from fatigue & for
relaxation. Allowance must also be made to enable the worker to attend to his personal needs. The
allowances are categorized as:
1. Relaxation allowance
2. Interference allowance
3. Contingency allowance

1. Relaxation Allowance:
Relaxation allowances are given so st to allow the worker to recover from fatigue.
Relaxation allowances provide the workers with the opportunity to recover from the
physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specified work under specified
conditions and allow attention to personal needs. However, the amount of allowance will
depend on nature of the job.

Relaxation allowances are of two types:

a) Fixed allowances, and
b) Variable allowances

a) Fixed allowance:
✓ Personal needs allowance: It is intended to compensate the operator for the time
necessary to leave the workplace to attend to personal needs like drinking water,
smoking, washing hands and so on. Generally, women require longer personal
allowance than men. A fair personal allowance is 5% for men and 7% for women.
✓ Allowances for basic fatigue: This allowance is given to compensate for energy
expended during working. A common figure considered as allowance is 4% of the basic
time.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

b) Variable Allowance:
✓ Variable allowance is allowed to an operator who is working under poor environmental
conditions that cannot be improved, added stress and strain in performing the job.

2. Interference Allowance:
It is an allowance of time included into the work content of the job to compensate the
operator for the unavoidable loss of production due to simultaneous stoppage of two or
more machines being operated by him. This allowance is applicable for machine or
process-controlled jobs.

3. Contingency Allowance:
A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a standard
time to meet legitimate and accepted items of work or delays, the precise measurement of
which is uneconomical because of their in frequent or irregular occurrence. This allowance
provides for small unavoidable delays as well as for occasional minor, extra work. Some
of the examples calling for contingency allowance are:
✓ Tool breakage involving removal of tool from the holder and all other activities to insert
new tool into the tool holder.
✓ Power failures of small duration.
✓ Obtaining the necessary tools and gauges from central tool is store. Contingency
allowance should not exceed 5%.

Other Allowances:
✓ Start-up/shut-down allowance Cleaning allowance
✓ Tooling allowance
✓ Set-up/change-over allowance
✓ Reject/excess production allowance
✓ Learning/training allowance

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

✓ Policy allowance (an increment, other than the bonus increment, applied to standard time
to provide a satisfactory level of earning for certain level of performances)

Various allowances used to build the standard time are shown in following figure:

Fig: Various allowances that affect standard time

Calculation of Standard Time:

The standard time for a job is calculated as follows:
Standard Time = Observed time x Rating Factor x (1 + Allowances)
Standard Time = Basic or Normal Time x (1 + Allowances)

Mathematical Problem-02:
A worker operating on a machine performs the following elements. The description of elements,
their observed time and rating are given. Compute the standard time for the component.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Observed Relaxation
Element Description Rating (%)
Time (min.) Allowance (%)

A Position the job 0.25 80 10

Switch “ON” and lower the

B 0.09 100 11
drill

C Drill hole 2.8 90 12

D Raise drill and switch “OFF” 0.05 80 10

E Remove job from jig 0.15 110 11

Solution:
The relaxation allowance is given separately for each element. So elementwise standard time is to
be computed.

Normal Relaxation
Observed Rating Standard Time = Normal
Element Time / Base Allowance
Time (min.) (%) Time x (1+allowances)
Time (min) (%)

A 0.25 0.80 0.25 x 0.80 0.10 0.22

B 0.09 1.0 0.09 x 1.0 0.11 0.099

C 2.8 0.90 2.8 x 0.90 0.12 2.746

D 0.05 0.80 0.05 x 0.80 0.10 0.043

E 0.15 1.10 0.15 x 1.10 0.11 0.183

Standard Time for the job = 0.22 + 0.099 + 2.746 + 0.043 + 0.183 = 3.251 minutes.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Mathematical Problem-03:
A time study is conducted on a job consisting of three elements. Stop watch readings in hundredth
of a minute are given using cumulative timing method along with rating factor. Calculate normal
time and standard time when allowance is 12%.

Stop watch reading

Element Rating
1 2 3 4 5

A 10 73 139 203 266 80

B 25 88 155 218 280 100

C 64 128 193 257 320 110

Solution:
The stop watch readings are cumulative. The individual timing for elements are computed by
subtracting the proceeding reading from the successive reading as shown in the following table:

Stop watch reading Avg. Normal

Element Time Rating Time
1 2 3 4 5
(min) (min)

A 10 09 11 10 09 0.098 80 0.0784

B 15 15 16 15 14 0.150 100 0.1500

C 39 40 38 39 40 0.392 110 0.4312

Total 0.6596

Standard Time = 0.6596 x (1 + 0.12) = 0.73875 minutes.

Pitch Time:

Pitch time is nothing but average time per operations i.e. ratio of the SAM (Standard Allowed
Minutes) to the number of operations. Pitch time is mainly used by the industrial engineer (I.E.)
for the purpose of balancing the production line. It may be calculated in minutes or seconds as per
requirement.
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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Pitch Time = SAM / Number of operations

For Ex.

Let time required to make one full sleeve formal shirt be 30 minutes and number of operators are
20, then as per formula,

Pitch Time = 30 / 20 = 1.5 minutes or 90 seconds

90 seconds will be the pitch time. So the operations requiring less than 90 seconds to do it will not
need more operators and those requiring more than 90 seconds may need to have more than one
operator.

Pitch Diagram:

Time X&Y axes are drawn. On the X-axis all the operators in exact order of processes are marked.
On the Y-axis time allocated to each operator is recorded. The graph displays points on it. If the
points are joined together we get a diagram called pitch diagram.

If each operator is actually allotted equal time, such pitch time is called Basic Pitch Time. Here 25
sec is the Basic Pitch Time. A pitch diagram shows Basic Pitch Time as a horizontal line. However,
in reality operators cannot be awarded equal time. But efforts should be made to make pitch time

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

to hover around the Basic Pitch Time. This will ensure allotment of nearly equal amount of
workload to each operator. Work-study people in a garment factory tries their level best to allocate
nearly equal quantity of work to each worker but operations in a garment ( say, shirt) are not equal
in terms of difficulty and largeness.

So, it is nearly impossible to distribute fully equal amount of workload to each person in the
production line. Fully equal quantity of workload distributed to all workers makes the diagram a
straight line (Basic Pitch Line). So in reality it is sought that workload distributed to each worker
should be within a range of Upper and Lower Control Limits, which are 15 % above and 15 %
lower than the Basic Pitch Time. If workers are allotted operations within the range of UCL &
LCL the production line becomes balanced. That means workers in these lines produce equal
quantity of products per unit time (say, per hour).

Aims / Objectives / Importance of Calculating Pitch Time:

o Efficiency Assessment: Pitch time calculation helps in assessing the efficiency of a

production line or an operation. It provides a clear idea of how much time is taken to
produce a unit or complete a cycle, which is crucial for identifying bottlenecks and areas
for improvement.
o Capacity Planning: By understanding the pitch time, businesses can plan their capacity
more effectively. It allows for accurate calculation of how many units can be produced in
a given time frame, aiding in resource allocation and scheduling.
o Standardization of Processes: Calculating pitch time helps in setting standards for
production or operational processes. This standardization is important for maintaining
consistency in output quality and quantity.
o Workforce Management: Knowing the pitch time aids in managing the workforce
efficiently. It helps in determining the number of workers required for a particular task or
operation, depending on the time it takes to complete the task.
o Cost Calculation: The calculation of pitch time is instrumental in determining the cost of
production. Since labor and operation time are significant components of cost,
understanding the pitch time helps in accurately forecasting and controlling costs.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

o Performance Measurement: Pitch time is a key metric for measuring the performance of
production lines or operations. It can be used to set targets, monitor progress, and
implement continuous improvement initiatives.
o Supply Chain Coordination: In supply chain management, understanding the pitch time of
various processes is essential for coordinating activities, ensuring that the supply chain
operates smoothly without delays or excessive inventory.
o Customer Satisfaction: By optimizing production and operation through effective pitch
time management, businesses can ensure timely delivery of products or services, which is
crucial for customer satisfaction.
o Lean Manufacturing and Continuous Improvement: In lean manufacturing, pitch time is a
critical factor. It helps in identifying waste (like overproduction or waiting time) and is a
key input for continuous improvement methodologies such as Kaizen.
o Risk Management: By analyzing pitch times, organizations can identify potential risks in
their production or operational processes, such as equipment failure or process
inefficiencies, and take proactive measures to mitigate them.

Bottleneck Processes and Bottleneck Time in Industrial Engineering:

The highest time taken by an operator to complete her task Compared to other operators is referred
to as bottleneck time. The process or processes associated with bottleneck time are called
bottleneck process. Bottlenecks reduce productivity. The figure given below shows three
bottlenecks, two above UCL, and one below LCL. Thus bottlenecks are those processes which go
beyond the UCL or LCL. Under Bangladeshi conditions, bottlenecks going above UCL are more
harmful, because they substantially cut down productivity & line balance. So it is urgent to
eliminate bottlenecks in a production line. Garments generally pile up beside the operator working
with bottlenecks.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

Process Analysis:

Process analysis is a method used to understand and improve the processes involved in various
activities, whether they are in manufacturing, business, or other domains. The goal of process
analysis is to identify inefficiencies, bottlenecks, or areas for improvement within a process and
then make changes to enhance overall performance and productivity.

Steps involved in process analysis:

1. Define the Scope:

✓ Clearly define the boundaries of the process you are analyzing.
✓ Identify the inputs, outputs, and key activities within the process.
2. Map the Process:
✓ Create a visual representation of the entire process using flowcharts, diagrams, or
process maps.
✓ Include all the steps, decision points, and interactions within the process.
3. Identify Inputs and Outputs:
✓ Determine what goes into the process (inputs) and what comes out (outputs).
✓ Understand the quality and quantity of inputs and outputs.

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Instructor (Technical), CTEC

4. Gather Data:
✓ Collect relevant data on the process, such as cycle times, error rates, and resource
utilization.
✓ Use quantitative and qualitative data to gain insights into the performance of the
process.
5. Identify Bottlenecks:
✓ Identify points in the process where the flow is slowed down or constrained.
✓ Understand the causes of bottlenecks and their impact on the overall efficiency of the
process.
6. Analyze Performance Metrics:
✓ Evaluate key performance indicators (KPIs) related to the process.
✓ Compare actual performance against established benchmarks or industry standards.
7. Identify Opportunities for Improvement:
✓ Based on the analysis, pinpoint areas where improvements can be made.
✓ Consider both short-term fixes and long-term strategic changes.
8. Develop and Implement Solutions:
✓ Propose and prioritize potential solutions to address identified issues.
✓ Implement changes and monitor their impact on the process.
9. Continuous Monitoring and Improvement:
✓ Establish a system for ongoing monitoring of the process.
✓ Continuously seek opportunities for further improvement.
10. Document Changes:
✓ Keep detailed records of changes made to the process.
✓ Update process documentation to reflect the current state.
11. Training and Communication:
✓ Ensure that individuals involved in the process are informed about changes.
✓ Provide training if necessary to adapt to new procedures or technologies.
12. Feedback Loop:
✓ Establish a feedback loop to gather insights from those involved in the process.
✓ Use feedback to make further refinements and adjustments.

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