Chapter 8
Poultry Processing
Muhammad Yousaf and Sarzamin Khan†
Abstract
Poultry eggs and meat have prime importance in human’s balanced diet. Egg
structure and composition are mannered in such a way that its keeping quality
provision of nutrient at a cheap rate is excellent. Egg protein is easily digestible and
metabolized. There are well established egg grades for ease of consumers which are
equally accepted in international eggs trade. Eggs are mostly produced in cage
system. Eggs are properly stored at specified temperature and relative humidity.
Eggs are sold on intact basis in market or processed in highly
sophisticated/mechanized machines. Proper washing, disinfection, candling,
weighing and dirt detection is done in egg processing plants to produce table eggs.
Eggs are broken in processing plants and sold as liquid or dry basis. Dried yolk,
dried albumen or as dried egg contents are processed in international market. Egg
and egg products are used in human food and in so many allied industries. Poultry
meat is favorite food item of the human beings. Poultry meat is preferred due to
more protein contents and least fat contents. Poultry birds are properly graded,
inspected and transported to produce quality meat and meat products. Certified
poultry processing plants are maintaining proper sanitary conditions, quality
control, pathogens control and HACCP as per international featured standards
guidelines to assure food safety and public health. Value added meat products are
prepared, packed, stored, transported and effectively marketed.
Keywords: Egg and meat composition, storage, processing, value addition,
marketing.
†
Muhammad Yousaf
Institute of Animal Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: yousaf@[Link]
Sarzamin Khan
Department of Poultry Science, University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan.
Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq
Editors: Muhammad Yousaf, Ahsan ul Haq and Akram ul Haq
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
181
182 M. Yousaf and S. Khan
8.1 Introduction
Poultry egg and meat processing have prime importance in Pakistan poultry
industry. Processed and value added products are fulfilling needs of countrymen
and being exported to various countries to earn foreign exchange. However,
attention is required by poultry egg and meat processors to meet International
Featured Standards to enhance exports.
8.2 Egg Structure and Composition
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
Egg mainly consists of three parts egg shell, shell membrane, yolk and albumin.
Components Percentage
Egg shell 11 %
Yolk 31 %
Albumin 58 %
8.2.1 Egg shell
Eggshell is outer most covering of an egg. It is 11 % of whole egg weight.
Composition of eggshell mainly contains calcium carbonate along with calcium
phosphate, magnesium carbonate and organic matter. Egg shell thickness normally
varies from 0.33 mm to 0.35 mm.
Eggshell contents Percentage
Calcium Carbonate 94.1%
Calcium Phosphate 0.9%
Magnesium Carbonate 1.1%
Organic Matter 3.9%
Eggshell is calcareous coat attached with shell membrane. Shell structure mainly
consists of mammillary layer, cuticles, spongy layer and pores. Quality of an egg
can be examined by its cleanliness, smoothness, soundness and shape. Air cell is
8 Poultry Processing 183
present at blunt end of egg. Air cell in fresh egg is 1.5 cm. Its size depends upon
few conditions like storage temperature, pores, humidity and shell thickness.
8.2.2 Shell Membrane
There are two shell membrane; both are fibrous and have its vital role. Outer
membrane is flexible having 0.01-0.02 mm thickness and inner membrane consists
of two thick layers. Shell membrane is thicker at blunt end and thinner at narrow
end and thickness depends on species of birds.
8.2.3. Albumin/Egg white
Egg white is major elements of an egg. It is composed of thin and thick layers. It is
58% of total egg weight. It has gel like structure due to presence of several types of
proteins like albumin, mucoprotien and globulins. It disintegrates with passage of
time. Its thickness may reduce due to enzymatic reaction. It can be preserved
through canning and refrigeration’s.
Nutritional Contents Percentage
Water 88.5%
Protein 10.5%
Chalaziferous layer is cord like strand, contain mucin, surround yolk and keep yolk
in center position of egg. It is 2.7% of total albumin. Inner thin layer surrounds
Chalaziferous layer and is 16.8 % of total albumin. Middle dense layer is stable and
profuse layer of albumin. It contains mucin like fiber perform major role to hold
inner thin white and yolk.
8.2.4 Yolk
Yolk is confined within a clear film which remains integral when released from
ovary and it play important role in preventing yolk material from escaping into rest
of egg contents. It encloses food that will feed embryo as it grows.
Nutritional Contents Percentage
Proteins 16.5%
Water 50.0%
Fat 33.0%
It is a major source of vitamins, minerals, lecithin (emulsifier), somewhat protein,
cholesterol and fat. It comprises less water and more protein as compared to egg
white. Its dark or light orange color depends upon ingredients (especially maize)
used in feed and breed.
Egg is biological structure because its formation is hormonal, consists of three
important components i.e. albumin, yolk and shell which are used for human. It
contains well-balanced nutrients which are necessary for chick embryo
development. Hen possess ovary (left is functional while right is dormant) and
oviduct which play vital role in all processes involved in egg formation. Ovary is a
cluster of ova which is separated from each other present in a sac known as follicle.
184 M. Yousaf and S. Khan
Its size increases as bird ages. There are 3600-4000 follicles in a mature hen. Hen
on attaining sexually mature lays eggs having follicle which contains unfertilized
ovum and egg yolk. A single cell secreted in ovary surrounded by membrane called
as vitelline membrane which has a network of blood capillaries. Follicle stimulating
hormone secreted by anterior pituitary gland play vital role in ovulation. Yolk fluid
added when yolk becomes mature and it moves away from ovary. As already
mentioned yolk is enclosed in yolk sac which is surrounded with blood vessel.
Blood vessels may not distribute specific part on yolk sac termed as stigma which
burst and yolk moves away from ovary under stimulus of leutinizing hormone.
Process of ovulation may take place after every thirty minutes of laying. Oviduct
that is a tube like in structure ranges about 70 cm long which has five distinct parts
i.e., infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, shell gland (uterus) and vagina. Oviduct has
attachment with backbone, roughly committed between ovary and tail. First part of
hen reproductive part is infundibulum which gives look, like a funnel. It prevents
yolk to release in body cavity. It acts as sperm reservoir and fertilization takes place
(Bell and Weaver 2007).
Magnum is a largest part of oviduct; size ranges about 33 cm long. It secret white
portion termed as albumin. Ovum may stay here for 2.5-3.0 hours. Isthmus secretes
water, minerals, salt and shell membrane. In laying birds, its length ranges about 10
cm long. Ovum remains here for 1.14-1.30 minutes. Uterus size ranges 10-12 cm
long in laying birds. Main role of it is to secrete shell membrane which is outer
covering of inside egg shell. Ovum stays here for about 18-20 hours. Vagina size
ranges about 12 cm long. Egg passes through vagina toward cloaca. Its major
purpose is to hold egg until laying. Cloaca is exit pathway for urates, feces and
eggs (Austic and Nesheim 1990).
8.3 Standards and Grades of Shell Eggs
Egg quality standard are developed to classify eggs on individual basis. Only those
eggs are accepted those fulfill egg standard requirements. Poultry products
especially eggs are graded, tagged and packed based on size or weight.
Egg Size Mass per egg (g)
Very large 73
Large 63-73
Medium 53-63
Small 53 or less
Grading is done based on egg shell quality and its components. Grading of egg is
practiced by observing shell shape, texture, cleanliness and soundness. Different
egg grades are shown in Figure 8.1. Egg is normally oval in shape with two ends
(blunt and narrow end). In AA quality egg, there will be no leakage and free from
thin spots of blood. B quality eggs have thin egg white, wider yolks. Egg shell may
be unbroken but slightly stained. Abnormal eggs are unusual and misshapen. These
types of eggs fall in B quality eggs. Soundness of eggshell is judged by leaker and
cracked shells. Clean eggs are free from foreign material and stains, cage marks and
dirty shell with dirt, stains prominent and shells soiled.
8 Poultry Processing 185
Fig. 8.1. Different grades of eggs.
8.4 Care, Storage and Preservation of Eggs
Care should be taken to maintain egg quality and standards. Egg quality
deteriorates after being laid by hen. Many techniques are used to overcome loss of
eggshell and egg components. From marketing stand point, consumer relies on
shell soundness and shell cleanliness. All hens may not be habitual to lay eggs in
nests, some hen lay eggs on floor, so all eggs are not clean. Therefore, appropriate
number of nests, placement before start of egg production, placement strategy and
frequent egg collection will result in production of clean eggs.
8.4.1 Collection
Clean eggs are obtained when nest is clean and eggs are frequently collected. Eggs
can be collected four times in a day i.e., at 8.0 A.M, 11.0 A.M., 1.0 P.M. and 4.0
P.M. It is helpful to keep eggs clean and reduce number of leakers, dirties and
checks. If eggs are collected once or twice in a day, eggs internal quality may be
influenced by ammonia and external eggs quality is also influenced. Temperature
and relative humidity are two main factors that have great influence on egg quality.
To overcome these issues in poultry house, there should be proper ventilation
arrangement. Egg quality problems are usually seen during summer season.
8.4.2 Handling
After collection of eggs, egg handling is important because it helps to reduce low
quality eggs percentage. Numbers of equipment’s are used for handling of eggs at
poultry farms which includes plastic litter flats, metal baskets and wood paper
trays. Best is wood paper tray but it has a single demerit it will be used for a once.
186 M. Yousaf and S. Khan
8.4.3 Storage of Eggs
Shell egg storage can be done by accomplished by storing clean dirt free eggs and
clean, new and odourless packaging material. Water loss due to evaporation should
be reduced as possible and there must be no spoiling products and materials. Egg
storage room should be cleaned regularly with detergent. Temperature, relative
humidity and ventilation must be checked frequently (Panda 1996; Brown 2010).
8.4.4 Cold Storage of Eggs
In tropics, eggs can deteriorate after laying quickly, so they must be stored at low
temperatures. Egg must be stored at ideal temperature 13°C or lower at farm.
Nowadays cold storage of eggs is also in practice to store eggs for several months.
Eggs are purchased and stored when price is low and sold at high price during
winter season
[Link] Factors Affecting Storage
Clean equipment’s are used for egg storage. Proper temperature (1.5°C), relative
humidity (80-85%) and air circulation is required proper storage of eggs.
[Link] Transport of Eggs
For transportation of shell eggs, good quality egg boxes are required to avoid
damage to the eggs. Proper handling and packing of eggs by trained workers. There
must be a proper loading/unloading platform. If possible, make use of lifter. Egg
boxes be properly stacked and avoid jerks. Vehicle must be properly covered to
overcome sun light amd rain.
8.4.5 Preservation of Egg
Objectives of preserving intact eggs are to prevent microbial growth, maintain egg
water content and carbon dioxide tension of interior egg components for as long as
possible. There are several methods used for egg preservation which include
Chinese method, immersion in liquid, dry packing, lime water, cold storage, shell
sealing treatment and coating with oil.
Chinese Methods:
There are various Chinese egg preservation methods as given below:
Huilden
Mixture of salt and wet clay use as coating material to store eggs for a month.
Dsaudan
Cooked rice and salt is used in this egg preservation technique for six months. Shell
softens, egg content coagulates, membrane thickened and winey taste is developed.
8 Poultry Processing 187
Pidan
Lime, salt, tea and wood ashes are used to preserve eggs for five months duration.
There is effect on egg components, yolk become greenish gray and albumin color
change into coffee brown jelly containing tyrosine like crystal.
Immersion in Liquid
This method is used to prevent bacterial decomposition and prevent evaporation of
moisture from egg by action of physical mean.
Dry Packing
This method is also used for the preservation of eggs. Borax and salt solution,
brine, chlorinated lime stone water, phenol, boric acid, bran, chaff, oats, peat dust,
salt, sand, burned gypsum, sawdust, sulfur, soda lime, straw and wood ashes are
used as packing material. To prevent evaporation or decomposition, material which
is used fort packing must not be loose and if the material compact, it may only
retard but not prevent micro-organism growth.
Lime Water
Mixture of slaked quicklime and water is used as preservatives. Alkalinity of lime
water depresses growth of microorganism. A thin film of calcium carbonate is
deposited which help in sealing of pores.
Cold Storage
Egg are held at as low temperature (-1.5°C and -2.0°C) and relative humidity of
85%. Temperature must be kept above freezing point to avoid bursting of shells.
Eggs must be defrosted when removed from cold storage to avoid bacterial growth
and moisture condensation on shell. It delays mold growth on shell egg.
Shell Sealing Treatment
Alum, varnish, wax, boric acid, cotton seed oil, magnesium chloride and mineral
oil are used to prevent removal of CO2, water vapours and microorganisms entrance
into eggs.
Coating with Oil
In this method, eggs are immersed in oil for short time. For coating, dip the eggs in
a tasteless, odorless and colorless edible oil sealing solution to reduce atmosphere
pressure. As normal pressure is restored, here tendency of air to enter in pores of
shell causes solution to drawn in.
Thermo Stabilization
In thermostablization eggs are rotated in a container having oil for a 10 minutes
duration at a temperature of 60°C.
Flash Heat Treatment
Eggs are immersed in boiling water for five seconds which helps in coagulation of
a thin film of albumin just under egg membrane for sealing (Panda 1996).
188 M. Yousaf and S. Khan
8.5 Egg Processing
Egg processing is practiced to prevent eggs from contamination. Several steps are
involved in egg processing. Pasteurization (heating of egg for preserving purpose)
of egg products take place at accurate temperature and time. Main objective of shell
egg pasteurization is to retain quality. Pasteurization has bacteriostatic property,
killing salmonella and has no effect on product color, nutritional value and flavor.
After shell eggs pasteurization, food grade wax is used to prevent contamination
and to maintain freshness. Egg pasteurization play important role against avian
influenza virus. Eggs can be easily frozen for one year, when anyone wants to use
it, just thaws them under running tape water. Eggs are fully dehydrated by spray
drying just like manufacturing powdered milk (Stadelman and Cotteril 2002).
Advantage of processed eggs is that they are free from bacterial contamination,
increased egg shelf life and customers can use cholesterol free eggs.
8.6 Poultry Meat Composition, Inspection and
Grading
8.6.1 Chemical Composition of Meat
Chemical composition of different meat categories as narrated by Panda (1996) is
given below;
Cut Water % Protein % Fat %
Chicken 72.2 25.9 0.6
Mutton 71.5 18.5 13.3
Chevon 74.2 21.4 3.6
Pork 77.4 18.7 4.4
Meat contains proteins which include actin, myosin, myoglobin, elastin, reticulum,
collagen (2.54% of meat, 25% of total proteins) nucleoprotein and blood protein
(hemoglobin, albumin, fibrinogen and globulin).
8.6.2 Meat Inspection
Meat inspection is done to keep away diseased birds from human due to some
health risk factors. Basic purpose for meat inspection is to confirm that whole
poultry meat and meat products are fit for human consumption. Inspection of
transportation system, live animal, carcass, plant facilities, internal organs and
equipments is done for slaughtering poultry. This is all under government control to
make sure that products delivered in market are stamped without any pressure.
There is a licensed inspector, who may be veterinarian or any other special officer
hired who ensures proper product handling, marketing and packing according to the
Act of country. Poultry inspection is usually done by doing ante-mortem and
postmortem inspections. Birds passed by inspector receive a stamp that birds are fit
for human use (Mountney and Parkhurst 2001).
8 Poultry Processing 189
[Link] Objectives
Meat inspection objectives are to inspect product, protect consumer, provide
official assurance of wholesome meat, minimize presence of pathogen, detect and
prevent false labeling.
8.6.3 Principles of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
(HACCP)
Principles of HACCP include making list of all levels where hazard may occur and
determining preventive measure, maintaining control for monitoring activities,
establish corrective actions, make record of all results/information and establish
procedure for verification.
8.6.4 Carcass Disposition
At first step, inspector takes decision about wholesomeness of individual bird
carcass being inspected. If carcass is wholesome, it can move for further processing
and if small portion/area of meat is affected by disease, it will be removed.
Unhealthy carcass is rejected. Avian tuberculosis, leukosis, septicemia, tumors,
synovitis, bruises, air sacculitis, over scald and discolouration requires due
consideration regarding quality meat production.
8.6.5 Meat Grading
Grading is done based on standard which is set to meet market demands. Meat
grading is a procedure through which carcasses are separated based on tenderness,
flavor and juiciness. The criteria for grading poultry meat are given below;
Conformation: Part of bird body being processed is free from any type of
abnormalities (curved breast bone, curved back) that diminish proper distribution of
flesh.
Fleshing: Carcass has proper covering of flesh. Breast has long and deep look with
rounded appearance. Legs are looking wide and with adequately thick fully well
fleshed knees and hip joint area, and have a fleshy appearance of drumstick and
wings are well fleshed.
Fat covering: Well-developed and proper distributed fatty layer in skin.
Defeathering: Looking clean, especially legs and breast
Discoloration: Some part of carcass may have slightly discolored look, it does not
mean that this look has reduce the grade
Disjointed: Tips of joints are sometime removed in case of geese and ducks.
Sometime cartilage bone may separate from breast bone; it may not include in
disjointed.
190 M. Yousaf and S. Khan
8.7. Poultry Meat Processing
Poultry meat processing includes following operations;
Unloading: Live birds are transported to processing plant. At processing plant, live
birds are unloaded by automatic unloading machine. It is a simple process in which
one operator is involved which reduces risk of damage to live birds, ensures longer
shelf life, reduced labor and operation time.
Killing: After stunning, birds head are directed to a circular cutter by a bar. In this
process, blood vessel in bird neck is severed without damaging windpipe.
Scalding: This process refers to loosening skin feathers of carcass in super scalder.
It consists of pre-scalding and main scalding which results in high defeathring.
Temperature of water is maintained by temperature control system. Inner water is
agitated by a steam injected mixer nozzle.
Rehanging: After plucking, shanks are removed and birds are transferred on
evisceration line automatically. By removal of legs, level of hygiene is enhanced.
Vent Cutting: It involves cutting of vent before opening bird.
Opening of Vent: After vent-cut process, machine opens vent to draw out
intestinal tract.
Evisceration: In this process, viscera is removed by using automatic eviscerator.
Ribs, breast, cartilage, or femur are not damaged by using automatic eviscerator.
Harvesting of Viscera: Automatic viscera harvester separates contents of intestinal
tract. It separates gizzard from intestinal tract. This machine consists of up-screw
and down-screw rollers which separates intestines and gizzard.
Cropping: Trachea and crop are removed by using automatic cropping machine. In
this machine, a specially designed screw draws up trachea and crop from interior of
the carcass after penetrating abdominal cavity. Brush and nozzles are also present
which ensures the removal of impurities from inside and outside of carcass.
Further Cleaning: It is done by using vacuum machine, which removes any blood
or pieces of lung in abdominal cavity. Carcass is also rotated along to remove any
waste matter left in the interior.
Washing of bird: High pressure water is applied to remove any impurities from
carcass. Probes open neck of carcass and spray nozzle washes inside of the carcass
for removal of further impurities (Richardson and Mead 2005; Sam 2005).
Conclusion
Chicken eggs and broiler meat are processed in processing plants in good sanitary
and hygienic conditions. Further processing is also done because of customer
demand. These processed products are gaining more popularity in international
market. Proper marketing strategies will ensure more demand and higher returns to
poultry producers.
8 Poultry Processing 191
References
Austic, R.E. and M.C. Nesheim (1990). Poultry Production. Lea and Febiger,
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Bell, D.D. and W.D. Weaver (2007). Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg
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Brown, T. (2010). Poultry Farming. Apple Academic Press 3333 Mist well
Crescent Oakville, ON 6L6 0A2.
Haq, A. and M. Akhtar (2004). Poultry Farming. Higher Education Commission,
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Mountney, G.J. and C.R. Parkhurst (2001). Poultry Products Technology. 3rd
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Panda, P.C. (1996). Text Book on Egg and Poultry Technology. Vikas Publishing
House, New Delhi, India.
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Sam, A.R. (2005). Poultry Meat Processing. Brigbasi Ast. Press. Noida UP, India.
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Press, New York, USA.