Chapter 7

Poultry Hygiene and Disease

Prevention
Ahsan-ul-Haq and Tanveer Ahmad†

Abstract
Poultry hygiene and disease prevention is of utmost importance because healthy
poultry birds ensure more production and profit margins. However, vaccination and
medication is done as and when needed to save birds from lethal diseases. In this
way poultry birds are saved from viral, bacterial, protozoal diseases. Feed of good
quality is used to avoid mycotoxins which hinder bird’s performance.
Keywords: Vaccination, Preventive measures against Viral, Bacterial, Parasitic
Diseases, Feed Poisoning

7.1 Vaccine and Vaccination

A vaccine is A suspension of live attenuated or killed organisms (bacteria, viruses,
parasites), which stimulate immune responses to prevent infections. Vaccines used
in poultry are of two types. Live vaccine usually contains one antigen and may be
administered by spray (aerosol), drinking water, eye drop (Ocular) or in some case
by injection. Antigen may be either disease organism, which has been attenuated
(made less virulent by some suitable means e.g. IB H120) or a naturally occurring
mild strain of the organism (e.g. IB Strain of ND). Killed vaccine consists of
concentrated antigens combined with an oil emulsion or aluminum hydroxide
{Al(OH)2}. They give high and prolonged level of immunity, especially when use

†
Ahsan-ul-Haq
Institute of Animal Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
E-mail: deanhaqfah@[Link]

Tanveer Ahmad
Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, PMAS Arid Agriculture, University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.

Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq

Editors: Muhammad Yousaf, Ahsan ul Haq and Akram ul Haq
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.

159
160 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

after live vaccine. In bivalent or trivalent vaccine two or three antigens can be
included in one vaccine. Oil or adjuvant in killed vaccine causes local inflammation
increasing blood circulation which helps transportation of vaccine and releases
vaccine slowly to produce antibodies for longer period.
In devising a vaccination program, both immunological and commercial factors
must be considered including general health of flock, local pattern of disease,
genetic type, cost benefit against potential loss, short or long term protection
required and vaccination of flocks exposed to diseases in previous generation
which would influence maternal antibodies. Consider type of vaccine required,
route, method and frequency administration, type of poultry geographical location.
Better management, housing, hygienic conditions and preventive measures are
effective disease control measures (Haq et al. 2009).
Vaccination is like an insurance against dreadful diseases. Vaccination also reduces
secondary bacterial complication. Following are instructions for vaccination.
Purchase vaccine from reputed manufacturers and their authorized or get your
vaccine directly and store them in refrigerator at 4-8°C. Check expire date.
Preferably do vaccination in cool hours of morning or evening. Preferably keep
vaccine container in ice bath and don’t expose to sunlight. For vaccination in
drinking water, keep birds thirsty for a few hours before giving water-containing
vaccine. Ample number of waterers is recommended for proper vaccination. Use
cold water, free from chlorine, obnoxious smell or any drug, when vaccine is to be
dissolved in it. Use vaccine within prescribed limit after it is dissolved. Generally,
use within 1hour is very safe. Use plastic made drinkers (but not made iron made
drinkers) for vaccination in drinking water. If possible, serum of vaccinated birds
may be tested to ascertain proper vaccination and immunity against that disease,
two weeks or more after vaccination, particularly Newcastle Disease. Restrict
traffic near vaccinated birds. Supplement vitamins before and after vaccination.
Mostly use automatic injectors. Make sure that nasal of injection and dropper
works efficiently. Keep frozen vaccine frozen, mix that thoroughly, and do not
vaccinate more birds form a vial than the recommended. Don’t rush the vaccination
job. Presence of technical person is necessary to avoid skipping of birds.
Below are listed the methods of vaccine administration:
1. Injections I/M and subcutaneous.
2. Ocular: Most effective in case of live vaccine.
3. Nasal
4. Oral
5. Water
6. Dust
7. Cloacal: into the tissues in the upper portion of cloaca.
8. Wing web: by puncturing wing web and applying vaccine.
9. Feather follicles: By removing several feathers and swabbing or spraying
vaccine over the area.
10. Spraying: Sprayed in air, on bird, in the mouth very fine mist of size 5 µ m
is effective.
11. Beak-dipping (oculo-nasal route).
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 161

12. Transfixion and scarification.

Take a bowl containing ice in it, mix vaccine (1000 doses) with diluents of 30 ml in
a sterile dropper bottle. Each millilitre should deliver about 35 drops from this
dropper bottle, take two other sterile, empty diluents dropper bottles and distribute
this reconstituted vaccine (as mentioned in 2) including these two empty sterile
bottles evenly. Now mix vaccine in three dropper bottle in almost even quantities
i.e. about 10 ml in each dropper bottle and place three dropper bottles in a bowl of
ice with heir nozzles facing upwards. Two workers should work at a time with
three dropper bottles. Third bottle should be placed in bowl contain ice in it. Both
workers should keep exchanging their dropper bottle with one in the ice bowl
alternatively after about every 5 minutes therefore, they would always have an
access of cool vaccine and the quality of the vaccine would be maintained more
efficiently during vaccination period. Eyeball of chicken must be held horizontally
to prevent droplets of vaccine from rolling off. In case of nasal-drop vaccination,
one nostril is covered so that vaccine is inhaled adequately by birds. Keep adding
new and good dropper bottles to your stock and keep kicking out old dropper
bottles which fall into category of “leaking bottles” or bottles with inadequate
nozzles. One may develop multiple replicates of this procedure at one premises at a
time if if the sufficient labour and other resources are available.
The main causes which render vaccines useless are listed below:
Immunosuppresson: There are various factors which cause immune-suppression.
They are disease like Gumboro, Marek’s and Coccidiosis, Mycotoxins in feed,
certain bacterial, viral infections and nutritional deficiency.
Handling of Vaccines: If the vaccine is not handled properly, vaccination failure
may occur.
Storage of Vaccines: If vaccines are not stored at required temperature (4-8°C),
they may lose potency and vaccination failure may occur.
Transport of Vaccines: Vaccines should be transported in a closed chamber
packed with ice. Negligence may result in vaccination failure.
Expired Vaccines: If vaccine used is expired one, vaccination failure occur.
Presence of Maternal Antibodies: After hatching chicks have some antibodies
that are transmitted from parents. These antibodies protect them in early life.
Sometimes, antibodies produced because of vaccination interfere with the maternal
antibodies and hence desired immunity does not develop.
Interval between Two Different Vaccines: Sometime birds are vaccinated against
two different diseases within a very small gap. This can also result in vaccination
failure may be due to interference of direction of different vaccines, existing
antibodies may get neutralized due to encountering antibodies produced by other
vaccine, birds are exposed to additional stress.
Health Status of the Flock: Weak sick or diseased birds should never be
vaccinated. If carried on vaccination failure occurs.
Stress: Never vaccinate before or after deworming or before or after debeaking.
162 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

Worms: if present interfere with defense mechanism of the bird. Due to weakness,
proper immunity is not produced. Therefore, deworming should be done prior to
vaccination.
Weather/Climate: Always avoid administration of vaccine during warm hours of
the days.
Different Age Groups: Vaccination failure may also occur if different age birds
are reared at the same time and vaccinated separately. If diluent is not pre-chilled it
may contribute to breakdown in immunity. Diluent should be sterile.
Reconstitution of Vaccines: If vaccines are not reconstituted properly, exact is not
supplied to birds so it results in vaccination failure.
Storage of Reconstituted Vaccine: Reconstituted vaccine should be stored under
refrigerated conditions in an ice packed container, otherwise it results in failure.
Time between Reconstitution and Administration: Reconstituted vaccine should
be administered within an hour or maximum within two hours otherwise. Potency
of vaccine diminishes greatly.
Antibiotic in Feed/Water: No antibiotic should be given in feed or water three
days before and after the vaccination.
Poor Sanitation: If hygienic conditions are not maintained at farm, failure of
vaccination occurs frequently.
Pesticides Consumption: Pesticides in feed if consumed by bird depresses defense
mechanism and hence immunity is not developed.
Disposal of Vaccine: vaccine vials should be properly disposed off. They may
cause problems. Vaccination Period (Age): There is an age of administration of
each vaccine. If age factor is neglected vaccine may fail to produce immunity in
birds. Vaccination route: If vaccine administration route is changed vaccine fails.
Under Dosing: If vaccine dose is less failure may occur.
[Link] Defects in the Method of Administration Water Vaccination
When water vaccination is done, chances of failure may be due to more number of
birds, more quantity of water added, some sanitizer is used, high water temperature,
exposure to direct sunlight, sick birds unable to drink water, water contains high
metallic level and pH. When birds are not of uniform age/size, smaller birds not
able to drink well.
In Spray vaccines, improper spraying, dilution, equipment not working well and all
birds cannot come under the range of spray. Intra-Ocular vaccine could not be
dropped in eye due to blockage in dropper. Wing Web vaccine not administered
properly or stabber not properly dipped in vaccine vial. Injectable vaccine not
injected at proper site, non-sterile syringe or needles or having residues of
disinfectants and birds let unvaccinated.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 163

[Link] Vaccination Schedules

Vaccination schedule for broiler, layer and breeder flock is given in Tables 7.1, 7.2
and 7.3, respectively.

Table 7.1. Broiler vaccination schedule.

Age (days) Vaccine
4 ND+IB Live and ND Killed
8 IBD Intermediate
14 ND Lasoota
16 IBD Hot Strain/Intermediate Plus

Table 7.2. Layer vaccination schedule.

Age in Days Name of Vaccine Company
1 ND + IB Intervet
8 ND + IB + IBD Killed IBD Live Merial
18 IBD Live Intervet
26 H9 Killed Merial
33 IB 4/91 Live Intervet
45 FOWL POX Merial
53 ND + IB Live/ND+H9 Killed Intervet/Merial
62 IB 4/91 Live Intervet
83 ND + IB Live/H9 Killed Intervet/Merial
92 ND + IB +E.D.S Merial/Ceva
After every two month ND (Lasoota) Intervet/Merial

Table 7.3. Broiler breeder vaccination schedule.

Age (Days) Name of Vaccine Company Route
1 Ma5+IB4/91 Live Intervet Hatchery spray
4 Cocci Live ICI/Pfizer Drinking Water
7 ND Lasoota+ H9 Killed Intervet/Merial Eye drop +Injection
10 IBD D-78Live+ND/IB/IBD Killed Intervet /CEVA Eyed op+ Injection
18 Hydro Killed (Anga Vac) Merial Injection
22 IBD(D78) +H5Killed Intervet +Merial Eye drop +Injection
28 ND Live +( ND+H9) Killed Intervet + Merial Eye drop +Injection
36 IB 120 + H7 Killed Ceva + Merial Eye drop +Injection
44 Fowl Pox Ceva+ Merial Injection
48 IB 4/91 Intervet Eye drop
52 ND+ IB Killed Merial Injection
60 SHS Live Merial Eye Drop
70 AE Live+ H9 Killed Merial Eye Drop+ Injection
77 CAV Live Intervet Injection
80 EDS Killed Intervet Injection
86 FowlCholera +Reo Merial + Intervet Injection +Eye drop
92 ND+IB Live+H7 Intervet + Merial Eye drop
105 AE Live + H5 Killed Merial Eye Drop+ Injection
164 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

Age (Days) Name of Vaccine Company Route

112 ILT Live Intervet Eye drop
119 SHS+ Fowl Cholera Merial Eye Drop + Injection
130 ND+H9 Killed+ Reo Merial+ Intervet Injection + Eye drop
140 ND+IB+EDS+SHS Merial Injection
144 IB Variant Killed Merial/Intervet Injection
147 IBD Killed Merial Injection
150 H7 Killed Merial Injection
158 H5 Killed Merial Injection
168 NDI+IB Live+ ND Killed Intervet + Merial Eye drop+ Injection

7.2 Parasitic Diseases and their Control

7.2.1 Coccidiosis
Light to severe acute, chronic disease exhibiting high mortality, anorexia, enteritis,
drooping wings, mild to severe pin point hemorrhages on external surface of
intestine and caecal lesions, fluffy birds and death may occur. This disease can be
classified into two types: intestinal and caecal Coccidiosis.
[Link] Etiology
Coccidiosis is caused by E. acervulina, E. nagani, E. maxima, E. mitis, E. mivati,
E. necatrix. E. praecox, E. brunetti and E. tenella.
[Link] Factors Influencing Susceptibility
High humidity overcrowding and moist litter causes severe disease outbreak.
Broilers are more susceptible than layers and disease can occur at any age but
mostly during 3rd week of age.
[Link] Symptoms
a. External Signs
Birds seem fluffy, having blood in droppings.
b. Postmortem Symptoms
There are pin point hemorrhages on small intestine which can be seen from outer
surface and intestine when cut refold immediately. Blood in small intestine and
caeca can be observed in severe coccidiosis outbreak, which is full of bloody feces.
[Link] Prevention and Control
a. Hygiene
Proper disinfection and sanitation is required at poultry farm.
b. Management
Keep young stock away from adults, regular stirring of litter. Prevent dampness in
shed. To keep litter dry add super phosphate at the rate of 15-20 kg/1000 feet2.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 165

c. Treatment
Any one of the followings may be given for treatment of coccidiosis
– SB Amprol-50 1g/litter
– ESB3 @1 g/litter water
– Diasulfina @1 cc/litter water
– Amprolium @1 g/litter water
– Darvisul AK plus @1 teaspoon/gallon water
– Embazine @ 4 ml/litter water
– Narcox @ 1 teaspoon/gallon water
– Coxeva powder @ 1 teaspoon/gallon water
–
Administer medicine for 3 days then 2 days rest and then 2 days. Always use
vitamins A and K with medicine, never use vitamins of B group during treatment.
Move the bird in case of severe disease outbreak so that they can drink medicated
water. In broilers for preventive measures use any one of the following
continuously
– Nopidol 125 g/ton of feed
– Coccidine ½ kg/ton of feed or 25 g/kg feed
– Clopidol-25 ½ kg/ton of feed or 25 g/kg feed
–
In layers for coccidiosis treatment Stenrol 1-2 kg/ton of feed is given for 7 days as
it does not affect egg production.

7.3 Prophylactic Measures against Bacterial Diseases

7.3.1 Omphalitis
This disease affects chicks when they are hatching. It results in an infection of
umbilical opening. Disease is also known as yolk sac infection, naval infection and
mushy chick disease. There is an inflammation of navel when chicks are hatching
or during first week of life. It is commonest cause of early chick mortality.
Infection of yolk sac and navel are responsible for majority of deaths in chicks after
three days of hatching and up to 14 days of their life.
[Link] Etiology
It is a disease of single or mixed bacterial infection. Mainly it is a salmonella
infection, however, Salmonella gallinarum, Salmonella typhimurium, Coli form (E.
coli), Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridia spp. (C. Welchii, C. Sporogenes),
Enterococci and Pseudomonas are causative agents for coccidiosis disease.
Bacteria invade umbilical tissues because of improper conditions in hatcher. Navel
opening does not close, and infection passes to the internal organs. Mostly neonatal
chicks are affected. This cause stress to newly hatched chicks which is mainly due
to improper hatchery hygiene, low humidity in hatchery and imperfect healing of
naval
166 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

[Link] Pathogenesis
Seat of infection is incubator due to high humidity, fluctuating temperature, poor
hygiene and penetration through shell into yolk. Bacteria There is deterioration and
decomposition of yolk causing nutrient deprivation. Umbilical penetration during
last days of incubation or immediately after hatching due to high humidity which
prevents closure of umbilical opening, infection passes to internal organs and
septicemia leading to death.
[Link] Signs and Symptoms
There are weak chicks that huddle near heat source. Vent pasting (may be due to
high temp.). Pungent odor from yolk is unique symptom of this disease. Infected
skin around navel with inflammation, abdomen soft, mushy, flabby and distended
due to enlarged yolk sac.
[Link] Postmortem Symptoms
Abdomen filled with yolk, inflamed and discoloured yolk (yellow, blue or green).
Large watery yolk with foul smell. Sometimes bean shaped yolk at duodenum and
jejunum junction. Lungs congested, liver and kidney are dark and swollen.
[Link] Prevention and Control
For Salmonella free breeder, set clean eggs (check storage and fumigation process
at hatchery), avoid chilling or overheating, improve hatchery cleanliness,
management and provide best brooding conditions.
[Link] Treatment
In case of outbreak do flushing to open closed vent (2.5 kg molasses solution/1000
chicks or 250 g sugar per gal water), high quality feed (give mold free ground
maize), green fodder (to increase motility of intestine). Use antibiotics any one of
these; Nitrofurans (Furazolidone @ 20 g/bag of feed, Furasole 1 teaspoon/gal
water, Furazole 80 g/bag of feed, Erythro-FZ 4-5 teaspoon/gal water) or Tribrissen
@ 1 cc/gal 5-7 days.

7.3.2 Pullorum
Acute, infectious and highly fatal disease of young chicks and mature poultry birds,
caused by Salmonella pullorum having vertical and horizontal transmission.
Predisposing factors are overcrowding, poor ventilation and high brooding
temperature
[Link] Symptoms (Chicks)
Small grayish nodules on heart, gizzard muscles, leg paralysis and swollen joints.
[Link] Diagnosis and Control
Whole blood test, remove carrier birds from the parent flock and use proper
medicine for parent flock and proper sanitation and disinfection of hatchery and
poultry house.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 167

[Link] Treatment Anyone for 5-7 Days

Furazolidone (Furazolidone @ 20 g/bag of feed, Furasole 1 teaspoon/gal water,
Furazole 80 g/bag of feed)
Sulpha drugs (Tribrissen @ 1 cc/gal, Trimodin 1 teaspoon/gal water)
Erythro FZ. (4-5 teaspoon/gal water or 150 g/bag of feed)

7.3.3 Fowl Typhoid

This disease is associated with unhygienic condition and poor management. Most
commonly found in egg producing units. Fowl Typhoid i also known as Infectious
leukemia and Klien’s disease. It is characterized by profuse, bright, sulfur yellow
diarrhea, sleepiness and anemia of the comb and wattles.
[Link] Etiology and Transmission
Cause of this disease is Baccillus gallinarum also known as Salmonella gallinarum.
It is killed in a few minutes by direct sunlight. Ingestion of contaminated feed,
water, droppings, contaminated hands of workers and careless disposing of dead
bird carcass. In carcass, it survives 7 months and in droppings 1-2 months.
[Link] Signs and Symptoms
Birds become weak. Comb and wattles become black and congested. Yellowish
colour faeces sometimes green or gray or sulphur yellow colour. High body
temperature 110-113°F is noticed in this disease. Liver become dark red, when
exposed to air its colour change into bronze. Swollen and congested spleen. Lungs
show yellowish, brown colour, congested and edematous. On opening intestine,
there may be yellow colour faeces and mucus.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Visibly affected birds should be destroyed and carcasses of dead birds should be
disposed off. Proper hygienic conditions must be maintained at farm. Droppings of
infected birds should be properly dumped. Furazolidone is added in feed @ 0.04%
for 10 days. Carrier birds must be detected and culled from flock. Do proper
disinfection of hatchery and chick transporting vehicles. Vaccination of birds if
available.
[Link] Treatment
In case of outbreak, first reduce body temperature of birds by calpol syrup or soda
salicylate 1 teaspoon/gallon or 5 tablets of paracitamol/gallon. Furazolidone is drug
of choice. Use any one of the followings for 5-7 days.
Furavex 1 TSP/gal.
CF suspension ½ TSP/gal.
Chlorophenical capsules 5-6 /gal.
Furazolidone 20 g/bag
Furasole 1 TSP/gal.
Furazole 80 g/bag
168 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

7.3.4 Fowl Cholera

It is infectious bacterial disease which may be in acute septicaemic or chronic form.
In septicaemic form there is high mortality, while in chronic form production losses
occur. Causative organism Pasteurella multocida, which is transmitted by
contamination from carrier birds, rodents, nasal exudates, cannibalism of dead
carcass and mechanical carriers.
[Link] Symptoms
Acute infection: Visibly sick birds, ruffled feathers, mucous discharge from beak,
diarrhoea, cyanosis of combs and wattles and respiratory distress prior to death.
Chronic infection: Swollen wattles, swollen sinuses, arthritis, respiratory distress,
drop in egg production and low mortality.
Postmortem findings: Small haemorrhages on heart, lungs, abdominal fat and
intestines. There is congested liver having yellowish follicles. Facial oedema and
blood stained mucous in mouth, cheesy plugs in conjunctivae sac and in wattles.
[Link] Diagnosis
Inject 0.2 ml suspension of infect tissues in the sparrows s/c route if death occur
within 24 hrs then fowl cholera is confirmed. In A.I. large blood splashes are found
on sternum, proventriculus and other abdominal organs. In case of cholera small
haemorrhages may be found on abdominal organs.
[Link] Prevention and Treatment
All in all out system is method of choice with proper disposal of dead birds. Carrier
birds should be removed. Proper sanitation and hygiene should be adopted.
Use any of the following medicines.
– TM 200 65 g/bag for 7 days.
– Tribrissen 1 cc/gal water for 7 days.
– Polymycin 1 TSP/gal water for 7 days.

7.3.5 E. coli Infection

E. coli is normal inhabitant of intestinal tract of birds, animals and man. This is also
found in dust, water, on skin, hair, feathers and in all places contaminated with
feces. There are many specific conditions showing involvement of E. coli, usually
it appears as thin white creamy layer over liver and abdominal organs. Enteritis,
pericarditis, salpingitis, synovitis, omphalitis, coligranuloma, septicemia, air
sacculitis and peri hepatitis are specific conditions of E. coli. E. coli is usually a
secondary cause.
[Link] Transmission, Prevention and Control
Transmission to egg is either by faeces or salpingitis. Other sources are feed,
hatchery and water. Cross ventilation help reduce E. coli load. Pelleted feed has
less chances of contamination. Keep chicks warm and well fed. Proper egg storage
and hatchery sanitation. Rodent droppings are source of pathogenic E. coli.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 169

[Link] Treatment
Disinfection: With KMnO4 and then keep equipment in sunlight and spray formalin
1:24 inside the shed and 1:12 outside. Use any of the following medicines for 5-7
days.
– Tribrissen 1 cc/gal water
– Gallamycine 2 TSP/gal water
– Tylan premix 80-100 g/bag feed
– Lincospectin 1 g/2 liter water
– TSC-80 1 g/2 liter water

7.3.6 Infectious Coryza Infection

Acute or sub acute rapidly spreading respiratory disease, characterized by swelling
of face, nasal discharge and sneezing. Causative Organism is Hemophilus
gallinarum. Mostly outbreaks occur at high altitude and in cold damp weather. It is
transmitted though carrier birds, air, feed and water.
[Link] Symptoms
There is foul smelling, nasal, eye discharge and sticking of feed on beak. Swelling
of face, eyes, comb, wattles, decreased egg production (10-40%), Haemorrhages
and mucous in respiratory tract is also observed in this disease.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Provide good hygienic and sanitary conditions to birds. Proper sanitation and
disinfection is recommended of poultry house. Isolate sick birds. In case of
outbreak: Wash equipment with KMnO4 and spray formalin (1:24 inside and 1:12
outside shed).
[Link] Treatment
1. TSE 380 @ ½ Tsp/gal. for 5-7 days
2. Tribrissen @ 1.0 ml/gal. for 5-7 days or Inj. 0.1 ml/kg
3. Gallamycine @ 2 Tsp/gal. for5-7 days
4. Terravet @ 3-6 g/gal. for 3-5 days
5. Oxy-N50 @ 2.5 g/liter for 5-7 days
6. Tylodox @ 1.0 g/gal. for 5 days
7. Fumicin @ 0.5 ml/liter for 5 days
8. Streptomycin Inj. @ 1.0 g/5 birds
9. Procaine Penicillin @ 40 Lac. One inj./250 birds.
10. Erythrocine powder @ 150-200 g/bag feed.

7.3.7 Chronic Respiratory Disease (Mycoplasma)

Chronic respiratory disease affects upper and lower respiratory tract of chickens,
turkeys and other birds. Characterized by gasping, rales, coughing, nasal discharge
170 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

and rhinitis. Mycoplasma gallisepticum smallest bacterium with no rigid cell wall.
Infected eggs, contact with infected birds and equipment.
[Link] Signs and Symptoms
Chickens: Nasal discharge, rattling in wind pipe, coughing, gasping, sneezing and
shaking of head. Males have more prominent signs.
Broilers: Poor carcass quality, high condemnation rate. Thin and weak birds with
razor blade breasts are seen. Most outbreaks occur between 4-8 weeks of age. Poor
feed conversion, sharp decline in weight gain. Morbidity rate is fairly high.
[Link] Postmortem Findings
Early stage: Excess mucous in trachea, consolidated and solid spots on lungs,
cheesy material in lungs, air sacculitis, beaded or lymph follicular appearance and
caseous exudates in air sacs. “Foamy or Soapy” air sacs are observed in the disease.
Advanced stage: Perihepatitis and pericarditis. Formation of creamy color layer
over heart and liver. Abdominal organs are covered, thickness of layer will indicate
advancement of CRD and plugs of pus are seen in trachea and pale muscles.
[Link] Prevention
Prevention is through establishment of Mycoplasma free breeders, purchase CRD
free chicks from hatchery, keep good biosecurity conditions, dispose dead birds
properly. Avoid wild birds, prohibition of visitors and strict sanitary measures
should be adopted.
[Link] Treatment
Disinfect equipment with KMnO4. Spray formalin solution or TH4 @ 4 cc/liter. Use
any one of the following medicines.
– Imequyl 20% @ 2-2.5 ml/gal for 7 days
– Avitryl @ 2-2.5 ml/gal for 7 days
– Norfloxillin 200 @ 1.0 cc/gal for 7 days
– Tribrissen @ 1.0 ml/gal for 7 days
– Terramycin L.A. Inj. @ 1.0 cc/kg body wt.
– Gallamycin @ 2 Tsp/gal for 7 days
– Linco-Spectin @ 0.5 Tsp/gal for 7 days
Use any of Tylan preparation.
– Tylan premix @ 80 g/bag for 7 days
– Pulmotil @ 15-20 mg/kg body weight 3-5 days
– Tyleco Solubal @ 1.0 g/2 liter water 3-5 days
– Tylodox injection.
– Tylodox powder 1.0 g/gal for 7 days
– Tylotad injection
– Tylan D.H.S. Injection.
Tylomycin F @ 2.5 g/liter for 7 days.
Cenamicina Sol. @ 2.5 g/liter for 7 days.
Quimicoli @ 1.0 cc/2 liter for 7 days.
Eriprim @ 2.0 g/liter for 7 days.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 171

Floxatxil @ 1 cc/2.0 liter for 7 days.

Sintsol @ 1 cc/2.0 liter for 7 days.
Atiquinine @ 1.0 g/5 liter for 7 days.
Doxycycline powder @ 1.0 Tsp + Oxy-N50 @ 1.0 Tsp /gal for 7 days
Improve ventilation for having good results of medicine.

7.4 Preventive Measures for Viral Diseases

7.4.1 Newcastle Disease
It is an infectious, highly contagious and fatal disease chiefly affecting chickens
and characterized by respiratory, digestive and nervous symptoms and high
mortality in susceptible birds. Caused by a paramyxovirus type-1.
[Link] Transmission
Transmission of this disease is through infected, carrier birds, poultry products,
offals from infected birds, mechanical vectors, wild birds, incomplete vaccination,
contaminated feed and water.
[Link] Signs and Symptoms
Incubation period is 2-15 days. ND affects 3 major systems; respiratory, digestive
and nervous system. There is voice production during disease period. Greenish
white diarrhoea and nervous signs i.e. convulsions, muscular tremors, stargazing,
walking in circles.
[Link] Internal Signs
In this deisease haemorrhages are Present on glandular portion of proventriculus.
There is reddening of trachea, cloudy air sacs, lung congestion and haemorrhages in
mucosa and submucosa of intestine. Dark red and purple red hemorrhagic lesions
are seen on intestinal wall. Spleen may be enlarged in early stages and shrunken in
late stages.
[Link] Differential Diagnosis
Vice production: voice production is also found in IB, ILT, Coryza, CRD and
Fowl pox (in case of fowl pox, pox lesions are present in mucosa of buckle cavity).
Haemorrhages on proventriculus: This present in case of Gumboro but these are
found on the junction of proventriculus and gizzard.
Backward movement of bird: This is also found in case of Vitamin E deficiency.
Respiratory symptoms along with greenish white diarrhoea and haemorrhages on
glandular portion of proventriculus confirm N.D. disease.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Avoid entry of carrier birds. Feed and water should not be contaminated. Prevent
contact of virus with susceptible birds. Hatchery should be away from broiler
dressing and other poultry operations. Adopt strict biosecurity measures. Vaccinate
broilers at 7-10 days and 25-28 days while layers at 7-10 days, 25-28 days and 4
172 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

month then repeat every 3 months. Repeat after every three months, Lasoota in
drinking water. Due to any stress or disease antibody level may reduce then do not
wait for three month interval but vaccinate birds as early as they recover for
disease. In case of outbreak, adopt all sanitary measures and vaccinate all healthy
birds as early as possible. There is proper treatment but to avoid secondary
infection some antibiotics should be used.

7.4.2 Infectious Bursal Disease

Synonyms are Gumboro, Infectious Bursitis and Avian Nephrosis Syndrome. It is
characterized by destruction of lymphocytes, β cells which are responsible for
antibody production. Destruction of these cells immune response to vaccines is
reduced and birds become susceptible to other infections like CRD, Coryza and
enteritis etc. Causative organism is a virus of Birna viridae family.
[Link] Transmission and Symptoms
No vertical transmission. Virus is secreted in droppings even after 2 week of
infection. Disease is transmitted through contaminated feed, water, worms, mites
and blood sucking insects. Whitish watery mucoid diarrhoea, soiled vent feather
with white diarrhoea, ruffled feather and trembling of birds. There is high body
temperature 110-112°F when bird is suffering from this disease.
[Link] Postmortem Lesions
Bursa becomes congested oedematous and swollen, 2-3 times than normal size.
There are haemorrhages inside the bursal folds. Mucosal haemorrhages seen at
proventriculus and gizzard junction. In this disease kidneys become pale and
swollen with deposition of urates. Haemorrhages are seen on breast and thigh
muscles, sometimes with pus formation.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Proper hygiene and sanitation (with formaldehyde and phenolic compounds)
conditions are required for prevention and control of this disease. Vaccination is
done on day 7th, 14th and 28th. Disease attack is maximum up to 12-16 weeks of
age. Phenyl is disinfectant of choice after Gumboro attack at farm, it can kill virus.
Vaccines are Bur706, Gumboral CT, Gumbopest, Bigopest, Gumboro vaccine
Nobillis D78 and Bursine II.
[Link] Treatment
In case of outbreak if symptoms appear after 1-2 days of vaccine, then it is vaccine
reaction and if after 15 days then it is Gumboro attack then repeat vaccination to
healthy birds. Reduce temperature by APC, paracetamol tablets or Calpol syrup 5
tsp or 5 tablets/gal. or soda salisilate 1 tsp/gal. or 5 Brufen tablet/gallon water. Use
any antibiotic to reduce secondary infection chances. Use vitamins and dilute feed
i.e. corn 50 parts, wheat and rice 25 parts each with ½ kg dry milk for 100 kg
ration.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 173

7.4.3 Hydro Pericardium Syndrome

Hydro pericardium means water in pericardium (membrane surrounding heart filled
with water). This disease is also called as Angara, Hydro pericardium pulmonary
edema, hepato nephrosis complex or inclusion body hepatitis. Hydropericardium
disease was first observed in Pakistan in 1987-88 and is caused by Adenovirus
strain K31/89. Broilers, layers as well as breeder birds are susceptible birds. Birds
shed virus in feces which is source of infection.
[Link] Predisposing Factors
Highly pathogenic to day old chicks causes 80% mortality. Most susceptible age is
3 to 5 weeks. No sex predisposition. Predisposing factors are overcrowding,
unhygienic and poor sanitary conditions. Presence of hepatotoxins and mycotoxins
in feed is one of the predisposing factors for this disease. Any type of stress in farm
can cause this disease.
[Link] External Symptoms
Externally it is very much difficult to diagnose it. There is chalky gray to bright
light yellow mucoid droppings. Jaundice signs in some birds. Sudden mortality in
3rd week peaks in 4/5 week subsides in 5/6 week. Sometimes birds show signs of
difficult breathing.
[Link] Postmortem Symptoms
Febrile carcass like Gumboro and Fowl Typhoid are found in case of this disease.
Most important organ to be observed is heart. Pericardium sac is distended with
fluid. Mostly amount of fluid is 5-8 ml. Colour of fluid is clear to light yellow.
There is non-clotted fluid but gelatinizes on exposure to air. Misshapen and flabby
heart i.e. soft and cracks on touching. Sub cutaneous and body fat of pale yellow
color. Enlarged, congested, pale and necrotic liver are seen during postmortem.
Pale bone marrow, death of bird occurs due to heart and liver failure.
[Link] Vaccination and Treatment
½ cc inj. preferably intramuscular on 15-17 or 21 day of age. No treatment but
supportive therapy can be done. Protein and fat content of diet is reduced. Provide
glucose in water. Feed grains only. Provide liver tonic medicines like Hepamerz or
Jetepar @ 2 teaspoon/gal water.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Purchase Adenovirus free chicks. Proper cleanliness and disinfection of shed is
required for prevention and control of this disease. Isolate sick birds. Keep all birds
of same age. It is recommended to provide mycotoxin free feed and stress free
environment to birds.
[Link] Outbreak Management
No treatment, vaccinate birds, repeat vaccine only if previous vaccine was done 15-
20 days before. Surviving birds are susceptible to E. coli, respiratory infections,
coccidiosis, IBD and ND so precautionary measures should be taken. To avoid
174 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

secondary infections especially respiratory infections, use broad spectrum

antibiotics after vaccination.

7.4.4 Infectious Bronchitis

It is an acute or sub-acute highly contagious disease of chicken, characterized by
respiratory symptoms and high mortality in young chicks and decreased egg
production and deterioration of egg quality in laying birds. Corona virus is the
cause of this disease. Chicken is susceptible host. Mostly it attacks at 10-12 weeks
of age. ND, Coryza and CRD are influencing factors.
[Link] Clinical Signs
In young chicks: coughing, sneezing and nasal discharge, huddle under heat source,
mortality up to 30%, it damages oviduct; birds grow like normal birds but produce
less eggs. In growing birds: mild respiratory signs and may remain unnoticed.
Disease may lead to permanent oviduct injury resulting in 20% non-layers with 1-
2% mortality. Adult birds: less severe or absent respiratory signs, egg production
comes to normal in 30 days, misshapen eggs, moulting before time, watery
albumin. Sometimes with haemorrhages on albumin or yolk
[Link] Postmortem Lesions and Control
Same symptoms as of ILT but accumulates watery mucous in trachea, acute
tracheitis. Ovary looks normal but oviduct is affected (abnormal), kidneys of chicks
are damaged (swollen). Follow vaccination program. In case of disease outbreak
antibiotics are used to avoid secondary infection. To reduce misshapen eggs, use
DCP @ 1 kg/bag and Ferrous sulphate @ 10 g/bag for 5-7 days.
7.4.5 Avian Influenza
There are three types of influenza viruses namely influenza A, B and C. Type C
influenza virus shows very mild symptoms and does not cause epidemic. Type A
and B influenza viruses are epidemic causing viruses. Type B influenza virus is not
having any subtypes but it can be divided into strains viz. B Yamagata and B
Victoria viruses. Influenza A virus has numerous subtypes base on surface antigens
haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) having 18 and 11 subtypes, respectively
(Anonymous 1980; Anonymous 2014). Influenza A type virus infection can be
classified into low pathogenic and high pathogenic infections. High pathogenic
influenza virus strains include H1N1, H3N2 and H5N1. This infection can cause a
wide variety of symptoms ranging from conjunctivitis to dyspnea, acute respiratory
distress which may lead to respiratory failure etc. Sometimes it can show even
neurologic symptoms like fits along with abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhea.
Diagnosis of highly pathogenic influenza A from B or C type virus is not possible
as this virus shows overlapping symptoms and requires laboratory testing.
Its symptoms range from mild upper respiratory disease to reproductive failure or
highly fatal generalized disease caused by Orthomixovirus A type. There are two
types of attack; less virulent influenza virus and highly pathogenic virus.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 175

[Link] Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza

Anorexia, huddling, ruffled feathers. Mild respiratory sings, sinusitis, sneezing.
There is severe drop in egg production, decreased fertility. There may be low
mortality or high (60-70%) in case of secondary infection.
[Link] Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
Sudden onset of disease may cause high mortality. High and body temperature
(113°F). Swelling (subcutaneous oedema) of head, face especially wattles, severe
respiratory signs, rales, coughing, oedema of glottis excessive fluid from sinusitis
and cessation of egg laying is noticed in this disease.
[Link] Postmortem Lesions and Diagnosis
Blood splashes on sternum, proventriculus, heart, trachea and intestine.
Haemorrhagic tracheitis and dark red muscles are observed in this disease. Disease
occurs in late summer, fall or early winter. Decreased egg production or increased
condemnation for secondary collibacillosis. Severe drop (90%) in egg production,
blood splashes on sternum, proventriculus, heart and intestine will confirm the
disease.
[Link] Differential Diagnosis
In case of ND haemorrhages on glandular portion of proventriculus while in case of
influenza there are blood splashes on whole proventriculus. In case of fowl cholera
apparently, bird shows similar conditions (wattles swollen and dark blue) but signs
are less pronounced.
[Link] Treatment, Prevention and Control
Disease spread through infected birds or wild birds, infected feed/water utensils.
Vaccinate birds, isolate sick birds and destroy them. No specific treatment.

7.4.6 Fowl Pox

Fowl Pox is characterized by formation of lesions and scab on soft parts of body
(comb, wattles, mouth, under wings). Disease is caused by a virus of genus avipox
and family pox viridiae. Mechanical transmission to injure and laceratred skin.
Mosquitoes can also transmit it. Incubation period is 4-10 days.
[Link] Symptoms
This occurs in following three forms i.e. cutaneous, diphtheritic and oculo-nasal
form.
Cutaneous (dry) Form: Most common, small lesions on comb and wattle remain
moist for short time then dry, turn yellow, brown and then dark brown. Lesions at
the angle of beak, mouth, around eyes, ventral surface of wings on legs and vent.
Removal of lesion leaves dry or moist hemorrhages. Negligible mortality but high
morbidity is noticed in this disease.
Diphtheritic (wet) Form: This is also known as avian diphtheria. There is voice
production, lesions on moist mucus membranes, white opaque nodules develop and
176 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

increase rapidly, gasping, suffocation occur due to lesions in larynx, mortality

prevails due to suffocation.
Oculo-nasal Form: Swelling of eyes (conjunctivitis), infra orbital sinuses and in
breeders lesions are in oviduct, cloaca and skin of vent.
[Link] Effects of Disease
Reduced growth and abnormal feathering, lowered production even remains out of
production for several weeks, lowered fertility and infection prevails even from 8-9
weeks of age.
[Link] Postmortem Lesions
Lesions are seen on mucus membrane of mouth, respiratory tract and oesophagus.
[Link] Prevention and Control
Dead birds must be buried or incinerated, proper disinfection, control of
cannibalism, beak trimming not recommended during disease outbreak and
vaccinate at 6-8 weeks along with vitamin A, K to overcome stress.
[Link] Treatment
No treatment, avoid secondary infections. Apply tincture iodine on lesions.
Application of vaseline around lesions and in mouth will facilitate feeding and
prevent secondary infection. Use any one of the followings for 7 days.
– TM200 @ 65 g/bag feed
– Oxytetracycline (11%) @ 125 g/bag
– Tribrissen @ 1.0 ml/gallon
– Tylomycin @ 2.5 g/liter etc.

7.4.7 Avian Leukosis Complex

Viruses of leukosis group induce a spectrum of neoplasm including following,
[Link] Leukosis
Leukosis is a condition of malignancy of haemopoietic (blood producing) cells.
There are mainly 5 types of leukosis as given in Table 7.4.
1. Lymphoid Leukosis (Big liver disease): Caused by malignancy of
lymphoblasts, the precursor of the lymphocytes. Under field conditions
this is most prevalent form.
2. Erythroid Leukosis (Erythroblastosis): Caused by malignancy of the
erythroblasts, the precursors of red blood cells.
3. Myeloid Leukosis (Myeloblastosis): Caused by malignancy of the
myeloblasts, the precursor cells of the granulocytic series.
4. Myelocytomatosis (Myelocytosis): Characterized by myelocytic tumors
of the skull, ribs and long bones.
5. Osteopetrosis: Affect long bones.
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 177

[Link] History
Disease was initially described in first decade of 20th century by Ellerman and
Bang. Disease has worldwide distribution. This disease is one of the most important
causes of loss to poultry industry throughout the world.
[Link] Etiology
Leukosis group of viruses belong to genus "Oncoronavirus C', RNA containing
virus of family "Retrotnridae'. There are at least 5 subgroups, A to E. Each
subgroup consists of several distinct antigenic types. Virus survives at 37°C from
3-15 Hours at pH 5-9.
[Link] Susceptible Hosts
Chicken, pheasants, Guinea fowl, ducks, quails and turkeys are affected by this
disease. Disease is mostly seen in chicken.
[Link] Transmission
Vertical Transmission: From parent to offspring through infected ova or sperm.
Horizontal transmission: Virus die quickly outside host body thus horizontal
transmission is slow and inefficient. Use live vaccines when eggs do not originate
from LL-free flock.
[Link] Factors Influencing Susceptibility
Genetic constitution of chicken, virus strain, route of exposure (I/M Sarcoma, I/V
Erythroblastosis and haemorrhages) and age of bird (resistance increases with age).
[Link] Tumors
Tumors growth is seen on some part of body. Tumors are of three types.
a) Nodules: Soft smooth and glistening (0.5mm-5cm)
b) Miliary: (less than 2 mm)
c) Diffuse: (patches)
[Link] Internal and External Signs
Table 7.4. Diseases, clinical signs and postmortem lesions.
Disease Clinical Signs Postmortem Lesions
1. Lymphoid Leukosis 1) Comb pale and shrunken. 1. Grayish white tumors in liver, spleen
2) Slight drop in feed and kidneys.
consumption or egg 2. Uniform enlargement of affected
production. organs.

2. Erythroid Leukosis A. Acute form: 1. Diffuse bright cherry red

Sudden death discoloration.
B. Chronic form: 2. Enlargement of liver & spleen.
Anemia, Emaciation,
Diarrhea
3. Myeloid Leukosis Occurs sporadically in 1. Liver has a granular appearance.
mature birds 2. Discolored grayish yellow liver.
3. Hyperplastic and pale bone marrow.
178 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

4. Myelocytomatosis Occurs sporadically in 1. Soft yellowish-white tumors on

immature birds. cranium (skull), long bones and pleural
surface of the thoracic cage.
5. Osteopetrosis 1. Occurs sporadically in 1. Affect long bones.
birds of all ages. 2. Abnormally shaped.
2. More often in males than 3. Thickened.
in females. 4. Hard to break.
[Link] Diagnosis
In this disease tumors are observed in liver, spleen or kidneys without nerve or
ovarian involvement, abnormal thickened bones and thin keel bone results in case
of this disease. Microscopic examination of tumors or blood confirms disease.
[Link] Prevention and Control.
There is no effective treatment, practice high hygiene standards in the flock. Detect
and eliminate birds that shed viruses in their eggs. Many virus infected birds do not
shed their virus in their eggs. Establish leukosis free breeding stock. Avoid contact
with carrier birds particularly in early age. Do not mix separate broods of chickens
until after 20 weeks of age. Selection of genetically resistant birds for breeder flock
(Resistance of infection is controlled by recessive genes present in varying
frequencies). Use live vaccines (of other diseases) of pathogen free source (egg or
flocks). Drug administration: "Miboleronc" in feed for first 49 days reduced
incidence of tumour but it did not prevent proliferation of virus. Thoroughly clean
and disinfect houses, equipment and building premises. Use fresh litter for each
new batch of chicks. Spray with an efficient insecticide to eliminate external
parasites and other insects, between and during broods. Disease can be carried by
rats, mice, wild birds, insects, mosquitoes and pets (Finberg and Wilson 2010).
Comparison of Marek's and Leukosis diseases is given in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5. Comparison of Marek's and Leukosis diseases.
Particulars Marek's Disease Lymphoid Leukosis
1. Age of group affected Usually 6-16 weeks 16 weeks or older
2. Etiology DNA virus RNA virus
3. Common tumor sites Nerves, eyes, skin, liver, Bursa(common), liver,
spleen, kidney, lung, heart, spleen and kidney
proventriculus, bursa
4. Transmission Horizontal, through dander Vertical
from feather follicles
5. Paralysis Usually present Absent
6. Enlargement of nerves Usually present Absent
7. Bursa of fabricious Diffuse enlargement or Nodular tumors
atrophy.
8. Skin and muscle May be present Usually absent
tumors
9. Prevention Vaccine at 1st day with Raise birds with high
HVT is effective genetic resistance to LL.
10. Treatment No successful treatment No effective treatment
7 Poultry Hygiene and Disease Prevention 179

[Link] Tests
Tests available to detect the presence of virus in breeder flock are as follow;
1. Resistance inducing factors (RIF) test.
2. Complement Fixation of Avian Leukosis virus (COFAL) test.
3. Phenotypic Mixing test (PM) test (currently preferred)
4. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (EUSA) test.
[Link] In Case of Outbreak
Collect feathers and burn them. Give antibiotic and vitamins to birds.

7.4.8 Marek’s Disease

Marek’s disease is also known as gray eye, polyneuritis, range paralysis, neural
leucosis and skin leukosis. Viral disease destroy nervous system especially
peripheral nerves. Disease is characterized by legs and wings paralysis with a
critical sign of one leg in front and one leg behind. In Marek’s disease tumor forms
on skin, muscles, digestive and respiratory tract. Marek’s disease virus lives in
feather follicle epithelium.
[Link] Etiology and Transmission
Caused by Group B cell associated Herpes Virus (DNA virus) there are 3
serotypes; Type 1: Pathogenic Marek’s disease virus, Type 2: Naturally a
pathogenic virus and Type 3: Herpes virus of Turkey. No vertical transmission,
direct or indirect contact, air borne through feathers. No vector birds or biting
insects. Mechanical: clothing, feed bags, equipment and persons.
[Link] Signs and Symptoms
Classical Form: Symptoms are related to peripheral nerves. Brachial nerve (wing
paralysis), schiatic nerve (leg paralysis, cervical nerve (torticollis), vagus and
intercostal nerves (respiratory symptoms) are mainly affected by this disease.
Acute Form: Paralysis with greenish white diarrhoea, affected nerve is 2-3 times
more thick, enlargement of liver, ovaries, spleen, kidney, proventriculus, bursa and
sometimes tumours on skin, muscles, digestive and respiratory tract.
[Link] Control and Treatment
No effective treatments, vaccinate birds at day old age, collect infected feathers
daily from the shed and burn them. Use vitamins.

7.5 Feed Poisoning

7.5.1 Poisons in Feed Ingredients of Vegetable Origin
It includes gossypol in cotton seed meal, glucosides in rape seed meal,
antipyridoxine in linseed meal and gums in guar meal.
180 A. Haq and T. Ahmad

7.5.2 Poisons in Feed Ingredients of Animal Origin

It includes anti-thiamine factor in fish meal, contaminants in meat and blood meal
and rancid fat in poultry by-product meal.

Conclusion
Live and killed vaccines are administered to the poultry birds keeping in view their
health status. Different medicines are also used to treat the birds in various
bacterial, viral and protozoal diseases. Good biosecurity measures are
recommended.

References
Anonymous. (1980). A Revision of the system of nomenclature for influenza
viruses: a WHO Memorandum. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 58:
585-591.
Anonymous. (2014). Emergency animal diseases management program. California
Department of Food and Agriculture.
[Link]
Fineberg, H.V. and M.E. Wilson (2010). Emerging Infectious Diseases IRGC 1-13.
Haq, A., M. Akhtar and M.Z. Siddiqui (2009). Bird Flu a Zoonosis threat and
preventive strategies. India Association of Veterinary Public Health Specialists
conference, 6-7 November, 2009. Gangtok, India.