Chapter 3
Incubation Principles and
Hatchery Management
Ahsan-ul-Haq and Awais Ihsan†
Abstract
More number of hatching eggs from breeder flocks requires precise technical input
for production of quality chicks. Good sanitary conditions are required in hatchery.
Incubators with recent advanced technologies provide precise incubations
requirements resulting in more number of quality chicks. In this chapter, egg
development and incubation process is described. Factors affecting fertility,
hatchability and incubation requirements are discussed. Collection, selection,
candling, setting, transfer candling, shifting of eggs, hatching and hatchery services
have also been discussed. Hatchery building design, incubation methods, types and
handling of incubator are given. Major problems in hatchery and their remedies are
also discussed. Taking off hatch and hatch processing have been discussed.
Keywords: Incubation, Hatchery Design, Types and Handling of Incubators,
Incubation Requirements, Hatchery Trouble Shooting.
3.1 Introduction
Incubation is a process in which a microscopic germ cell is being
transformed into a chick, capable of walking, feeding and drinking. Incubation
period (days) of different poultry birds are shown in Table 3.1. Different species of
birds have different incubation period e.g., chicken egg hatch in 21 days, whereas
†
Ahsan-ul-Haq
Institute of Animal Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
For correspondance: deanhaqfah@[Link]
Awais Ihsan
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal, Pakistan.
Managing editors: Iqrar Ahmad Khan and Muhammad Farooq
Editors: Muhammad Yousaf, Ahsan ul Haq and Akram ul Haq
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan.
43
44 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
eggs of quails, ducks, pheasants have 17, 28-30 and 28 days incubation period,
respectively. During this period, suitable conditions are provided to the hatching
eggs for best hatching results. Incubation is of two types, namely, natural
incubation and artificial incubation. Natural incubation is commonly used for
backyard poultry keeping in villages in most of the tropical countries of world. In
this method, eggs are incubated with the help of broody hens. Most important thing
in this method is the selection of a broody hen. It should be of medium body size to
accommodate fair number of eggs and should be a good-sitter, quiet and free from
ectoparasites. A nest bedded with clean, dry and comfortable litter is prepared for
this purpose. Nest is usually placed in a dark area of the house with minimum
disturbance. During incubation, hen should not be disturbed. Hens should be taken
out at least twice a day for about 30 minutes for feeding and watering. The hen
should be well taken care of and protected from predators. Depending on size of
hen, 10-15 eggs can be placed under one bird. The best time of set hen is at a night
as now she is more likely to settle down to her job. Besides, when eggs are put
under the hens at night, the chicken are more likely to appear on the night of 21st
day and will have whole night to rest and gain strength. In Artificial incubation,
requirements of incubation are fulfilled by a machine called incubator. This method
uses high modern and sophisticated technology with automation for maximum
hatchability. This method of incubation has many advantages over natural
incubation which includes possibility to set large number of eggs at a time,
throughout the year with less risk of disease transfer. Incubation requirements are
provided with their optimum levels to get maximum hatchability and minimum
chances of infections. Automation of incubators saves time and labour.
Table 3.1. Incubation period of different poultry birds.
Poultry birds Incubation period (days)
Chicken 21
Duck 28
Turkey 28
Pigeon 17-19
Peafowl 27
Quail 17
Geese 28-35
Pheasant 23-37
Falcon 28
Ostrich 42
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.2 Development of Egg
3.2.1 Female Reproductive System
Female reproductive system consists of ovary and oviduct as given in Figure 3.1.
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 45
Fig. 3.1. Female Reproductive System of Chicken
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.2.2 Ovary
Female chick has two ovaries. Left ovary in adult birds is functional while right
ovary atrophies. An ovum from left ovary is received by infundibulum. Each ovum
contains germinal disc where fertilization takes place.
3.2.3 Oviduct
Female chick has two oviducts. Left oviduct in adult birds is functional while right
oviduct atrophies Oviduct is a coiled tube that extends to cloaca. Oviduct has
following five distinct parts.
[Link] Funnel of Infundibulum
It is funnel shaped anterior portion, which receives ovum or yolk immediately after
release. Infundibulum length is 9 cm which receives ovum from ovary. Ovum
remains here for 15 minutes before moving to magnum.
[Link] Magnum
Largest portion of oviduct is magnum which is 33 cm long. It secretes thick
albumen and developing egg spends about three hours in magnum.
46 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
[Link] Isthmus
Developing egg stay in isthmus is for about 74 minutes. It is 10 cm long in laying
birds as given in Table 3.2. Isthmus secretes shell membranes.
[Link] Uterus
Uterus or shell gland secretes outer thin albumen and eggshell. It is 10-12 cm long
in laying birds. Developing egg stays here for 19.5 to 20.0 hours as given in Table
3.2.
[Link] Vagina
It is terminal portion of oviduct and 12 cm long in adult hen. It holds egg until laid
(Austic and Nesheim 1990).
Table 3.2. Oviduct parts and their functions
Parts Length Egg stay time Function
Infundibulum 8- 10 cm 15-20 min. Fertilization
Magnum 30-40 cm 3-4 hr. Albumen secretion
Isthmus 10 cm 1-1.5 hr. Shell membrane formation
Shell gland (Uterus) 10 cm 19.5-20 hr. Shell formation
Vagina 6-7 cm 15 min. Hold egg before it is laid
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.2.4 Ovulation
Follicle stimulating hormone is produced by anterior pituitary which in turn causes
ovarian follicles to increase in size eleven days before the first egg is laid. Ovary
starts generating estrogen, progesterone and testosterone hormones. Progesterone
induces hypothalamus to release Luteinizing hormone (LH) from anterior pituitary.
LH causes release of ovum from ovary which is received by the infundibulum.
3.2.5 Pre-Laying Development
After fertilization in infundibulum ova transfer to magnum where it prepares itself
for cell division. In isthmus cell divide itself into 8 cells. In shell gland cells divide
up to 256 cells up to entrance to vagina. Cells arrange themselves into a single layer
called blastodisc. Due to continuous cell division, further layers formed beneath
blastodisc called as blastoderm stage. Centrally located cells of blastoderm form a
cavity called Blastocele. Transparent detached area of yolk is called area pellucida
while opaque and contact area of yolk is called area opaca. Blastoderm develop into
two layers by gastrulation process which involves segregation of cells to form an
inner layer Endoderm (Hypoblast) and a surface layer Ectoderm (Epiblast) (Bell
and Weaver 2007).
3.2.6 Post-Laying Development
Mesoderm layer of cells develop in the center of Ectoderm and endoderm. During
first 24 hours of incubation a distinct line called primitive streak develop by
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 47
thickening of ectoderm. A longitudinal groove "primitive groove" appears on
primitive streak, which develop into Central Nervous System or spinal cord.
Ectoderm develops to nervous system, eyes, feathers, beak, claws, skin, mouth
lining and vent. Endoderm gives rise to the respiratory, secretary and digestive
systems. Mesoderm gives rise to bones, muscles, blood circulatory, reproductive
and excretory systems (Bell and Weaver 2007).
[Link] Extra Embryonic Membranes
These are four in number and supply nutrients to developing embryo.
[Link] Yolk Sac
It comprises of mesoderm over a layer of endoderm, richly supplied with blood
vessels, connected to vitelline membrane for provision of nutrients of yolk (48%
water and 3.1% fat) to embryo. It secretes enzyme for yolk solubilization as
nutrient.
[Link] Amnion
Transparent and non-vascular membrane, containing amniotic fluid, formed (2nd or
3rd day of incubation) around embryo tending to enter yolk. Fluid bath embryo,
protecting it from dehydration, mechanical shock, temperature stress.
[Link] Chorion
Chorion with outer layer of ectoderm and inner layer of mesoderm surrounding
extra embryonic sac fuses to the inner shell membrane of the egg. It helps later in
completing its metabolic function.
[Link] Allantois
Allantois made up of endoderm, occupies space between amnion and chorion,
having direct contact with shell membrane through capillaries, it serves as an
embryonic respirators surface, deposits excretion of embryonic kidney, aid in
albumen digestion as a nutrient and absorb Ca of shell for embryo structural needs.
[Link] Physical Act of Hatching
Spasmodic contraction of the chick causes reflection in muscles of back and neck.
This reflection results in jerky movement of head in forward direction, which
eventually contacts allantois and rupture it entering to air space. Air cell has air
mixture containing 9% CO2 and 9% O2, which stimulates chick to break the shell at
one point by striking shell with beak a process called pipping.
[Link] Mal-Positions of the Embryo
Right position of embryo before hatching is head towards right, beak under right
wing and beak towards air cell/broader end. Malpositions are head towards smaller
end, head between thighs, head under left wing, body rotated from its normal
position, feet over the head, head over wing and body across the egg.
48 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
[Link] Critical Periods in the Life of the Embryo
There are mainly two most important critical periods, first is 42 hours of incubation
(Heart begins to beat) and second at 20th day (Pulmonary respiration begins and
lungs become fully functional).
[Link] Causes of Developing Embryo Mortality
First week =Cause is improper storage and infertility.
10-12 days=Nutritional deficiency in the breeder flock diet.
19-21 days = Improper temperature, humidity and ventilation of incubator.
There are four critical periods.
a. Period-1 (Pre-ovipositional Mortality)
When eggs are held under the hen too long or egg laid earlier cause embryo
mortality. This factor either advances the embryonic development too far than the
gastrula stage or either gastrulation has not been completed.
Large eggs take longer time than small eggs. Eggs with thick shells take longer
time than those with thin shells. Eggs of poorer producer require longer period in
the oviduct. Certain respiratory diseases cause eggs to be laid early. During period-I
mortality is 0.6 percent as given in Table 3.3.
b. Period-II (3-5 days of Incubation. Early Dead Embryos)
During this period, there are two main reasons of death.
At 24 hours of the incubation primary blood vessel system develops. If not develop,
it causes death on 3rd day of incubation. Second cause of death is non-adjustment of
utilization of feed from simple carbohydrates to complex protein and fats, at the
fourth day of incubation. There is excessive accumulation of CO2, NH3 and acetic
acid in blood circulation leading to death of embryo.
Main reason of mortality is poor hygienic, storage conditions of eggs before setting,
high incubator temperature and insufficient turning of eggs. Mortality -during this
period may become higher up to 25 percent.
c. Period-III (10-14 days Mortality. Middle Period)
During this period mortality may be up to 50 percent. Main reason is deficiency of
nutrients such as Riboflavin in breeder diet. Deficiency results in clubbed down,
generalized oedema of the embryo, curled toes, crooked keel and beak, blood clots.
d. Period-IV (19-21 days Mortality, Late Period)
Main reasons of high mortality during this period are:
Early weakening of embryos, incorrect temperature, humidity and ventilation, of
incubator. Rough and careless handling of the eggs during transfer from setter to
hatchery (Jadhave and Saddiqui 2007).
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 49
Table 3.3. Mortality rate during critical stages of chick development.
Critical Stage Mortality (%)
Period I 0.6
Period II 2.0
Period III 0.6
Period IV 3.0
Infertile 5.0
Pips 0.8
Total 12.0
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.3 Collection and Cleaning of Hatching Eggs
Provide one egg nest for 4 or 5 hens. Number of nests should be increased during
high temperature. Nest should be placed at dark area up to the height of tail of the
bird. Nesting material should be dry and in good condition. Provide proper
ventilation to the nests. Hatching eggs should be collected at least 6-8 times/days.
Culled eggs should be separated during collection. Washing of hatching eggs may
introduce microorganisms into egg and is not a good practice and excessively dirty
eggs should be culled. Slightly soiled eggs are cleaned with a blade/sand paper.
3.3.1 Selection of Hatching Eggs
Hatching eggs should be of medium size i.e. 54-64 g average weight 57 g. Eggs
should be oval shape. Eggs shell should be smooth and strong with 0.33-0.35 mm
shell thickness. Eggs should be clean without cracks. Position of yolk should be in
center without blood or meat spots.
3.3.2 Storage of Hatching Eggs
For one-week storage of hatching eggs temperature should be 59-60°F for longer
storage temperature should be 50-55 °F. Relative humidity should be 55%. During
storage, broader end of hatching eggs should be in upward direction.
3.3.3 Fumigation
It is a process in which through chemical reaction formaldehyde gas is evolved to
kill harmful germs in an incubator, hatchery or farm. KMnO4 and formalin are used
for fumigation. For every 100 cubic feet volume, 17.5 g KMnO4 and 35 ml
formalin (40%) is used. This is called single strength (1X concentration). For
different purposes concentration, can be increased up to 5X as shown in Table 3.4.
[Link] Method
Add 17.5 g KMnO4 in an earthen pot in air tight fumigation chamber then add
formalin and close door for 20-30 minutes preferably at 55 °F temperature.
50 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
Table 3.4. Formaldehyde fumigation concentration recommendations.
Fumigation Concentration Time (min.)
i. Hatching eggs after laying 3x 20
ii. Eggs in setter (1st day) 2x 20
iii. Chicks in hatchers 1x 30
iv. Incubator room 1x, 2x 30
v. Hatchery between hatches 3x 30
vi. Hatchery room, chick room between hatches 3x 30
vii. Wash room 3x 30
viii. Chick boxes, pads 3x 30
ix. Trucks 5x 20
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.4 Hatchery Design
A modern hatchery can be divided in two major parts namely administrative side
and works side. Administrative side consists of offices where records and
correspondence is done here. It consists of inquiry office, switchboard room, a
waiting room and working rooms for different offices. Works side comprises all
rooms set aside for receiving and eggs setting, pre-fumigation of eggs, setters and
hatchers, sexing, packing and dispatch of chicks, washing and sterilizing, stores,
boiler house, workshops and garage. Rooms should be in orderly sequence to
ensure minimum internal travel and crossing of lines of movement within hatchery.
3.5 Incubation Methods
Process of change of fertilized egg to a living organism capable of walking and
eating is called incubation. Incubation is done by natural and artificial methods.
3.5.1 Natural Incubation
Natural incubation is a process of setting hatching eggs under the hen. Natural
incubation is better on small scale for house hold purposes. A medium sized broody
hen is required characterized by ruffled and loose feathers from under hen's wings
and legs. It should be properly checked for parasites and to kill external parasites
Neguvan can be effectively used. Deworming should be done to kill internal
parasites. 12-15 eggs can be set under a broody hen. Dimension of broody nest
should be (14" × 14" with 16" height) about 4" high from ground. Nest should be
lined with clean nesting material and dusted with insecticide powder. Floor of nest
should be saucer shape to prevent rolling out of eggs. Every day hen should be
taken off the nest for exercise and feeding for 10-20 minutes at the same time. Eggs
should be tested on 9th and 16th days and all dead in shell should be removed. As
soon as hatch is off, unhatched eggs and nesting material should be removed. Nest
should be dusted before adding new litter in it.
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 51
3.5.2 Artificial Incubation
All the necessary requirements of incubation are provided artificially through the
help of machine called incubator and process is known as artificial incubation.
3.6 Types of Incubators
There are two types of artificial incubators i.e., small and large incubators.
3.6.1 Small Incubators
Small incubators are flat type incubators (these incubators are heated with oil) and
electrically heated incubators (heat source is electricity).
These incubators are used for production of chicks on small scale. 50-500 eggs can
be set in only single layer. Position of the eggs is flat. Ventilation is provided
through natural means i.e. holes are provided for ventilation. Ventilation is affected
by changes of internal temperature. Eggs are turned manually and individually. 3-5
turnings are required per day. Incubation temperature is as given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5. Incubation temperature of small incubators.
Incubation time (days) Incubation temperature (°°F)
1-7 102.5 - 103.0
8-18 102.0
1-21 101.0
Source: Haq and Akhtar (2004)
3.6.2 Large Incubators
These are mammoth/cabinet/forced draft incubators and walk-in incubators. These
incubators are used by commercial chick hatcheries for production of chicks on
large scale. Their capacity ranges from 10,000 to 138,000. Incubator has two parts:
setter and hatcher. Setter and hatcher may be separate or combined in an incubator.
[Link] Setter
This is part of incubator where fertile eggs set for 1-18 days. It has multiple trays
for setting of eggs. Eggs are set with broader end up and pointed end down. These
eggs turned automatically after each hour. Ventilation is provided through
ventilators. Heat source is electricity and uniform temperature is provided with the
help of fans and paddles. Temperature is maintained at 99.5°F in setter.
[Link] Hatcher
Eggs remain in hatcher for 19-21 days. Eggs should not be turned during this
period. Its capacity is one third than setter. Temperature of hatcher is 98.5°F.
52 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
3.7 Requirements of Incubation
3.7.1 Temperature
Temperature of setter should be 99.5°F for first 18 days. As incubation proceeds
ahead heat production of embryo increases, so during 19-21 days temperature of
hatcher should be reduced to 98.5°F. Higher temperature results in small or weak
chicks with unhealed navels, cross beaks, stubby down, stargazer, missing eyes and
brain hernia. Lower temperature results in delayed incubation and sticky chicks.
3.7.2 Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is percentage of moisture relative with water content in the air. In
setter, relative humidity is 83-85% (wet bulb reading) which increases in the
hatcher. High relative humidity results in less evaporation of water from egg,
hatching delayed and soft abdomen chicks. Lower relative humidity causes
excessive loss of water from egg resulting in early hatching and dehydrated chicks.
3.7.3 Ventilation
Ventilation is incoming of fresh air and removal of foul gases. Embryo being living
creature need oxygen for respiration and excretes carbon dioxide. Provide proper
ventilation in incubator. CO2 should be 0.03% above 0.5% CO2 causes slight
decrease in hatchability, 2% CO2 causes marked decrease and at 5% CO2
hatchability is zero.
3.7.4 Altitude
As altitude increases, hatchability decreases. At 2500 feet altitude from sea level
hatchability is 85% (normal). Hatchability reduces to 74% at 3950 feet while at
7160 feet. altitude hatchability is 64%. Recommended level for attaining maximum
hatchability should not be more than 2500 feet. from sea level.
3.7.5 Position of the Eggs
Broader end of eggs should be upward for establishment of pulmonary respiration
of chicks into air sac of the egg. If pointed end of the egg is upward, it causes 50%
dead in shells, due to difficulty of establishment of pulmonary respiration.
3.7.6 Turning of the Egg
Turning should be done in opposite directions up to 40-45° to each side after each
hour. Turning of the egg avoid sticking of embryo to the egg shell membranes and
it provide uniform temperature to all sides of the egg in incubator.
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 53
3.7.7 Candling
Eggs are candled at completion of 18 days in the setter. Purpose of candling is to
remove infertile eggs and dead embryos.
3.7.8 Design of Hatchery
There should be one way flow in hatchery so that hatching eggs may be taken at
one end and chicks removed from other end. There should be no back tracking to
reduce the risk of disease transmission.
Eggs taken in Fumigation Grading/Traying
Hatching Incubation Storage
Chick grading Holding Out
3.8 Factors Affecting Hatchability
Factors affecting hatchability are feed, egg size, eggshell thickness, male to female
ration, spiking, egg storage temperature, ventilation, setting eggs, turning,
fumigation, hatchery hygiene and eggs from disease free flock. If embryonic
mortality is very high continuously during hatching, then send chicks to veterinary
pathology laboratory for proper diagnosis.
3.9 Hatchery Trouble Shooting
3.9.1 Too Many Clear or Infertile Eggs
Wrong proportion of males to females (check mating ratios according to breeder
recommendation). Males undernourished (see that the cocks can get feed
separately, otherwise they may allow the hens to eat all that is there). Interference
among the males during mating (do not use too many males: always rear breeding
males together: put up temporary solid partitions between breeding pens or inside
large pens). Damaged combs and wattles among the males (see that housing is
comfortable and that proper drinking fountains are provided for the breeding pens).
Males too old (replace elder/aged males with young cock). Sterility in male or
preferential mating in pen mating (replace another male). Eggs kept too long or
under wrong conditions before setting (do not keep hatching eggs longer than 10
days: store them in cool, 50° to 60°F and at a RH around 75-80%).
3.9.2 Blood Rings: Which Indicate Very Early Embryonic
Death
Incubator temperature too high or too low (check thermometer, thermostats and
current supply. Follow the incubator maker's instructions). Incorrect fumigation
procedure (ensure correct amount of fumigants. Do not fumigate between 24th and
54 A. Haq and A. Ihsan
96th hours after setting and keep eggs too long or under wrong storage conditions
before setting.
3.9.3 Dead in Shell
Dead in shell are due to too high or too low incubator temperature (check
thermometer, thermostats and current supply), eggs not properly turned (turn eggs
regularly at least 3-5 times a day: always turn eggs in reverse direction each time,
never in same direction) and faulty nutrition of breeding stock. If death losses are
heavy in 10th-14th day (pay attention to farms, from where the eggs are collected:
check that no deficiency in feed). Faulty ventilation of incubator (increase
ventilation by normal means: additional O2 is not needed at altitudes below 5000 ft.
above sea level). Pullorum disease or other infectious disease (use eggs from
disease free stock and assure sound hatchery hygiene).
3.9.4 Pipped Eggs Failing to Hatch
Insufficient moisture in incubator. Too much moisture at earlier stages (check wet
bulb readings). Nutrition problem (check flock feeding).
3.9.5 Hatching Too Soon/ Hatching Too Late/Sticky Chicks
Incubator temperature too high or Incubator temperature too low.
3.9.6 Malformed Chicks
Incubator temperature too high or too low (check thermometer thermostats and
current supply. Follow the maker's instructions). Eggs set incorrectly or not
properly turned after setting (turn eggs regularly at least 3-5 times / day: always
turn eggs in reverse direction each time and never in same direction.
There may be spreading chicks due to too smooth trays in hatchery and weak
chicks due to overheating of incubator. Small chicks are hatched due to setting of
small eggs (only set eggs of recommended sizes) and too little moisture in
incubator. Heavy breathing chicks are produced due to too much fumigant left in
hatcher and too much moisture in hatcher (maintain proper relative humidity). Low
average temperature and poor ventilation during incubation (check thermostat)
results in Mushy Chick disease. Disease is also known as Omphalitis or Yolksac
infection. Uneven hatch is the result of setting eggs too diverse in age (set eggs at
least once a week and never store hatching eggs longer than 10 days).
3.9 Taking off Hatch
Chicks need 21 days and 5 hours to be taken out from hatcher. Chicks are wet and
exhausted, when they hatch out so, they need 4-5 hours for drying. Hatch should be
taken out when more than 95% chicks are dry. Set eggs in incubator in such a way
that hatch during taking off can be arranged in such a way that vaccination,
dubbing or detoeing can be done in day time. Room temperature for keeping chicks
3 Incubation Principles and Hatchery Management 55
should not be less than 75°F. Room should be properly ventilated, so that chicks
can breathe easily.
Conclusion
More number of hatching eggs from breeder flocks requires precise technical input
for production of quality chicks. Good sanitary conditions are required in hatchery.
Incubators with recent advanced technologies provide precise incubations
requirements resulting in more number of quality chicks.
References
Austic, R.E. and M.C. Nesheim (1990). Poultry Production 13th Edition Lea &
Fibiger, (UK) Ltd. 145a Carydon Road, Beckenham, Kent BR3 3RB, U.K.
Bell, D.D. and W.D. Weaver (2007). Commercial Chicken Meat and Egg
Production. 5th Edition. Springer, New Delhi, India.
Haq, A. and M. Akhtar (2004). Poultry Farming. Ist Edition. Published by Higher
Education Commission, H-9, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Jadhave, N.V. and M.F. Saddiqui (2007). Handbook of Poultry Production and
Management. 2nd Edition. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd. New
Delhi, India.