LECTURE NOTES

ON

RETROFITTING AND REHABILITATION OF STRUCTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

 UNIT – I

Maintenance: Repair and Rehabilitation, Facets of Maintenance, Importance of Maintenance, Various

aspects Inspection, Assessment procedure for evaluating a damaged structure, Causes of deterioration.

Repair, Strategies: Causes of distress in concrete structures, Construction and design failures, Condition
assessment and distress-diagnostic techniques, Assessment procedure for Inspection and evaluating a
damaged structure.

DEFINITIONS:

Maintenance : The term maintenance has been coined from the French word “MAINTENIR” which
mean to hold, keep and preserve a equipment or building structure to an acceptable standard of
serviceability. Maintenance is the activities carried out to improve or o restore the facility in every part
of the building to a accepted standard.

Defects: These are the flaws that are introduced through poor design, poor workmanship before

a structure begins its design life or through inadequate operation and maintenance during its

service life

Repair: Process of reconstruction and renewal of the existing buildings, either in whole or in

part

Renovation: Process of substantial repair or alteration that extends a building’s useful life.

Remodeling: Essentially same as renovation – applied to residential structures.

Rehabilitation: An upgrade required to meet the present needs – being sensitive to building

features and a sympathetic matching of the original construction or the process of repairing or

modifying a structure to a desired useful condition.

Restoration: The process of re-establishing the materials, form and appearance of a structure.

Strengthening: The process of increasing the load-resistance capacity of a structure or portion.

Retrofitting: The process of strengthening of structure along with the structural system, if

required so as to comply all relevant codal provisions in force during that period.

Demolition: The process of pulling down of the structure not deemed to be fit for service.
Operation: The term operation relates to a plant as any activity required to run a plant. Thus the
activity to run the plant is called operation. The operation, maintenance and repair are post
constructed activities and there is a distinct difference between them.

Service: The provision of utilities such as power, water, lift etc. in a building are called services.
Without essential services a building is useless.

Servicing: The work done or activities carried out to keep a plant or vehicle in a running condition is
called servicing.

Distress in structure: The wear and tear developed in the structure due to aging or aggressive
environmental conditions is called distress in structures.

OBJECTIVES OF MAINTENANCE
The objectives of maintenance of a building or plant etc. are to ensure that the building or plant canperform their
designed functions for the intended period of time with a high degree of reliability. Following are the main
objectives of maintenance.
1. To restore buildings along with their services and plants in their original standards after any deterioration
occurred due to any reason.
2. To preserve buildings along with their services, and plants in good serviceable condition.
3. To improve the serviceability of buildings and plants when ever required.
4. To sustain their utility value by slowing down the rate of deterioration of structures and plants.

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MAINTENANCE

Though there are various factors which influence the decision of taking maintenance of a structure.
However following the main factors which influence the maintenance.
1. Cost: The cost of maintenance may be divided into the following categories:
Direct cost: Direct cost comprises the cost of material, labour, rent and cartage of equipment etc.
Usually this cost varies from 70 to 90% of the total repair cost.
Indirect cost: Under this head cost of stoppage of work money spent on safety measures, availability of time,
over head expenses, restricted access etc. are grouped. This cost may vary from 10 to 30% or even more.

2. Age of building: Every element of a structure has a definite life span. All materials and components
start aging from the moment they are used in the structure. Hence a comprehensive program of inspection
and maintenance of structure should be prepared as soon as the construction of building or structure has
been completed.

3. Availability of physical resources: At the time of planning maintenance of an element of the

building all the materials, components, services and equipment needed should be available. If they are so
available maintenance is not possible.

4. Urgency: In case of failure of some services as failure of water supply, the repair needs immediate
attention. If it is not repaired immediately, it will cause a lot of inconvenience.
5. Future use: At the time of considering of carrying out maintenance, future use of building as a
whole must be kept in view.

6. Social considerations: While carrying out maintenance work, the disturbance to the society should
be minimum. Pleasing environment should be created by regular and planned maintenance.

NECESSITY OF MAINTENANCE. The causes which necessitate the maintenance effects the service and durability
of the structure as follows:

a) Atmospheric agencies

b) Normal wear and tear

c) Failure of structure

a) Atmospheric agencies :

Rain: It is the important source of water, which affects the structure in the following ways:

Physical:

 Dissolving and carrying away minerals as it is universal solvent.

 Expansion and contraction – The materials is subjected to repetitive expansion and contraction
while they become wet and dry and develops the stresses.
 Expansion of water – The variation of temperature causes the expansion and contraction
absorbed water and affects the micro-structures of the materials.
 Erosion – Transportation, attrition and abrasion of the materials is quite evident effect of the
water.

Chemical: The water available in nature contains acids and alkaline and other compound in dissolve form
acts over the material to give rise, which is known as chemical weathering.

 Wind: It is the agent, which transports the abrasive material and assists the physical
weathering Its action is aggravated during rains and, When it is moving with high speed, it may
contains acidic gases like CO2 fumes which may act over the material and penetrates quite
deeply in materials and structure.
 Temperature: The seasonal and annual variation of the temperature, difference in temperature
in two parts of the materials and the surface of material causes expansion and contraction, this
movement of the material bond and adhesion between them is lost when it is repeated. This
responsible for the development of cracks and the rocks may break away into small units.

Exploitation or peeling off the shell takes place if exterior layer are heated externally with respect
to internal layers. The temperature variation may also cause change in the structure and chemical
composition of the material.

b) Normal Wear and tear: During the use of structure it is subjected to abrasion and thereby it looses
appearance an serviceability.
 c) Failure of structure: Failure is defined as the behavior of structure not in agreement with expected
condition of stability or lacking freedom from necessary repair or non-compliance with
desired use of and occupancy of the completed structure. In field it may result in visual collapse of
the structure or even suspension of the services e.g. the collapse of towers, sliding or over turning
of dam, settlement of foundation, crushing of columns etc.

The causes of failure may be broadly grouped as:

Improper Design: Due to incorrect, insufficient data regarding use, loading and environmental
conditions, selection of material and poor detailing.

Defective Construction: Poor materials, poor workmanship, lack of quality control and
supervision.

Improper use of structure: Overloading, selecting the structure for the use for which they are not
designed such as deteriorating environment due to impurities from industrial fuel burning, sea
water minerals, chemicals, storage of chemicals etc.

Lack of maintenance: Lack of upkeep, proper protection, precaution and preservation,

deteriorated the structure, which may result in the failure.

FACETS OF MAINTENANCE: Maintenance operations have many facets such as

a) Emergency maintenance: Necessitated by unforeseen breakdown drainage or damage caused by

natural calamity like fire, floods, cyclone earthquake etc.

b) Condition Based maintenance: Work initiated after due inspection

c) Fixed time maintenance: Activities repeated at predetermined intervals of time.

d) Preventive maintenance: This is intended to preserve by preventing failure and detecting incipient
faults (Work is done before failure takes place)

e) Opportunity maintenance: Work did as and when possible within the limits of operation demand.

f) Day-to-Day care and maintenance : Every day should be maintained.

g) Shut down maintenance: Thorough overhaul and maintenance after closing a facility.

h) Improvement plans: This is essentially maintenance operation wherein the weak links in the original
construction are either replaced by new parts or strengthened

IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE

 Improves the life of structure

 Improved life period gives better return on investment
 Better appearance and aesthetically appealing
  Better serviceability of elements and components
 Leads to quicker detection of defects and hence remedial measures
 Prevents major deterioration and leading to collapse
 Ensures safety to occupants
 Ensures feeling of confidence on the user
 Maintenance is a continuous cycle involves every element of building science namely: Structural,
Electrical, wiring, Plumbing-water-supply-sanitation, Finishes in floors and walls, Roof terrace, Service
platform/verandah, Lifts Doors windows and other element.

Various aspects Inspection: The following are the various maintenance aspects,

a) Daily Routine Maintenance

b) Weekly Routine Maintenance

c) Monthly Routine Maintenance

d) Yearly Routine Maintenance

a) Daily Routine Maintenance

 Basically an inspection oriented and may not contain action to be taken

 Help in identifying major changes, development of cracks, identifying new cracks etc Inspection of all
essential items by visual observation
 Check on proper function of sewer, water lines, wash basins, sinks etc
 Check on drain pipes from roof during rainy season.

b) Weekly Routing Maintenance

 Electrical accessories
 Cob webs cleaning
 Flushing sewer line
 Leakage of water line

c) Monthly Routing Maintenance

 Cleaning doors, windows‟ latches etc

 Checking septic tank/ sewer
 Observation for cracks in the elements
 Cleaning of overhead tanks
 Peeling of plaster, dampness, floor cracks

d) Yearly Routing Maintenance

 Attending to small repairs and white washing

 Painting of steel components exposed to weather
 Check of displacements and remedial measures
CLASSIFICATION OF MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of structures can be classified into the following categories:
1. Preventive maintenance
2. Remedial maintenance
3. Routine maintenance
4. Special maintenance
5. Corrective maintenance

1. Preventive maintenance
Activities or work done before the development of defects or damage in the structure is called preventive
maintenance.

This operation includes thorough inspection, and planning the programme of maintenance and its
execution. It depends upon the condition, use and specifications of the structure.
Under this maintenance, following actions may be taken to arrest decay or damage to the structure.
1. Stopping of leakage in roof, walls, sanitary, plumbing and waste water pipe lines and rain water
pipe lines by regular and proper maintenance.
2. Use of specified materials and adoption of good workmanship during construction.
3. Adoption of correct specifications for items during construction.
4. Protecting the structures from physical influences and weathering agencies.
5. Protection of structure from aggressive environmental influences.
6. Proper use of structure.

2. Remedial Maintenance
This maintenance is adopted or done after the occurrence of damage in the structure. Under this
maintenance following steps are involved:
1. Determination of the extent of deterioration or damage.
2. Determination of the causes of the decay or deterioration.
3. Determining the strength of the existing structure.
4. Assessing or evaluating the needs of the structure i.e. what is to be done to save the structure.
5. Selection of proper procedure of repair and its implementation.

3. Routine Maintenance
It is a service maintenance attended to the structures periodically as decided by the public works
department. For this maintenance generally 1 1/2% amount is fixed of the cost of construction. The interval
of routine maintenance of different items also has been fixed as a guide line. These standard maintenance
cost and interval of maintenance may vary from state to state.
The routine maintenance is carried out to attend the problems of normal nature. It includes inspection,
planning and execution of the maintenance plan. Generally works included are white washing of building,
patch repair of plaster work, replacement of faulty fittings and fixtures, binding of road surfaces etc. The
interval of routine maintenance of some items is shown in table below as laid down by public works
department.
 Table: Interval for routine maintenance of some items

Name of periodic Exposed surface Un exposed Remark

repair Important buildings Other buildings
External white wash Annually Normally every two Every two to three The periods shown a
years years re a guide line, but
repair should be done
whenever required.
External colour washing Every two years Every two and three Every three years
Some structures need
years
frequent maintenance than
External painting As per need _____ _____ others due to various
reasons.
Internal painting Every three years Every four years As required

Renewal of approach 3 to 10 years According to traffic _____

road And material used.
Renewal of tanis court 5 years _____ _____

Thatching 8 cms coat every Renewal after _____

year 9years and 8 cms
coating every 3 to 4
years

4. Special Maintenance
This maintenance is carried out under special conditions. It is not covered in routine or
annual repairs. It requires sanction from the competent authority. Special maintenance are
required for strengthening the structure to increase its serviceability as in case of foundation
settlement. It may include a particular part or complete removal of floors and roofs etc. In this
case estimate of repairs is prepared. Financial and technical approvals are obtained before
starting the work.

Maintenance of house drainage system:

To maintain the house drainage effectively, it should be inspected regularly and repaired as and
when required. Proper maintenance can be carried out as follows:
1. Inspection: Different sections of drainage system should be inspected at regular intervals
and any defect observed should be removed immediately.
2. Flushing. All drains should be flushed properly.
3. Entry of undesirable material: Materials like ash, grit, hairs, vegetable waste, rags etc. should
not be allowed to enter into the drains as these will block the drains reducing their efficiency.
4. Use of disinfectant: To maintain better hygienic conditions, W.C.S. urinals and bath room etc.
should be disinfected periodically.
5. Workmanship: Authorised plumbers only be allowed to carry out plumbing work.

Maintenance of house pipe lines:

To maintain the efficiency of house pipe line system, it should be inspected periodically and suitable
action should be taken as follows:
1. The elbows, sockets, valves, taps etc. should be checked periodically and tightened if found loose.
 Minor leakage found at joints will stop it self. If even after a week or so, it does not come down, it
should be repaired properly.
2. Washers and seal pads found damaged should be replaced.
3. Pipe found cracked should be replaced immediately.

5. Corrective Maintenance
It is the most common method of maintenance. When an element or item fails or falls below
the level of acceptable standard, corrective maintenance is resorted as repair of cracks or
corrosion maintenance etc.

ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE FOR EVALUATING DAMAGES IN STRUCTURE:

For assessment of damage of a structure the following general considerations have to be take account.

1) Physical inspection of damaged structure.

2) Presentation and documenting the damage.

3) Collection of samples and carrying out tests both in situ and in lab.

4) Studying the documents including structural aspects.

5) Estimation of loads acting on the structure.

6) Estimate of environmental effects including soil structure interaction.

7) Diagnosis.

8) Taking preventive steps not to cause further damage.

9) Retrospective analysis to get the diagnosis confirmed.

10) Assessment of structural adequacy.

11) Estimation of future use.

12) Remedial measures necessary to strengthen and repairing the structure.

13) Post repair evaluation through tests.

14) Load test to study the behavior.

15) Choice of course of action for the restoration of structure.

A simple flow chart incorporating the above points is presented

Fig.1. Assessment procedure for damage

Testing Techniques:

A number of non-destructive, partially destructive and destructive techniques for assessment of concrete
structure and to predict the cause of deterioration of the concrete in the existing structures are available. Interest
in the field of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) of structure is increasing worldwide. These NDT techniques can be
broadly classified into following four groups:

1. Strength Tests
 Schmidt Hammer Test
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
 Pull out and Pull off Tests
 Break off
 Core Test
 Windsor Probe
 Pulse Eco Technique
2. Durability Tests
 Corrosion Tests
 Absorption and Permeability
 Test for Alkali Aggregate
 Reaction Abrasion Resistance Tests
 Rebar Locator Test.
3. Performance and Integrity Tests
 Infrared Thermography Test
 Radar Test
 Radiography and Radiometry Tests
 Acoustic Emission
 Optical Fibre Test
 Impact Echo Tests
 Load Testing test
 Dynamic Response
 X-Ray Diffraction.
4. Chemical Tests
 Carbonation test
 Sulphate Determination Test
 Chloride Determination Test
 Thermoluminescence Test
 Thermo gravimetric analysis
 Test Differential Thermal analysis
 Dilatometric Test.
 With these tests it would be possible to know in-situ strength/quality of concrete to precise identify
the damage and causes of the deterioration of the structure, to predict the residual life measures to
enhance the life of the structure.

Details of few of the tests, which are commonly used in practice, are described below:

1. Schmidt Hammer Test:

Schmidt Hammer Test is a quick method for assessing the quality of concrete based on su hardness
indicated by the rebound number. If the strength of concrete is high, then the rebound number is also high.
The principal of this test is that when the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against surface of the
concrete the spring controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface
hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound number is taken to be related to
compressive strength of the concrete. Rebound number values also depend on angle of measurement.

2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test :

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (USPV) method is being extensively used to assess the quality concrete. This
test is generally used for measurement of concrete uniformity, determination of cracking and
honeycombing, and assessment of concrete deterioration. Strength estimation is qulitative assessed.

The principal of USPV measurement involves sending electro-acoustic pulse through a concrete path
and measuring the transit time taken, for a known distance. Pulse velocity is then, computed. The pulse
velocity depends mainly on elastic modulus of concrete. Any factor, which influences the modulus of
elasticity of concrete, will also affect its pulse velocity. The direct method of testing is the more reliable
from the point of view of transmittance measurement, as maximum pulse energy is transmit at right angles
to the face of transmitter.

3. Carbonation Test

Concrete is having micro-pores and these pores are filled with liquid, having PH –value as high 12.5.
Thus, concrete is alkaline in nature. This alkaline of the concrete is due to (OH) ions in pore water, which
are produced by the dissolution of Ca(OH)2 from the solid phase of the cement gel into pore water and
from the caustic alkalis present namely potassium and sodium oxides. Carbonation of the concrete is the
reaction of Ca(OH)2 with the atmospheric CO2, and its conversion into CaCO3. The reaction lowers the pH-
value of the pore water to about 8.3. The outer zone of concrete is affected first out due to the passage of
time, carbonation proceeds deeper into the mass as carbon dioxide diffuses inwards from the surface. If
carbonation depth becomes equal to cover of concrete, steel reinforcement is then prone to corrosion
damage.

By carbonation test, we measure the carbonated depth of concrete. To determine the depth of
carbonation drilling of a hole is done in stages and the phenolphthalein solution is sprayed in it after every
stage. As soon as the color of the concrete becomes pink, drilling is stopped and the depth of the hole
measured.
4. Core Test:

Core test is one of the best methods to assess the strength of the concrete in reinforced concrete
construction. Compression testing and petro graphic examination of cores, cut from hardened concrete, is a
well established and most reliable method enabling visual inspection of the interior regions and direct
estimation of the strength. The results obtained from the other nondestructive tests are generally verified
using core test.

5. Rebar Locator Test

By this test, bar diameter, cover to reinforcement, spacing of reinforcement, number of reinforcing
bars and any discontinuity in the reinforcing bars can be detected. This test is performed using cover meter
which is based on electro-magnetic theory.

6. Chloride Determination Test

Small amount of chlorides will normally be present in the concrete. Higher amount of chlorides may
give rise to potential of corrosion risk. Quantity of chlorides in the concrete is generally determined
chemically and is expressed in terms of percentage of chlorides by weight of concretes.

Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometric test, differential thermal analysis tests, Thermolumine scene
test etc are some of the sophisticated tests for assessment of the residual concrete strength.

7. Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometric Tests

Thermo gravimetric and Dilatometry may be used to assess temperature attained by concrete. As the
concrete undergoes irreversible chemical changes during fire there would be weight loss at about 5000C.
Using thermo-gravity curses the temperature attained during fire can be obtained. In dilatometric test,
shrinkage of concrete due to process of dehydration is detected. By compaction expansion with
temperature lines that represents dialometric curves for fire damaged concrete and unaffected concrete,
the probable temperature to which concrete was subjected can be established.

8. Thermoluminescene Test

Thermoluminescene test was proposed by placid and elaborated by chew. This method is useful in
finding out the temperature history of concrete exposed to a temperature range from 3000C to 500 0C.
This method utilizes the concept that the intensity of emission of visible light on heating versus
temperature curve for a particular material depends on its thermal and radiation history. Temperature
versus thermoluminescence curve of the fire affected sample may be compared with that of unaffected
sample for comparison of exposures to the given temperature.

9. Differential thermal Analysis Tests

Differential thermal Analysis test is based on measurement of temperature curve of the concrete samples
accompanying the irreversible physic, chemical transformation at a temperature, heated in surface. This method
consists of heating of sample in platinum crucible with a thermocol embedded in it. The time temperature curve
of sample is compared with that of crucible containing in material or without my samples. The differential
thermal analysis of concrete samples are conducted pulverized sample of mortar obtained from sound and
unsound concrete with granular size of the concrete passing a sieve of 150 microns and retained on 75 microns
sieve.

CAUSES OF DETERIORATION

The following are the causes of failure of structure:

a) Occurrences incidental to construction stage. This could be attributed to

1. Local settlement of sub grade.

2. Movement of formwork.

3. Vibrations.

4. Internal settlement of concrete suspension.

5. Setting Shrinkage.

6. Premature removal forms.

b) Drying Shrinkage

c) Temperature stresses – This may be due to

1. Difference in temperatures between the inside of the building with its environment.

2. Variation in internal temperature of the building or structure.

d) Absorption of moisture by concrete

e) Corrosion of reinforcement – This could be caused by

1. Entry of moisture through cracks or pores.

2. Electrolytic action

f) Aggressive action of chemical

g) Weathering action

h) Action of shock waves

i) Erosion

j) Poor design details at:

1. Re-entrant corners

2. Changes in cross section

3. Rigid joints in precast elements

4. Deflections . This lead to -- i. Leakage through joints ,

 ii. Inadequate drainage,

iii. Inefficient drainage slopes

iv. Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns and abutments etc

v. Incompatibility of materials of sections

vi. Neglect in design.

k) Errors in design

l) Errors in earlier repairs

m)Overloading

n) External influences such as: Earthquake, Wind, Fire, Cyclones etc.

Some of the major causes of deterioration of concrete structure are discussed in detail here.

Design and construction flows:

Design of the concrete structures governs the performance of concrete structures. Well designed and
detailed concrete structure will show less deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed
concrete, in the similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to defective concrete, if
detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead to
carbonation depth reaching upto the reinforcement, thus increasing the risk of corrosion of reinforcement.

Environmental Effects:
Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the source of ingress of moisture and atmospheric carbon
diozide into the concrete which attack reinforcement and react with various ingredients of concrete. In
aggressive environment concrete structures will deteriorate faster and strength life of concrete structure
will be severely reduced.

Poor Quality material used:

Quality of material to be used in construction, should be ensured by means of various tests as specified
by the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack results in early deterioration. Clayey
materials in the fine aggregate may weaken the mortar aggregate bond and reduce the strength. Salinity
causes corrosion of reinforcement bars as well as deterioration of concrete.

Quality of supervision :
Construction work should be carried out as per the l aid sown specification. Adherence to specified
water/cement ratio controls strength, permeability and durability of concrete. Insufficient vibration may
result in porous and honey combed concrete, whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.

Deterioration due to corrosion:

 Spalling of concrete cover
 Cracks parallel to the reinforcement
 Spalling at edges
 Swelling of concrete
 Dislocation
 Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel of reinforcement
 REPAIR STRATEGIES
Causes of distress in concrete structures:
Distresses in buildings are a common occurrence. A building component develops cracks
whenever the stress on it exceeds its cracking strength. Stresses in a building component can be caused by
externally applied forces, such as dead, live, wind, or seismic loads, or by deformations induced by
foundation settlement. Deformations can be caused internally due to thermal movements, moisture
changes, chemical action, etc.

Distresses can be broadly classified as structural and non-structural.

Structural distresses: are generally caused by faulty design, faulty construction, and/or overloading. Such
distresses can endanger the safety of a building. Extensive cracking of a reinforced concrete beam due to
overloading is an example of structural distress.

Non-structural distresses: may not endanger the safety of a building, but may look unsightly and create
an impression of faulty work or a feeling of instability. Non-structural distresses are caused by internally
induced stresses in building components. These generally do not directly result in structural weakening.
Non-structural cracks may however (because of penetration of moisture
through them or by weathering action) result in the corrosion of reinforcement and thus render the
structure unsafe and lead to its collapse.

Distresses in Concrete Structures

The three basic symptoms of distress in concrete structures are
i) cracking
ii) spalling
iii) disintegration

Common defects in liquid-retaining structures are

i) porous areas of concrete
ii) loss of bond at joints
iii) shrinkage crack between joints

Overloading of structures leads to the following:

i) excessive flexural cracking
ii) shear and diagonal tension cracking
iii) shear bond failure leading to splitting along the reinforcement
iv) crashing of concrete due to compression
v) column cover surface spalling due to excessive compression
vi) unacceptable large deflection in beams and slabs

Common types of damage: A structure is said to have failed not only if it collapses but even if it does not
perform the designed or desired functions. The structure may be said to have failed due to
i) a total or partial collapse
ii) discolouration
iii) spalling leading to reduction in sizes.
iv) deformations which could be in the form of deflection, buckling, twisting, or distortion.
DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURES: CAUSES AND PREVENTION

Structures are subject to various types of stresses, both during their construction and during their
service life. Generally all possible precautions are taken to avoid any kind of adverse reactions caused by
foreseen and unforeseen distress causing agents. But it is not possible to ensure failsafe structures at all
times.
Some of the possible causes that can lead to the failure of a structure, as also some of the preventive
measures aimed at avoiding such failures.

Occurrences Incidental to the Pre-construction/Design Stage

Poor design details at re-entrant corners, changes in the cross section, rigid joints in precast elements,
and deflections are some of the practices at the design stage that can lead to the failure of the structures.
These design problems can lead to

1. leakage through joints

2. inadequate drainage
3. inefficient drainage slopes
4. unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, abutments, etc.
5. incompatibility of materials at the critical section

Errors in the design of the structure can also prove crucial and may lead to its failure. So the designer needs
to be absolutely careful while designing a structure.

Occurrences Incidental to the Construction Stage

A majority of structural failures owe their origin to the causes that arise at the construction stage.

 Local settlement of sub-grade: Consequent upon pouring of fresh concrete, the subgrade beneath
it might compress or settle a bit. This leads to uneven stress on the concrete layer over it. This
stress gives rise to cracks in the concrete layer (Fig.2). Cracks of this nature can be cured while
applying the final finish to the concrete.

Fig.2. Cracking due to settlement of sub-grade during construction

  Swelling of formwork: Formwork absorbs moisture from the wet concrete or from the
atmosphere. This leads to expansion of formwork, thereby leading to a release of lateral pressure
and cracks in concrete fig.3 (a).

Fig.3 cracking due to movements of the forms

This can be prevented by providing coatings on the formwork to prevent it from absorbing moisture. This
type of cracking can also occur due to crushing of wale Fig.3 (b). Unyielding lateral ties with good end
anchorage will avoid this problem.

 Internal settlement of concrete: Surface cracks appear due to differential settlement between the
surface and the interior volume of suspension. The surface cracks (as shown in Fig.4 ) can be closed
by delayed finishing. Curing of concrete has to be started as soon as possible after its placement
because this will delay the setting of the surface concrete, thus reducing the amount of differential
settlement. Proper compaction of concrete is also necessary.
 Setting shrinkage: The cracks caused by shrinkage have the characteristic appearance of alligator
scales. To avoid these cracks, the concrete needs to be cured properly and timely.
 Premature removal of shores: Removal of shores from newly poured concrete can lead to re-
distribution of stress/load on the formwork, which leads to avoidable cracks. Thus, it is necessary
to ensure that shores are removed only after the concrete has gained sufficient strength so that
there is no possibility of its cracking.
 Fig.4 (a) and (b) cracking of concrete due to settlement of concrete suspension

 Vibrations: At times vibrations might be caused by the worker walking indiscreetly and dumping
the pan of concrete on the formwork with force. These vibrations also lead to cracks in concrete.
Hence, the labourers on the project should be careful to avoid vibrations caused by dropping of
pans, walking over reinforcement, etc., as far as possible.
Occurrences Incidental to the Post-construction Stage
Structures are exposed to deteriorating agents even in the post-construction stage. There is a wide
spectrum of causes that affect a structure after it is constructed. We will discuss some of them here.

Temperature stresses:Cracks in concrete are caused due to temperature stress, which might be due to
(i) difference between temperature on the inside of the building and its outside environment and
(ii) variation in the internal temperature of the building or structure (Fig.5)

Fig. 5. Temperature cracking in building.

Corrosion of reinforcement: This could be caused by (1) entry of moisture through cracks and
(ii) electrochemical action. So it is necessary to take measures to seal cracks to prevent moisture from
reaching the reinforcement. The reinforcement needs to be protected against corrosive chemical action.
Corrosion of reinforcement can be prevented by
 keeping the structure clean
 preventing the structure from absorbing moisture
 painting the structure
 providing protective coating in the form of bituminous coating, zinc coating, etc.
 providing encasement in the form of jacketing
 wrapping with patented fibre wrapping systems

Aggressive action of chemicals: Concrete structures in various environments are exposed to the action of
chemicals from the atmosphere. Concrete for use in a sulphate environment should be made with sulphate-
resistant cement. Concrete for marine exposures should be made with cement having C 3A content not
greater than 8%. The use of limestone aggregates in an acidic environment will inhibit the attack by
neutralizing a portion of the acid attacking the concrete structure. Rubberized coatings are used to protect
the structure better against an acid attack. Bituminous coatings as a protection against exposure to
sulphate can be used. A facing of ceramic tiles set in acid-proof mortar is an excellent precautionary
measure in such cases. To prevent alkali-aggregate reaction, the maximum alkali content of cement should
be less than 0.6%.
Weathering action: Concrete being a heterogeneous material is susceptible to spalling when subject to
shock waves. This is due to the different wave transmission velocities through the various materials such as
the aggregates, matrix, and the reinforcement comprising the structure mass. Sufficiently reinforced
sections will provide a concrete structure with excellent resistance to shock waves. Erosion is also an agent
that can cause weathering of structures. This can be prevented by the use of high-strength concrete, proper
curing of concrete, and by proper finishing methods.

Other Causes
In addition to the aforementioned causes, structures can fail owing to many other causes also. We will list
some of them here.
1. Errors in earlier repairs
2. Over loading
3. External influences, which include
 Earthquake
 Flash floods
 Fire
 Wind
 Tornado

The following actions are attributable to careless construction practices:

a. Leaching action
b. Internal sulphate attack
c. Chemical attack
d. Permeability of concrete structures

CRACK REPAIR TECHNIQUES

In this section we will discuss some techniques that are used to repair various types of cracks.
1. Sealing with Epoxies
Cracks in concrete can be sealed by injecting epoxy bonding compounds under pressure into the cracks.
The usual practice is to drill into cracks from the face of concrete at several locations. Water or some
solvent is injected to flush out the dirt. The surface is then allowed to dry. The epoxy is injected into the
drilled holes until it flows out through other holes. The work should proceed from bottom to top.
2. Routing and Sealing
This method involves enlarging the cracks along their exposed surfaces, filling, and finally sealing them
with a suitable material (Fig. 6). This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
used for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated defects. The cracks should be dormant unless
they are opened up enough to put in a substantial patch, in which case the repair may be more properly
termed 'blanketing'.

Fig.6 Routing and sealing

 On road pavements it is common to see cracks that have been sealed by pouring hot tar over them.
This is a simple, inexpensive, and expedient technique. In this technique, water tightness of the joint is not
required and appearance is not important.
Routing and sealing of leaking cracks should be done on the pressure face so that the water-aggressive
agents cannot penetrate the interior of the concrete and cause side effects such as swelling, chemical attack
and corrosion of the rebars.

3. Stitching
The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by stitching in a manner similar to
sewing cloth (Fig. 7). The following precautions should be taken while adopting stitching as a treatment
measure:

Fig. 7. Repair of crack by stitching

i. Any degree of strengthening can be accomplished, but it must be noted that strengthening also tends
to stiffen the structure locally.

ii. Stitching the crack tends to cause its migration elsewhere in the structure. For this reason,
strengthening of the adjacent areas of the crack is necessary to take care of additional stresses. Moreover,
the stitching dogs should be of variable length, orientation, and so located that the tension transmitted
across the crack does not devolve on a single plane of the section but is spread out well over an area.
Strengthening of the adjacent sections of concrete may consist in providing external reinforcement
embedded in a suitable overlay material.
 iii. In places where water ingress is likely, the crack should be sealed as well as stitched so that the stitches
do not get corroded. A suitable overlay should be applied to achieve this.

iv. Stress concentrations occur at the ends of cracks, hence the spacing of the stitching dogs should be
reduced at such locations. Stress concentrations at each end of the crack can be relieved by drilling suitable
holes or making the ends rounded.

v. Wherever possible both sides of cracks should be stitched to prevent bending action on the dogs due to
the movement of the structure. In bending members it is possible to stitch one side of the crack only, but
this should be the tension side of the section where movement is originating. If the member is in a state of
axial tension, then a symmetrical placement of the dogs is necessary.

vi. If stitching is to supplement the strength of the existing section, the deformation should be compatible.
The dogs must be grouted with a non-shrink or expandable mortar so that they have a tight fit. Thus, the
movement of the crack will cause simultaneous stressing of both old and new concrete. The holes drilled
for accommodating the legs of dogs should be filled with grout.

vii. The dogs are thin and long and so cannot take much of compressive force. These must be stiffened and
strengthened by encasing them in an overlay.

4. External Stress
The development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be arrested by suppressing
this stress. Further, the cracks can be closed by inducing a compression force sufficient to overcome
the tension and to provide a residual compression. Figure 8. shows the application of this technique to a
Tee beam.

Fig.8. Examples of external stressing

 The compressive force is applied by using pre-stressing wires or rods. The principle is similar to
stitching except that the wires are pre-tensioned. This calls for additional anchorages to be provided for
pre-stressing wires (Fig.9).

Fig.9. Example of external stressing

Compressive force also may be applied by wedging, i.e., by opening the crack and filling it with an
expanding mortar, by jacking and grouting, or by actually driving wedges (Fig.10.). Note that the final
deflection due to both loading and expansive forces nearly coincides with the original centerline of the
arch.

Fig.10. An example of the use of wedging, jacking, or expansive keys for external stressing.
5. Blanketing
This technique is similar to routing and sealing but is used on a large scale for sealing both
active and dormant cracks and joints. Blanket joints are of the following types:

Type I: In such a joint an elastic sealant is used. The sealant material is one which returns to
its original shape when the externally induced stress is removed [Fig.11(a)]. When the crack
width is small, a strip sealant, as shown in Fig. 11(b), will be sufficient. The bond breaker ensures
separation of the sealant and the bottom, preventing the possibility of cracking of the sealant
(Fig.11(C)).

Fig. Joint with an elastic sealant

Type II: It is a mastic-filled joint and is similar to the application of an elastic sealant except
that the bond breaker is omitted (Fig.11 (d)]. The sealant is bonded to the bottom as well as to the
sides of the chased dispersion. It is a mastic rather than a compound with elastic properties. This
type of joint is used when the anticipated movements are small. In this type of joint there is a risk of
tearing of the sealant at the bottom.

Type III: It is a mortar-plugged joint (Fig.12 ). A recess in the form of a trapezoid to

accommodate the mortar plug is made. This recess is filled with mortar. Fig.12 (a) shows the forces
that get generated when the plug is subjected to pressure load externally. Figure (b) shows the
stresses when the pressure is from within. As shown in Fig.12 (c), generally a relieving grove is
made in the mortar plug. In addition, a second cut at the mouth of the crack tip is made and plugged
with quick-set mortar. If the pressure from within is due to fluid, a weep pipe [as shown in Fig.12
(d)] helps in draining of the fluid in addition to relieving the pressure.
 Fig.12. Mortar Plugged joints

Type IV: A crimped water bar is shown in Fig. Figure 13 (a) shows the installation details of
a crimped water bar. It is generally installed at locations where the bar is not subject to direct
loading such as traffic on a pavement. Such detailing is suitable on vertical faces. In a concrete
pavement, such a joint is subjected to traffic. In this case, the crimped bar is set inside with a mortar
cover protecting the water bar. This is shown in Fig.13 (b). It should be noted that in both cases the
ends of the water bar should be adequately anchored.

Fig.13. Crimped water bar

6. Overlays
Overlays are used to seal cracks. They are useful and desirable when a large number of cracks are
present and treatment of each individual crack would be too expensive and laborious.

Active cracks Sealing of active cracks by overlays should be done with a material which is extensible
but not flexible. A two or three-ply polymeric membrane with a top coat of tar or with tar between the
plies covered with a protective course of gravel, concrete, or brick, functions very well for this purpose.
Gravel is used for roofs.
Dormant cracks If cracks are dormant almost any type of overlay may be used.

7. Grouting
Grouting is performed in a similar manner as injection of an epoxy. However, the use of an epoxy is a
better solution except where considerations of fire resistance or cold weather prevent such use. In these
cases, grouting is an effective alternative.
An alternative and better method is to drill down the length of the crack and grout it so as to form a key,
as shown in Fig.14. This is applicable only when the crack runs approximately in a straight line and is
accessible from one end. The grout key prevents relative transverse movement of the sections of concrete
adjacent to the crack. It also prevents leakage through the crack.

Fig. 14. Sealing a crack by drilling and plugging

8. Autogenous Healing
The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within itself is termed autogenous healing'. This is used for
sealing dormant cracks such as in the repair of precast units cracked during handling, rectifying cracks
developed during the driving of precast piling, sealing of cracks in water tanks, and sealing of cracks
which are the result of temporary loading conditions. This property also provides some increase in the
strength of concrete damaged by vibration during setting and concrete disrupted due to freezing and
thawing.
The mechanism by which autogenous healing occurs is the carbonation of Cao and Ca(OH), in the
cement paste by CO, in the air and water. The resulting CaCO, and Ca(OH) crystals precipitate,
 accumulate, and grow through and out from the cracks. The crystals interlace and twine, thus producing a
mechanical bonding effect which is supplemented by chemical bonding between adjacent crystals, and
between crystals and the surfaces of the paste and aggregates. As a result, some of the tensile strength is
restored across the cracked section and the crack is sealed. Dormant cracks such as those caused by
shrinkage or fault in construction such as premature removal of forms or settlement of sills supporting
shores are self-sealing. This is because cracks get clogged by dirt and debris and the result is that these
are plugged and the problems of leakage, especially if it is intermittent, will disappear without any repair.
Such self-healing can also be attributed to the autogenous healing property of concrete.

REPAIR TECHNIQUES/MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURES

Some techniques and materials used for rehabilitating structures are discussed in this section.

1. Jacketing Jacketing consists in restoring or increasing the section of an existing member by

encasing it in new concrete. The original member need not always be concrete. This method is
useful for protection of a section against further deterioration by providing additional strength to
the member. This method can be applied to deteriorated columns, piers, and piles and is useful
when the entire section or a portion of it needs to be repaired. Concrete can also be jacketed by
steel, timber, etc., depending on their relative cost and efficiency.

Types of jacketing

Timber forms For marine environments or where it is desired to protect concrete from
chemical reactions, the use of permanent timber forms is recommended, provided the forms are
resistant to fire and their appearance is good. Figure 15 shows how a creosoted permanent timber
form is used as a jacket for a pier of a swing bridge.

Fig.15. Example of jacketing for repair of a pier of a typical swing bridge.

 Concrete columns Figure 16 shows jacketing a concrete column with a reinforced concrete
jacket to increase the strength of the column. The old reinforcements are exposed and integrated
with new reinforcements by welding at regular intervals. Note that the core concrete is not
disturbed.

Fig. 16. Jacketing of a column

The outer jacket may be made either of concrete [Fig.17 (a)] or of suitably fabricated steel
[Fig.17(d)]. Figures 17 (b) and (c) show the application of the jacketing technique for the floor of a
typical multi-storey apartment building.

Fig. 17. Jackets placed on new concrete members

 Wrought iron Wrought iron jacketing makes a satisfactory permanent form. It can be used
only in places of severe abrasion of concrete, such as due to the impact of heavy masses of ice. This
type of jacketing is generally costly.

Precast concrete This jacketing is used to protect timber forms from getting easily damaged
due to fire borers, etc. (Fig.18).

Fig.18. Jacketing – Precast concrete form.

 Gauge (sheet) metal Gauge metal and other temporary (Fig.19) forms are used when
i The repair is in dry condition and the anticipated corrosion attack is mild,
ii. It is desired to strip the forms for the sake of appearance,
iii. The repair is intended for a limited life of structure (temporary repair)
iv. The exposure conditions are so mild that the degree of protection provided by timber or concrete
forms is not necessary, or
v. Timber forms will not last if left alone.

Fig.19. Jacketing – Sheet metal form

2. Pneumatically Applied Mortar
Pneumatically applied mortar is used for restoration of concrete surfaces when the location of
deterioration is at relatively shallow depths. This method of repair can be used for both vertical and
horizontal surfaces and is particularly useful for restoring surfaces spalled due to the corrosion of
reinforcement.
3. Pre-packed Concrete
This repair technique is well adapted for underwater works and other locations where
accessibility is a problem.
4. Replacement of Concrete
This method consists in replacing the defective concrete with new concrete of conventional
proportions placed in a conventional manner. It is useful when the volume of material to be
replaced is large and where repair occurs at large depths (Fig.20). Note that the pressure on new
concrete is applied by the tightening of the bolts and the movement of the wale is made possible by
using flexible washer medium, of specified stiffness. Pier walls, hydraulic structures, and similar
heavy structures above sub-grade and water level are the usual areas of application of this
technique.

Fig.20. Replacement concrete—Use of pressurized form

5. Dry Pack
Dry packing is the hand placement of very dry mortar and its subsequent tamping or ramming
into place, thus producing an intimate contact between the old and new concrete works.
6. Overlays
Overlays may be used to restore a spalled or disintegrated surface or to protect the existing
concrete from the attack of aggressive agents. Overlays used for this purpose include concrete
mortar, bituminous compounds, etc. Epoxies should be used to bond overlays to the existing
concrete surface in order to have monolithic action between the overlay and the old concrete. The
following materials are generally used for this purpose:
 Pneumatically applied mortar
 Sand-cement slurry
 Sand-cement plaster
 Epoxy resins
 Bituminous coating

7. Epoxy Resins
These are organic compounds which when activated with suitable hardening agents form a
strong, chemically resistant layer that has excellent adhesive properties. These are used as binders
or adhesives to bond new concrete patches to existing surfaces or to bond together cracked
portions. Once hardened, this compound does not melt, flow, or bleed.

8. Protective Surface Treatments

Durability of concrete can be substantially improved by preventive maintenance in the form of
weather-proofing surface treatments. These treatments are used to seal the concrete surface and
to inhibit the intrusion of moisture and/or chemicals. Materials used for this purpose are
 oils such as, linseed oils, and petroleum oils
 silicons used to seal concrete and masonry structures against moisture
 epoxies

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

While assessing the damage to a structure, the following general considerations should be
examined:

 Cause of damage
 Type, shape, and function of the structure
 Construction materials
 Type and extent of damage
 Builder's expertise and capabilities for repair
 Availability of repair materials

The flowchart of activities given in Fig. 21 is useful for assessing the work involved. The
assessment procedure spans two distinct stages: pre-repair evaluation and post-repair evaluation.
 Fig.21. Assessment procedure for damage.

1. Pre-repair Evaluation
Each situation requiring repair and rehabilitation exhibits some unique features which
demand specific attention. As such the available documented experience regarding the success
or otherwise of procedures used may not fully meet the performance requirements of the
structure being repaired. To avoid such a failure, it is necessary to examine the distressed
structures before deciding on the type and procedure of repair technique to be adopted.
 Reconnaissance A preliminary examination of the distressed area, its location in the
structure or system, and the type of exposure involved gives valuable information. This
information can be of much help to broadly classify the damage suffered and can help in
identifying the likely causes for the deteriorated condition.

Field exploration Once the preliminary examination narrows down the scope of the
investigation, a more detailed field study should be undertaken to elaborate and quantify the
initial short-listed findings.

Test dismantling The damaged portion can be carefully chipped off in several locations
to expose sound concrete. Based on this, the depth and extent of damage, cracking,
delamination, carbonation, and other failures can be evaluated.

Test cores Wherever possible, 100-mm-diameter diamond drilled cores can be extracted
and used to confirm the details as obtained from open dismantling. This will also provide
information about the type of workmanship and materials used in the structure can be
evaluated.

Non-destructive tests. Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests provide a quick and very convenient
method for a general assessment of the concrete condition, extent of deterioration,
existence and depth of cracks, etc. Rebound hammer tests and geophysical methods such as
seismic and resistivity sounding can also help in evaluating the structure's condition.

Laboratory tests Where preliminary examination and field examination warrant detailed
laboratory tests on the materials, specific tests should be commissioned. Measurement of
strength, elastic properties, abrasion, density, absorption, and permeability provide general
condition of the structure and can be obtained by suitable laboratory assessment.
Petrography and chemical tests on the aggregate matrix and products of distress give useful
clues to the possible internal and external causes and mechanism for the observed distress.

2. Post-repair Evaluation
A post-repair evaluation programme constitutes the only way to make sure that the repair
work has been effective and durable. Most of the techniques used for field and laboratory
investigation of distress can also be adopted for evaluation of the performance of the finally
executed remedial and rehabilitation measures. One sure method of evaluation is to conduct a field
test on the rehabilitated structure and document the improvements obtained with respect to
stiffness.
------------------------
 Unit – II

Servicebility and durability of concrete: Quality assurance for concrete construction – concrete
proberties – strength, permeability, thermal properties and cracking. – Effects due to climate,
temperature, chemicals, corrosion – design and construction errors – Effects of cover thickness
and cracking.

Quality assurances for concrete construction

Quality management ensures that every component of the structure keeps performing
throughout its life span. In fact, quality is a measure of the degree of excellence and is indeed
related to fulfillment enjoyed by the user. In concrete construction, even if rigid quality is not
followed, the material performs for a short while without loss of strength. On account of this
forgiving property of concrete, many in the construction industry have been operating under the
illusion that rigid quality management, which is essential for mechanical industries, is not so
important for concrete manufacture. This is not correct. The quality management in the current
day context is based on the fact that the probability of failure of structure must be as low as
possible and definitely lower than a prefixed accepted limit. Hence, quality management in
essence is the management of uncertainties inherent in the construction industry.

Need for Quality Assurance

a) All involved with the construction and use of a concrete structure are concerned that the
quality is necessary to give good performance and appearance throughout its intended
life.
b) The designer depends on it for his reputation and professional satisfaction.
c) The material producer is influenced by the quality of work in his future sales.
d) The building contractor also relies on it to promote his organization in procuring future
contracts, but his task is often considerably complicated by the problems of time scheduling
and costs.
e) Finally the user is rewarded by a functionally efficient structure of good appearance. It
would seem to follow therefore that since all responsible parties gain by quality it should be
automatically achieved.
f) Yet this is not so, and a considerable positive effort must be employed to achieve it.
g) This effort can best be expanded by instituting a quality assurances scheme which involves
each of the above parties.
h) The quality management system in a true sense should have the following three
components
1) Quality assurance plan (QAP)
2) Quality control process (QC)
3) Quality Audit (QA)

Quality assurance plan

The following aspects should be addressed by any QAP:
- Organizational Set-up
 - Responsibilities of personnel
- Coordinating personnel
- Quality control measure
- Control norms and limit
- Acceptance/rejection criteria
- Inspection program
- Sampling, testing and documentation
- Material specification and qualification
- Corrective measure for noncompliance
- Resolution of disputed/difficulties
- Preparation of maintenance record
The quality assurance plan starts right from the planning and design stage itself, and it can
be defined as a procedure for selecting a level of quality required for a project.

Quality Control Plan

1. It is a system of procedures and standards by which the contractor, the product manufacture
and the engineer monitor the properties of the product.
2. Generally the contracting agency is responsible for the QC process.
3. A contractor responsible for quality control incurs a cost for it, which is less than the
uncontrolled cost for correcting the defective workmanship or replacing the defective
material.
4. Hence it is prudent to introduce effective quality control.

Quality Audit

1. This is the system of tracing and documentation of quality assurance and quality control program.
2. It is the responsibility of the process owner.
3. Both design and construction processes comes under this process.
4. The concept of QA encompasses the project as a whole.
5. Each element of the project comes under the preview of quality audit.

Concrete Properties
Strength
Strength of concrete is one of the most important factors. Concrete is used as a structural
element, and all structural uses are associated with its compressive strength. Strength of concrete
is defined as the resistance that concrete provides against load so as to avoid failure. It depends on
the water-cement ratio, quality of aggregates, compaction, curing etc. The primary factor that
affects the strength of concrete is the quality of cement paste, which in turn, depends on the
quality of water and cement used.

Sometimes it is economical to add pozzolana or use Portland pozzolana cement instead of

ordinary cement concrete. Pozzolanas are materials that have little cementing value but rich with
calcium hydroxide to form compounds that are cementitious. This reaction contributes to the
ultimate strength and watertightnesss of concrete. Pozzolanas also increases the plasticity and
workability of concrete. Excessive addition of pozzolanas affects durability. So it should be used
along with cement as a partial replacement or in small percentage.

Generally construction industry needs faster development of strength in concrete so that

the projects can be completed in time or before time. This demand is catered by high early
strength cement, use of very low W/C ratio through the use of increased cement concrete and
reduced water content. But this result in higher thermal shrinkage, drying shrinkage, modulus of
elasticity and lower creep coefficients. With higher quantity of cement content, the concrete
exhibits greater cracking tendencies because of increase in thermal and during shrinkage. As the
creep coefficient is low in such concrete there will not be much slope for relaxation of stresses.
Therefore high early strength concretes are more prone to cracking than moderate or low strength
concrete.

Of course, the structural cracks in high strength concrete can be controlled by use of
sufficient steel reinforcement. But this practice does not help the concrete durability, as provision
of more steel reinforcement; will only results in conversion of the bigger cracks to smaller cracks.
And these smaller cracks are sufficient to allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and moisture get into the
concrete to affect the long term durability of concrete.

Field experience have also corroborated that high early strength concrete are more
cracks-prone. According to a recent report, the cracks in pier caps have been attributed to use of
high cement content in concrete. Contractors apparently thought that a higher than the desired
strength would speed up the construction time, and therefore used high cement content.

Similarly, report submitted by National Cooperative Highway Research

Programme(NCHRP) of USA during 1995, based on their survey showed that more than, 100000
concrete bridge decks in USA showed full depth transverse cracks even before structures were
less than one month old. The reasons given are that combination of thermal shrinkage and drying
shrinkage caused most of the cracks. It is to be noted that deck concrete is made of high strength
concrete. These concrete have a high elastic modulus at an early age. Therefore, they develop
high stresses for a given temperature change or amount of drying shrinkage. The most important
point is that such concrete creeps little to relieve the stresses.

It is observed that the above point of view is not fully convincing when seen from many other
consideration.

The high strength concrete has high cement content and low water content. On account of
low water content, only surface hydration of cement particle will have taken place leaving
considerable amount of unhydrated core of cement grains. This unhydrated core of cement grains
has strength in reserve. When micro cracks have developed, the unhydrated core gets hydrated,
getting moisture through micro cracks. The hydration products so generated seal the cracks and
restore the integrity of concrete for long term durability.
 As per aiticin, the quality of products of hydration formed in the case of low W/C ratio is
superior to the quality of gel formed in the case of high W/C ratio.

The micro structure of concrete with low W/C ratio is much stronger and less permeable.
The interconnected networks of capillaries are so fine that water cannot flow any more through
them. It is reported that when tested for chloride ion permeability, it showed 10-50 times slower
penetration than low strength concrete.

Permeability
Concrete is a permeable and a porous material. The rates at which liquids and gases can
move in the concrete are determined by its permeability. Permeability affects the way in which
concrete resists external attack and the extent to which a concrete structure can be free of leaks.
The permeability is much affected by the nature of the pores, both their size and the extent to
which they are interconnected. There can therefore be no one measure of porosity which fully
describes the way in which the properties of concrete or of hardened cement paste are affected.

If a material were judged, the decision would rest primarily on the choice of medium used
for testing.

For (ex) Vulcanized rubber would be found impervious and nonporous if tested with
mercury, but if tested with hydrogen it would be found to be highly porous. Early work on the
permeability of concrete was generally related to its use in dam construction.

In 1946 Powers and Brownyard examined the permeability of cement pastes and came to
the conclusion that well-cured neat paste of low w/c ratio is practically impermeable and that the
permeability of cement pastes depends almost entirely on the amount of capillary water present,
since the gel pores are extremely small. Earlier work of Ruettgers resulted that the permeability of
concrete is generally much higher than the theoretical permeability owing to the fissures under
the aggregate that permit the flow partially to bypass the paste and owing to the capillaries in the
paste that permit the flow in the paste to bypass the gel. Numerical values for permeability of
concrete need to be examined with care.

The coefficient of permeability K1 is obtained from applying Darcy‟s law for low velocity
flow,
(dr/dt).(1/A)=K1.(^h/L)

dr/dt= The rate of volume flow (m3 s1 )

A= Area of porous medium normal to the direction of flow (M2 )
^h= Drop in hydraulic head across the thickness of the medium (m).
L= Thickness of the medium (m).
K1=Coefficient of permeability depending on the properties of the medium and of fluid (ms 1 )

For any set of tests, the value of K1 depends on both the medium and the fluid and
therefore represents the permeability of the medium to a specified fluid at specified temperature.
As pointed out by the concrete society working party, a number of factors can account for
widespread of permeability results for a specific w/c ratio concrete, due primarily to aspects of
the test method for eg:
a) Varying and continuing hydration of the specimen.
b) Incomplete and variable initial saturation.
c) Lack of absolute water cleanliness.
d) Chemical reaction of specimen with the test fluid
e) Effect of dissolved gases where high pressure air is used to pressurize the water.
f) Silting due to movement of fines.
g) Micro structural collapse and macroscopic instability when very high flow pressures are used.
h) Lack of attainment of steady state condition.

The composition of the water and the presence of dissolved materials can also have a
substantial effect. The drying was found to increase the permeability and for the particular
specimens examined, drying at 79% relative humidity increased the permeability about 70-told.
The flow tests are appropriate for testing material which has a high permeability but for concrete
of low permeability a method in which the depth of penetration is measured is usually a core
practical proposition. The water tightness of a concrete structure is not determined by the
permeability of the hardened cement paste or even by the measured permeability of laboratory
specimens of the concrete. The permeability of concrete, both to moisture and to gas is important
in relation to the protection afforded to embedded steel. The initial surface absorption test
measures the rate at which water is absorbed in to the surface of the concrete for a brief period
under a head of 200mm. The Figg test subsequent modifications of its measure the permeability
of the concrete at the bottom of a fine hole drilled to some depth below the concrete surface. The
depth to which water which is absorbed into concrete under little head has been shown to be
initially a linear function of the square-root of time. The slope of this function is called Sorptivity.
The sorptivity is a measure for assessing the protection that will be a afforded to embedded
reinforcing steel, particularly after it has become activated.
Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may adversely affect its durability. For
instance, when Ca(OH)2 is being leaching out or an attack by aggressive liquids takes place. This
penetration depends o the permeability of the concrete. Since permeability determines the relative
ease, with which concrete can become saturated with water, permeability has an important
bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to frost. Furthermore, in case of reinforced concrete, the
ingress of moisture and of air will result in the corrosion of steel. Since this leads to an increase in
the volume of the steel, cracking and spalling of the concrete cover may well follow

The high permeability of concrete in actual structures is due to the following reasons:
1. The large microcracks with generated time in the transition zone.
2. Cracks generated through higher structural stresses.
3. Due to volume change and cracks produced on account of various minor reasons.
4. Existence of entrapped air due to insufficient compaction.
 Thermal Properties
Concrete is a material used in all climatic regions for all kinds of structures. Thermal properties
are important in structures in which temperature differentials occur including those due to solar radiation
during casting and the inherent heat of hydration. Knowledge of thermal expansion is required in long
span bridge girders, high rise buildings subjected to variation of temperatures, in calculating thermal
strains in chimneys, blast furnace and pressure vessels, in dealing with pavements and construction joints,
in dealing with design of concrete dams and in host of other structures where concrete will be subjected to
higher temperatures such as fire, subsequent cooling, resulting in cracks, loss of serviceability and
durability.

The thermal properties of concrete are more complex than those of most other materials because
these are affect ted by moisture content and porosity.

Three types of tests are commonly used to study the effect of transient high temperature on the
stress-strain properties of concrete under compression. These are the following,
(a) Unstreesed Tests: Where specimens are heated under no initial stress and then loaded until the point
of failure.
(b) Stressed Tests: Where a fraction of the compressive strength capacity at room temperature is applied
and sustained during heating. When the target temperature is reached, the load is increased until the point
of failure.
(c) Residual Unstressed Tests: Where the specimens are heated without any load, cooled to room
temperature, and then loaded until the point of failure.

To study about the thermal properties of concrete the following properties needs to be known,
1. Thermal conductivity
2. Thermal diffusivity
3. Specific heat
4. Coefficient of thermal expansion

Thermal Conductivity:
This measures the ability of material to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity is measured in
joules per second per square meter of area of body when the temperature deference is 10C per
meter thickness of the body.
The conductivity of concrete depends on type of aggregate, moisture content, density and
temperature of concrete. When the concrete is saturated, the conductivity ranges generally
between about 1.4 and 3.4j/m2 s 0 c/m.

Thermal Diffusivity:
Diffusivity represents the rate at which temperature changes within the concrete mass.
Diffusivity is simply related to the conductivity by the following equation.
 Conductivity = Diffusivity / (CP)
Where C is the specified heat and P is the density of concrete. The range of diffusivity of concrete is
between 0.002 to 0.006 m2 /h.

Specific Heat:
It is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a material by
one degree centigrade. The common range of values for concrete is between 840 and 1170 j/kg per 0C.

Coefficient of thermal expansion:

Coefficient of thermal expansion is defined as the change in length per degree change of
temperature. In concrete it depends upon the mix proportions. The coefficient of thermal expansion of
hydrated cement paste varies between 11*10-6 and 20*10-6 per 0C. Coefficient of thermal expansion of
aggregate varies between 5*10-6 and 12*10-6 per 0C. Limestone and gabbors will have low values and
quartzite will have high values of coefficient of thermal expansion. Therefore the kind of aggregate and
content of aggregate influences the coefficients of thermal expansion of concrete.

Cracking
Plastic shrinkage cracks
Water from fresh concrete can be lost by evaporation, absorption of sub grade, formwork and in
hydration process. When the loss of water from the surface of concrete is faster than the migration of
water from interior to the surface dries up. This creates moisture gradient which results n surface cracking
while concrete is still in plastic condition. The magnitude of plastic shrinkage and plastic shrinkage cracks
are depending upon ambient temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity.

Rate of evaporation of water in excess of 1 kg/m2 per hour is considered critical. In such a
situation the following measures could be taken to reduce or eliminate plastic shrinkage cracks.
i) Moisten the sub grade and formwork
ii) Erect temporary wind breakers to reduce the wind velocity over concrete.
iii) Erect temporary roof to protect concrete from hot sun.
 Plastic Shrinkage
Settlement
Drying Shrinkage
Bleeding
Delayed Curing
Form work movement
Excess Vibration
Before Constructional Sub grade settlement
Hardening Finishing

Early frost damage

Unsound Cement
Cracks in Material Aggregates
Concrete Excess silt Mud and dust
Long term
drying shrinkage
Heat of Hydration
External temperature
Thermal Joints in Concrete
Elevated Temperature
After Freezing and thawing
Hardening Moisture movements
Tansition Zone
Biological
Structural design
Deficiencies
Sulphate attack
Alkali-aggregate reaction
Acid attack
Chemical Sea water
Carbonation
Chloride attack
Correction of
reinforcement
Fig. Various Types and Causes of cracks in Concrete
 After hardening

[Link] Drying Chemical action Temperature Structural Failure

Classification Shrinkage

2. Secondary Concrete Steel Internal External

Classification

3. Cause Loss of Expansion of Differential Climatic Frost and Excessive

water internal mass expansion change ice action tensile
resulting in and stresses
cracking of contraction due to
external skin loads

[Link] or Cracking Reactive Corrosion Heat of Large Spalling Building

Contributing of building Aggregates of hydration slabs or of settlement
Condition slabs and reinforcement of walls surface excessive
Walls Cement without loads
Adequate vibrations,
Joints earthquakes
and
insufficient
reinforcement

5. Remedy Dense Low alkali Thick and Low-heat Adequate Air correct
mixes with cement dense cement expansion entertain design
low cement and layer of control of contraction nment structure
and water nonreactive protection temperature joints and
content aggregates concrete rise. sound
Adequate Aggregates concrete
Curing of normal
thermal
expansion

fig. Other Properties, types and causes of concrete cracking

 1. Reduce the time between placing and finishing. If there is delay cover the concrete with
polyethylene sheets.
2. Minimize evaporation by covering concrete with burlap, fog spray and curing compound.
Plastic shrinkage cracks are very common in hot weather conditions in pavements floor and roof
slab concrete.
Once they are forms it’s difficult to rectify. In case of prefabricated units, they can be heated by
controlled revibration, if the concrete is in plastic condition. In roof and floor slab it is difficult to repair.
However, sometimes, thick sluury is poured over the cracks and well worked by trowel after striking each
side of the cracks to seal the same. The best way is to take all precautions to prevent evaporation of water
from the wet concrete, finish it fast, and cure it as early as feasible.
In Mumbai – Pune express highway, the fresh concrete is protected by 100 meter long low
tenterected on wheel to break the wind and also to protect the green concrete from hot sun. In addition
curing compound is sprayed immediately after finishing operations.
Plastic shrinkage cracks, if care is not taken, will affect the durability of concrete in many ways.

Settlement Cracks
If the concrete is free to settle uniformly, then there is no crack. If there is any obstruction to
uniform settlement by way of reinforcement or larger piece of aggregate, then it creates some voids or
cracks. This is called settlement cracks. This generally happens in a deep beam.
Concrete should be poured in layers and each layer should be properly compacted. Building up of
large quantity of concrete over a beam should be avoided.
Sometimes, the settlement cracks and voids are so severe it needs grouting operators to seal them
off. Revibration, if possible is an effective step. Otherwise they affect the structural integrity of the beam
or any other member and badly affect the durability.

Bleeding
Shrinkage of concrete is one of the important factors contributing to lack of durability of concrete.
Shrinkage is mainly responsible for causing cracks of larger magnitude or minor micro cracks. The aspect
of cracking in concrete is very complex, involving many factors such as magnitude of shrinkage, degree
of restraint, extensibility of concrete, extent of stress relaxation by creep and at what age the shrinkage is
appearing etc. Cracks can be avoided only if the stress induced by shrinkage strain, after relaxation by
creep, is at all time less than the tensile strength of concrete. The above situation is not happening in most
of the cases and as such generally shrinkage causes cracks in concrete.

Durability
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. Different concretes
require different degrees of durability depending on the exposures environment and properties desired.
For example, concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than an indoor
concrete floor. Concrete ingredients, their proportioning, interactions between them, placing and curing
practices, and the service environment determine the ultimate durability and life of concrete.
Some important degradation mechanisms in concrete structures include the following:
1. Freeze-thaw damage (physical effects, weathering).
2. Alkali-aggregate reactions (chemical effects).
3. Sulphate attack(chemical effects).
4. Microbiological induced attack(chemical effects).
5. Corrosion of reinforcing steel embedded in concrete (chemical effects).
a)carbonation of concrete
b) chloride induced.
6. Abrasion (physical effects).
7. Mechanical loads(physical effects).

Effect of freezing and thawing:

1 The most severe climate attack on concrete occurs when concrete containing moisture is
subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing.
2 The capillary pores in the cement are of such a size that water in them will freeze when the
ambient temperatures is below 00C.
3 The gel pores are so small that water in them does not freeze at normal winter temperatures.
4 As water when freezing expands by 9% of its volume, excess water in the capillaries has to move.
5 Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable, high pressures are necessary to move the excess
water even over quite small distance.
6 For normal strength concrete it has been found that movement of the order of 0.2mm is sufficient
to require pressures which approach the tensile strength of the paste.
7 Concrete can be protected from freeze – thaw damage, by the entrainment of appropriate
quantities of air distributed through the cement paste with spacing between bubbles of not more
than about 0.4mm.
8 The air bubbles must remain partially empty so that they can accommodate the excess water
moved to them.
9 This will generally be the case since the bubbles constitute the coarsest pore system and are
therefore the first to lost moisture as the concrete dries.
10 Fully saturated concrete, if permanently submerged, will not need protection against freezing, but
concrete which as been saturated and is exposed to freezing, as for example in the tidal range,
may not be effectively protected by air-entrainment.

Effect of Temperature:
1. The temperature difference within a concrete structure, result in differential volume change.
2. When the tensile strain due to differential volume change exceeds the tensile strain capacity of
concrete, it will crack.
3. The temperature differentials associated with the hydration of cement, affect the mass concrete such as
in large columns, piers, footings, dams etc.
4. Whereas the temperature differentials due to changes in the ambient temperature can affect the whole
structure.
5. The liberation of the heat of hydration of cement causes the internal temperature of concrete to rise
during the initial curing period, so that is is usually slightly warmer than its surroundings.
6. In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential may be considerable. As the concrete
cools it will try to contract.
7. Any restraint on the free contraction during cooling will result in tensile stresses which are
proportional to the temperature change, coefficient of thermal expansion, effective modulus of
elasticity and degree of restraint.
8. The more massive the structure, the greater is the potential for temperature differential and degree of
restraint.
9. Thermally induced cracking can be reduced by controlling the maximum internal temperature,
delaying the onset of cooling by insulating the formwork and exposed surfaces, controlling the rate of
cooling, and increasing the tensile strain capacity of the concrete.
10. Special precautions need to be taken in the desing of structures in which some portions are
exposed to temperature changes while the other portions of structures are either partially or completely
protected.
11. A drop in temperature may result in the cracking of the exposed element while increase in
temperature may cause cracking in the protected portion of the structure.
12. Temperature gradients cause deflection and rotation in structural members; if these are restrained
serious stresses can result.
13. Allowing for movement by using properly designed contraction joints and correct detailing will
help alleviate these problems. If the cracks do form.
14. Remedial measures are similar to those for cracks that form after a structure in service.

Effect of chemical:
The most important constituent of concrete namely cement is alkaline; so it will react with acids
or acidic compounds in presence of moisture, and in consequence the matrix becomes weakened and
its constituents may be leached out. The concrete may crack, as a result of expansive reactions between
aggregate containing active silica and alkalies derived from cement hydration, admixture or external
sources(e.g. curing water, ground water, alkaline solutions stored). The alkali – silica reaction results
in the formation of a swelling gel, which tends to draw water from other portions of concrete. This
causes local expansion nd accompanying tensile stresses which if large may eventually result in the
complete deterioration of the structure. Control measures include proper selection of aggregate, use of
low-alkali cement and use of pozzolana. Typical symptoms in unreinforced and highly reinforced
concrete are map cracking, usually in a rough hexagonal mesh pattern and gel excluding from cracks.
The alkali-carbonate reactions occurs with certain limestone aggregate and usually results in the
formation of alkali-silica product between aggregate particiles and the surrounding cement paste. The
problem may be minimized by avoiding reactive aggregate, use of smaller size aggregate and use of
low-alkali cement.
When the sulphate bearing waters come in contact with the concrete, the sulphate penetrates the
hydrated paste and reacts with hydrated calcium aluminate to form calcium suphoaluminate with a
subsequent large increase in volume, resulting in high tensile stresses causing the deterioration of
concrete. The blended or pozzolana cements impart additional resistance to sulphate attacks.
The calcium hydroxide in hydrated cement paste will combine with carbon dioxide in the air to
form calcium carbonate which occupies smaller volume tan the calcium hydroxide resulting called
 carbonation shrinkage. This situation may result in significant surface grazing and ay be especially
serious on freshly placed concrete surface kept warm during winter by improperly vented combustion
heaters.

Factors which increase concrete vulnerability to external chemical attacks are:

1. High porosity
2. High permeability and absorption resulting from too high W/C ratio.
3. Unsatisfactory grading of aggregate.
4. Cement compaction.
5. Improper choice of cement type for condition of exposure.
6. Inadequate curing period.
7. Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying and to the lesser extended of heating and cooling.
8. Increased fluid velocity which may bring about both replenishment of the aggressive species and
increases in the rate of leaching.
9. Suction forces which may caused by drying on one or more faces of a section.
10. Unsatisfactory choice of shape and surface to volume ratio of concrete structure.

Effect of Corrosion:
Formation of white patches: CO2 reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the cement paste to form CaCO3. The free
movement of water carries the unstable CaCO3 towards the surface and forms white patches. It indicates
the occurrences of carbonation.

Brown patches along reinforcement: When reinforcement starts corroding, a layer a ferric oxide is
formed. This brown product resulting from corrosion may permeate along with moisture to the concrete
surface without cracking of the concrete.

Occurrence of cracks: The increase in volume exerts considerable bursting pressure on the surrounding
concrete resulting in cracking. The hair line crack in the concrete surface lying directly above the
reinforcement and running parallel to it is the positive visible indication that reinforcement is corroding.
These cracks indicate that the expanding rust had grown enough to split the concrete.

Formation of multiple cracks: As corrosion progresses, formation of multiple layers of rust on the
reinforcement which in turn exert considerable pressure on the surrounding concrete resulting in widening
of hair cracks. In addition, a number of new hair cracks are also formed. The bond between concrete and
the reinforcement is considerably reduced. There will be a hollow sound when the concrete is tapped at
the surface with a light hammer.

Snapping of bars: The continued reduction in the size of bars results in snapping of the bars. This will
occur in ties/stirrups first. At this stage, size of the main bars is reduced.

Buckling of bars and bulging of concrete: The spalling of the cover concrete and snapping of ties
causes the main bars to buckle. This results in bulging of concrete in that region. This follows collapse of
the structure. When corrosion of reinforcement starts, the deterioration is usually slow but advances in
geometrical progression. Corrosion can also cause structural failure due to reduced C/S and hence
 reduced load carrying capacity. It is possible to arrest the process of corrosion at any stage by altering the
corrosive environment in the vicinity of the reinforcement.

Design Errors and Construction Errors:

Design Errors
Design errors may be divided into two general types:
1. Those resulting from inadequate structural design
2. Those resulting from lack of attention to relatively minor design details.
Each of the two types of design errors is discussed below.
(1) Inadequate structural design.
(a) Mechanism. The failure mechanism is simple – the concrete is exposed to greater stress than it is
capable of carrying or it sustains greater strain than its strain capacity.
(b) Symptoms. Visual examinations of failures resulting from inadequate structural design will
usually show one of two symptoms.
1. First, errors in design resulting in excessively high compressive stresses will result in spalling.
Similarly, high torsion or shear stresses may also result in spalling or cracking.
2. Second, high tensile stresses will result in cracking. To identify inadequate design as a cause of
damage, the locations of the damage should be compared to the types of stresses that should be present in
the concrete. For example, if spalls are present on the underside of a simple-supported beam, high
compressive stresses are not present and inadequate design may be eliminated as a cause. However, if the
type and location of the damage and the probable stress are in agreement, a detailed stress analysis will be
required to determine whether inadequate design is the cause. Laboratory analysis is generally not
applicable in the case of suspected inadequate design. However, for rehabilitation projects, thorough petro
graphic analysis and strength testing of concrete from elements to be reused will be necessary.
(c) Prevention. Inadequate design in prevented by thorough and careful review of all design
calculations. Any rehabilitation method that makes use of existing concrete structural members must be
carefully reviewed.
(2) Poor design details
A structure may be adequately designed to meet loadings and other overall requirements, poor detailing may
result in localized concentrations of high stresses in otherwise satisfactory concrete. These high stresses
may result in cracking that allows water or chemicals access to the concrete. In other cases, poor design
detailing may simply allow water to pond on a structure, resulting in saturated concrete. In general, poor
detailing does not lead directly to concrete failure; rather, it contributes to the action of one of the other
causes of concrete deterioration described in this chapter. Several specific types of poor detailing and
their possible effects on a structure are described in the following paragraphs. In general, all of these
problems can be prevented by a thorough and careful review of plans and specifications for the project. In
the case of existing structures, problems resulting from poor detailing should be handled by correcting the
detailing and not by simply responding to the symptoms.
(a) Abrupt changes in section. Abrupt changes n section may cause stress concentrations that may
result in cracking. Typical examples would include the use of relatively thin sections such as bridge decks
rigidly tied into massive abutments or patches and replacement concrete that are not uniform in plan
dimensions.
 (b) Insufficient reinforcement at reentrant corners and openings. Reentrant corners and
openings also tend to cause stress concentrations that may cause cracking. In this case, the best prevention
is to provide additional reinforcement in areas where stress concentrations are expected to occur.
(c) Inadequate provision for deflection. Deflection in excess of those anticipated may result in
loading of members or sections beyond the capacities for which they were designed. Typically, these
loadings will be induced in walls or partitions, resulting in cracking.
(d) Inadequate provision for drainage. Poor attention to the details of draining a structure may
result in the ponding of water. This ponding may result in leakage or saturation of concrete. Leakage may
result in damage to the interior of the structure or in staining and encrustations on the structure. Saturation
may result in severely damaged concrete if the structure is in an area that is subjected to freezing and
thawing.
(e) Insufficient travel in expansion joints. Inadequately designed expansion joints may result in
spalling of concrete adjacent to the joints. The full range of possible temperature differentials that a
concrete may be expected to experience should be taken into account in the specification for expansion
joints. There is no single expansion joint that will work for all cases of temperature differential.
(f) Incompatibility of materials. The use of materials with different properties (modulus of
elasticity or coefficient of thermal expansion) adjacent to one another may result in cracking or spalling as
the structure is loaded or as it is subjected to daily or annual temperature variations.
(g) Neglect of creep effect. Neglect of creep may have similar effects as noted earlier for
inadequate provision for deflections. Additionally, neglect of creep in prestressed concrete members may
lead to excessive prestress loss that in turn results in cracking as loads are applied.
(h) Rigid joints between precast units. Designs utilizing precast elements must provide for
movement between adjacent precast elements or between the precast elements and the supporting frame.
Failure to provide for this movement can result in cracking or spalling.
(i) Unanticipated shear stresses in piers, columns, or abutments. Through lack of maintenance,
expansion bearing assembles are allowed to become frozen, horizon-tal loading may be transferred to the
concrete elements supporting the bearings. The result will be cracking in the concrete, usually
compounded by other problems which will be caused by the entry of water into the concrete.

Construction Errors:
Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may lead to a number of
conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors. Most of these errors do not lead directly to
failure or deterioration of concrete. Instead, they enhance the adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Each
error will be briefly described along with preventative methods. In general, the best preventive measure is
a thorough knowledge of what these construction errors are, plus an aggressive inspection program. It
should be noted that errors of the type described in this section are equally as likely to occur during repair
or rehabilitation projects as they are likely to occur during new construction.
(a) Adding water to concrete. Water is usually added to concrete in one or both of the following
circumstances:
1. First, water is added to the concrete in a delivery truck to increase slump and decrease emplacement
effort. This practice will generally lead to concrete with lowered strength and reduced durability. As the
w/c of the concrete increases, the strength and durability will decrease.
2. In the second case, water is commonly added during finishing of flatwork. This practice leads to
scaling, crazing, and dusting of the concrete in service.
 (b) Improper alignment of formwork. Improper alignment of the formwork will lead to
discontinuities on the surface of the concrete. While these discontinuities are unsightly in all
circumstances, their occurrence may be more critical in areas that are subjected to high-velocity flow of
water, where cavitations erosion may be induced, or in lock chambers where the “rubbing” surfaces must
be straight.
(c) Improper consolidation. Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects,
the most common being bugholes, honeycombing, and cold joints.
“Bugholes” are formed when small pockets of air or water are trapped against the forms. A change in
the mixture to make it less “sticky” or the use of small vibrators worked near the form has been used to
help eliminate bugholes.
Honeycombing can be reduced by inserting the vibrator more frequently, inserting the vibrator as
close as possible to the form face without touching the form, and slower withdrawal of the vibrator.
Obviously, all of these defects make it much easier for any damage-causing mechanism to initiate
deterioration of the concrete.
Frequently, a fear of “overconsolidation” is used to justify a lack of effort in consolidating concrete.
Overconsolidation is usually defined as a situation in which the consolidation effort causes all of the
coarse aggregate to settle to the bottom while the paste rises to the surface. If this situation occurs, it is
reasonable to conclude that there is a problem of a poorly proportioned concrete rather than too much
consolidation.
(d) Improper curing. Curing is probably the most abused aspect of the concrete construction
process. Unless concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will not
develop the characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to pro-vide durability. Symptoms of
improperly cured concrete can include various types of cracking and surface disintegration. In extreme
cases where poor curing leads to failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths, structural cracking may
occur.
(e) Improper location of reinforcing steel. This section refers to reinforcing steel that is
improperly located or is not adequately secured in the proper location. Either of these faults may lead to
two general types of problems.
1. First, the steel may not function structurally as intended, resulting in structural cracking or failure.
A particularly prevalent example is the placement of welded wire mesh in floor slabs. In many case, the
mesh ends up on the bottom of the slab which will subsequently crack because the steel is not in the
proper location.
2. The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied reinforcing steel is one of
durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up near the surface of the concrete. As the
concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much easier for corrosion to begin.
(f) Movement of formwork Movement of formwork during the period while the concrete is going
from fluid to a rigid material may induce cracking and separation within the concrete. A crack open to the
surface will allow access of water to the interior of the concrete. An internal void may give rise to
freezing or corrosion problems if the void becomes saturated.
(g) Premature removal of shores or reshores. If shores or reshores are removed too soon, the
concrete affected may become overstressed and cracked. In extreme cases there may be major failures.
(h) Settling of the concrete. During the period between placing and initial setting of the concrete,
the heavier components of the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity. This situation may be
aggravated by the use of highly fluid concretes. If any restraint tends to prevent this settling, cracking or
separations may result. These cracks or separations may also develop problems of corrosion or freezing if
saturated.
(i) Settling of subgrade. If there is any settling of the subgrade during the period after the concrete
begins to become rigid but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight, cracking may also
occur.
(j) Vibration of freshly placed concrete. Most construction sites are subjected to vibration from
various sources, such as blasting, pile driving, and form the operation of construction equipment. Freshly
placed concrete is vulnerable to weakening of its properties if subjected to forces which disrupt the
concrete matrix during setting.
(k) Improper finishing of flat work. The most common improper finishing procedures which are
detrimental to the durability of flat work are discussed below.
(1) Adding water to the surface. Evidence that water is being added to the surface is the presence
of a large paint brush, along with other finishing tools. The brush is dipped in water and water is “slung”
onto the surface being finished.
(2) Timing and finishing. Final finishing operations must be done after the concrete has taken its
initial set and bleeding has stopped. The waiting period depends on the amouts of water, cement, and
admixtures in the mixture but primarily on the temperatures of the concrete surface. On a partially shaded
slab, the part in the sun will usually be ready to finish before the part in the shade.
(3) Adding cement to the surface. This practice is often done to dry up bleed water to allow
finishing to proceed and will result in a thin cement-rich coating which will craze or flake off easily.

Effect of Cover Thickness

There is a substantial experience which relates durability and the amount of water. The thicker the
cover over the steel is, the longer it will take the chloride ions to reach the steel and reduce the pH and
passivity provided by the cement. However, excessive cover can led to the development of a few wide
cracks under overstress, whereas a thinner cover results in many small cracks.
As opposed to the above mentioned facts, which appear to justify the rigid rules on cover, are the
fallowing facts.
 Ships built during World War I and II had covers of only about 20mm, yet they did not suffer
corrosion steel.
 In the erstwhile USSR, many floating dry-docks have been built with covers of 15 and 20mm
with highly successful durability over many years of adverse exposure.
It is confirmed opinion that the impermeability of the cover is of major importance. The thickness should
be related to the steel bar diameter and the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
The general factors affecting permeability, such as cement content, water/cement ratio, compaction
and consolidation of the concrete, and curing are important. While many fee that prestressing steel should
have a greater cover than non-stressed steel, because of the more serious consequences of corrosion.
Prestressed concrete pilling by hundreds of thousands are rendering completely successful service with
only 4-6cm of cover. Other factors affecting cover are the tolerances of placement of steel and forms, and
the depths of honeycombs and bug holes and other surface defects.
Lack of adequate cover contributes much to corrosion in an aggressive environment. A well
compacted and continuous, even if thin, cover of good quality concrete on reinforcement is sufficient to
protect it from corrosion.
The following are the reinforcement thickness of covers for various levels of exposure.
 For high exposure : At least 50mm thickness
For moderate exposure : At least 40mm thickness
For mild exposure : At least 30mm thickness
For normal exposure : At least 20mm thickness

Cover Meter
When a metallic object is placed in the varying magnetic field of coil, the field induces eddy
currents in the object. These eddy currents in turn produce an additional magnetic field in the vicinity of
the magnetic object. A magnetic field gets superimposed and the magnetic field near the coil also gets
modified in the presence of metal. This modification has the same effect as would be obtained if the
characteristic of the coil itself had been changed. The change depends upon the electrical conductivity,
dimension, magnetic permeability, presence of discontinuity such as crack, frequency of the field of the
coil, size and shape of the coil, and the distance of the coil from the metallic object.
It is possible to measure the cover thickness for a known diameter by keeping all other parameters
constant. By placing the soil at two different distances from the rebar, both the cover thickness and the
diameter of the rebar can be found.

Effect of Cracking
The formation of cracks is dangerous for protection against corrosion. Once concrete cracks, the
external depassivating agents can penetrate deep into concrete and set off the process of corrosion. Cracks
running transversely to the reinforcement are less harmful than the longitudinal cracks along the
reinforcement.
Thus in the order to induce the process of corrosion and to keep it going, at least one of the
following conditions must exist in any RC structure.
1. Chloride ion concentration in excess of the threshold value at the interface of the reinforcement
and concrete or sufficient advancement of the carbonation front to destroy the passivity of the
ferric oxide surface layer of the reinforcement.
2. Adequate moisture in the concrete to facilitate the movement of chloride ions and provide a
conduction path between the anodic and the cathodic areas on the steel.
3. Sufficient oxygen supply to the cathodic areas in order to maintain such areas in a depolarized
condition.
4. Difference in electrochemical potentials at the surface of the reinforcement.
5. Low values of electrical resistivity of concrete.
6. Relative humidity in the range 50-70%.
7. Higher ambient temperature.
 Unit – III

Materials and Techniques for Repair: Special concretes and mortar, concrete chemicals,
special cements for accelerated strength gain, Expansive cement, polymer concrete, sulphur
infiltrated concrete, ferro cement, Fibre reinforced concrete. Bacterial Concrete. Rust eliminators
and polymers coating for rebars during repair, foamed concrete, mortar and dry pack, vacuum
concrete, Gunite and Shotcrete, Epoxy injection, mortar repair for cracks, shoring and
underpinning. Methods of corrosion protection, corrosion inhibitors, corrosion resistant steels,
coatings and coatings and cathodic protection.

Special Concrete:
Note: For more Special Concretes please refer “Concrete Technology” by M.S. Shetty with the
topic “Special concrete and concreting methods.

Special Mortar: The following are the different types of special mortars available, they are
1. Cement-clay mortar
2. Light-weight and heavy mortars
3. Decorative mortar
4. Air-entrained mortar
5. Gypsum mortar
6. Fire-resistance mortar
7. Packing mortar
8. Sound absorbing mortar
9. X-ray shielding mortar

1. Cement-clay mortar: Here clay is introduced as an effective finely ground additive in quantities
ensuring a cement-clay proportion of not over 1:1. The addition of clay improves the grain
composition, the water retaining ability and the workability of mortar and also increases the
density of mortar. This type of mortar has better covering power and can be used in thin layers.

2. Lightweight and Heavy mortars

Light weight mortars: These are prepared form light porous sands fro pumice and other
fine aggregates. They are also prepared by mixing wood powder, wood shavings or saw dust
with cement mortar or lime mortar. In such mortars, fibres of jute coir and hair, cut into pieces of
suitable size, or asbestos fibres can also be used. These mortars have bulk density less than
15KN/m3 .
 Heavy weight mortars: These are prepared from heavy quartz or other sands. They
have bulk density of 15 KN/m3 or more. They are used in load bearing capacity.

3. Decorative mortars: These mortars are obtained by usingColour cements or pigments and Fine
aggregate of appropriate color, texture and surface.

4. Air-entrained Mortar : The working qualities of lean cement-sand mortar can be improved by
entraining air in it(air serves as a plasticizer producing minute air bubbles which helps in flow
characteristics and workability)/ The air bubbles increase the volume of the binder paste and help
to fill the voids in the sand. The air entraining also makes the mortar weight and a better heat and
sound insulator.

5. Gypsum Mortar: These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding materials such as building
gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.

6. Fire Resistant Mortar: It is prepared by adding aluminous cement to a finely crushed power of
firebricks (Usually proportion being one part of aluminous cement to two parts of powder of fire-
bricks). This mortar being fire resistance, is used with fire-bricks for lining furnaces, fire places,
ovens etc.

7. Sound Absorbing mortar: These mortars may have binging materials such as cement, lime,
gypsum slag etc and aggregate(light weight porous materials( such as pumice, cinders etc. The
bulk density of such a mortar varies from 6 to 12KN/m3 . Noise level can be reduced by using
sound absorbing plaster formed with the help of sound absorbing mortar.

Concrete Chemicals
Admixtures are used to modify the properties of fresh and hardened concrete. They are classified as
chemical and mineral admixtures. Chemical admixtures are used in construction industry for building
strong, durable and waterproof structures. Depending on their use, chemical admixtures are used for the
following four main purposes.
1. Some chemicals are mixed with concrete ingredients and spread throughout the body of concrete to
favorably modify the moulding and setting properties of the concrete mix. Such chemicals are
generally known as chemical admixtures. Admixtures are added to concrete to give it certain
desirable properties in either the fresh or the hardened state. Most admixtures result in modifying
more than one intended property.
2. Some chemicals are applied on the surfaces of moulds used to form concrete to effect easy mould-
releasing operation.
3. Some chemicals are applied on the surfaces of concrete to protect it during or after its setting.
4. Some chemicals are applied to bond or repair broken or chipped concrete.

Accelerators:
Accelerators reduce the setting time, generally produce early removal of forms and early setting of
concrete repair, and patch work. They are helpful in cold weather concreting. The most common
accelerator for plain concrete work Is calcium chloride (CaCl2). Its quantity in the concrete mix is limited
to 1-2% by weight of cement. The presence of CaCl2 can cause corrosion of embedded steel. It reduces
resistance against sulphate attack an may cause an alkali-aggregate reaction. For prestressed and
reinforced concrete CaC l2 cannot be used. Instead, calcium formate is preferred as an accelerating
admixture for such caoncretes. The properties and types of accelerating admixtures are shown in figure.

Figure :Accelerating Admixture

Retarders:
Retarders increase the setting time of the concrete mix and reduce the water-cement ratio. Usually
up to 10% water reduction can be achieved. A wide range of water-reducing and set retarding admixture s
are used in ready mixed concrete. Usually, these chemicals are derived from lignosulphonic acids and
their salts, hydroxylated carboxylic acid and their salts and sulphonated melamine or naphthalene
formaldehyde.
They have a detergent like property. They work on the principle that water-reducing agent migrate
to the surface of water as shown in fig. this increases the surfaces activity and hence imparts a soapy
property to the mix and delays setting.
 Figure: Retarders
Plasticizers:
A plasticizers is defined as an admixture added to wet concrete mix to impart adequate workability
properties. As shown in fig. plasticizers can be of the following three types.
1. finely divided minerals
2. air-entraining agents
3. Synthetic derivatives

Figure: Types of Plasticizers

Finely divided minerals:

They are either cementitious or pozzolanic. Natural cements, hydraulic lime and slag cement belong
to the former category, whereas fly ash and heat-treated clays belong to the latter. They are used as
workability aids. They help in reducing bleeding by way of adding finer particles to the mix.

Air-entraining agents:
 These help in protecting concrete subjected to repeated freeze thaw cycles. Concrete with entrained
air has higher workability and cohesiveness. Segregation and bleeding are reduced by using air-entraining
agents. These agents are generally used to ensure durability against frost.
Air-entraining agents are derived from synthetic detergents, salts of sulphonated lignin, fatty acids,
organic salts of sulphonated hydrocarbons or salts of wood resins.
These agents create millions of tiny air bubbles which relieve the expansion pressure. They result
inn 9% increase in the volume of water, and osmotic pressure develops as water diffuses from gel pores
into the capillaries.
The stability of the air voids between the cement gel and aggregate is also shown in the figure.
Some air-entraining agents react and produce adverse effects when used along with accelerating ot set-
retarding admixtures.

Synthetic Derivatives :
Synthetic derivatives introduce soapy into the mix. These are surface-active agents and are
primarily added to increase workability. The best example of a synthetic derivative is benezene
sulphonate. Chemically they comprise the same chemicals as found in retarders and hence they also
generally retard the setting time.
These derivates may react differently with different types of cement. Hence, a careful study of the
type of cement is required before choosing a particular synthetic derivative.

Superplasticizers:
Superplasticizers produce extreme workability and thus flowing concrete. They achieve reduction
in the water content without loss of workability. Their use generally leads to an overall reduction in the
cost.
Superplasticizers molecules and cement grains are oppositely charged and hence repel each other.
This increases the mobility and hence makes the concrete flow. Superplasticizers enables savings in
cement for a given strength and are ideal for pumping concrete, casting heavily reinforced concrete
members, and the precast elements of concrete.

Special Cements for accelerated Strength Gain:

In repairs of certain structures, particularly roadways and bridges, it may be desired that early
strength gain should be as rapid as possible. The engineer may, as a first approach, consider admixtures so
that ordinary types of Portland cement can be used. The chief chemical admixture now used for this
purpose is superplasticizer.
Formerly high doses of calcium chloride were advocated but this procedure has been rejected on
the basis of corrosion, problems associated with calcium chloride use. The time of setting of Portland
cement concrete and its strength gain may be shortened by the use of calcium aluminate cement. Because
of problems associated with the conversion, under hot humid conditions, of the calcium aluminate
hydrates from one form to another, and the resultant strength losses, other types of cements have been
preferred.
Regulated set cement is a modified Portland cement which contains a substantial amount of calcium
fluoro-aluminate. The cement meal contains a substantial amount of fluorite as a substitute for limestone.
The burning process has a problem due to the release of small amounts of fluoro compounds. When
prepared and ground the initial and final set of this type of cement occurs almost simultaneously and
therefore the time between mixing and set is often referred to as the handling time. As a rule, this varies
between 2 to 45 minutes.
The strength level is adjusted by controlling the amount of calcium fluoro aluminate in the cement.
The time of set is reduced and the compressive strength gain increased in regulated cement mortars and
concrete by an increase in the cement content of the mix, reduction of the water/cement ratio, increases
temperature of the mix and increase in curing temperature.
The chemical reactions of this type of cement are much more energetic than those of Portland
cements. For that reason retardation is necessary. Conventional retarders for Portland cement are not
effective in controlling the set of regulated set cement. However, citric acid is used in the mix as a
retarder. Where practical, the setting action can be effectively controlled by reducing the mix temperature.
Such reductions in the temperature of the mix is also advantageous, as the heat of hydration is
considerably higher than that of Portland cement concrete.
Special cements based on chemical reactions which are completely different from those of normal
Portland or similar cements are now part of the technology. These include fast-setting magnesium
phosphate and aluminium –phosphate cements, which when used for concrete patching for pavements
allow traffic flow after only 45 minutes.

Expansion cement:
Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shrinks while setting due to loss of free
water. Concrete also shrinks continuously for long time. This is known as drying shrinkage.
Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the cement used in
grouting the prestress concrete ducts, if shrinks, the purpose for which the grout is used will be
some extent defeated. There has been a search for such type of cement which will not shrink
while hardening and thereafter. As a matter of fact, a slight expansion with time will prove to be
advantageous for grouting purpose.
This type of cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as
expansion cement. Cement of this type has been developed by using an expanding agent and a
stabilizer very carefully. Proper material and controlled proportioning are necessary in order to
obtain the desired expansion.
Generally, about 8-20 parts of the sulphoaluminate clinker are mixed with 100 parts of the
Portland cement and 15 parts of the stabilizer. Since expansion takes place only so long as
concrete is moist, curing must be carefully controlled. The use of expanding cement requires
skill and experience.
One type of expansive cement is known as shrinkage compensating cement. This cement
when used in concrete, with restrained expansion, induces compressive stresses which
approximately offset the tensile stress induced by shrinkage. Another similar type of cement is
known as self stressing cement. This cement when used in concrete induces significant
compressive stresses after the drying shrinkage has occurred. The induced compressive stresses
not only compensate the shrinkage but also give some sort of prestressing effects in the tensile
zone of the flexural member.

Polymer Concrete:
 Polymer concrete is an aggregate bound with a polymer binder instead of Portland cement
as in conventional concrete.
The main technique in producing PC is to minimize void volume in the aggregate mass so as to
reach the quantity of polymer needed for binding the aggregates. This is achieved by properly
grading and mixing the aggregates to attain the maximum density and minimum void volume.
The graded aggregates are prepacked and vibrated in a mould. Monomer is then diffused up
through the aggregates and polymerization is initiated by radiation or chemical means. A silane
coupling agent is added to the monomer to improve the bond strength between the polymer and
the aggregate. In case polyester resins are used no polymerization is required.
An important reason for the development of this material is the advantage it offers over
conventional concrete where the alkaline Portland cement on curing, forms internal voids. Water
can be entrapped in these voids which on freezing can readily crack the concrete. Also the
alkaline Portland cement is easily attacked by chemically aggressive materials which results in
rapid deterioration, whereas polymers can be made compact with minimum voids and are
hydrophobic and resistant to chemical attack. The strength obtained with PC can be as high as
140 MPa with a short curing method.
However, such polymer concretes tend to be brittle and it is reported that dispersion of
fibre reinforcement would improve the toughness and tensile strength of the material. The use of
fibrous polyester concrete in the compressive region of reinforced concrete beams provides a
high strength, ductile concrete at reasonable cost. Also polyester concretes are viscoelastic in
nature and will fail under sustained compressive loading at stress levels greater than 50% of the
ultimate strength. Therefore, polyester concrete should be considered for structures with a high
ratio of live load to dead load and for composite structures in which the polymer concrete may
relax during long-term loading. Experiments conducted on FPC composite beams have indicated
that they are performance effective when compared to reinforced concrete beam of equal steel
reinforcement percentage. Such beams utilize steel in the region of high tensile stress, fibrous
polyester concrete (FPC) with its favorable compressive behavior, in the regions of high
compressive stress and Portland cement concrete in the regions of relatively low flexural stress.

Advantages
Advantages of polymer concrete include:
Rapid curing at ambient temperatures
High tensile flexural, and compressive strengths
Good adhesion to most surfaces
Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
Good chemical resistance
Good resistance against corrosion
Lightweight
May be used in regular wood and steel formwork
May be vibrated to fill voids in forms
Allows use of regular form-release agents
Dielectric
Disadvantages
Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer concrete. The monomers can be volatile,
combustible, and toxic. Initiators, which are used as catalysts, are combustible and harmful to
human skin. The promoters and accelerators are also dangerous. Polymer concretes also cost
significantly more than conventional concrete.

Sulphur-Infiltrated concrete
New type of composites have been produced by the recently developed techniques of
impregnating porous materials like concrete with sulphur. Sulphur impregnation has shown great
improvements in strength. Physical properties have been found to improve by several hundred %
and large improvements in water impermeability and resistance to corrosion have also been
achieved.
In the past, some attempts have been made to use sulphur as a building material instead of
cement. Sulphur is heated to bring it into molten condition to which coarse and fine aggregates
are pored and mixed together. On cooling, this mixture gave fairly good strength, exhibited acid
resistance and also other chemical resistance, but it proved to be costlier than ordinary cement
concrete.
Recently, use of sulphur was made to impregnate lean porous concrete to improve its
strength and other useful properties considerably. In this method, the quantity of sulphur used is
also comparatively less and thereby the processes is made economical. It is reported that
compressive strength of about 100 MPa could be achieved in about 2 day‟s time. The following
procedure has been reported in making sulphur-Infiltrated concrete.
The concrete to be infiltrated should be produced using normal aggregate with
aggregatecement ratios between 3:1 to 5:1 and having water-cement ratio preferably in the range
0.60 to 0.80. The infiltration procedure normally used consists of moist-curing of concrete
elements for 24 hours at about 230C followed by drying (at 1210C) for a period of 24 hours,
immersing dried element in molten sulphur at 1210C under vacuum for two hours, releasing the
vacuum and soaking for an additional half an hour, and then removing the elements from molten
sulphur to cool. In case of low water-cement ratio, concretes which are relatively dense external
pressure may be applied following the release of vacuum to force sulphur into concrete. The
foregoing procedure may be modified to suit individual job conditions. However, the following
points should be kept in mind.
(i) For concretes with a water-cement ratio of the order of 0.65, the one-day-old
elements must be handled with care to avoid damage.
 (ii) the drying temperature should be kept as high as possible but not exceeding 1500C
since a higher temperature may damage the gel-structure of the young hydrated
cement paste. The period of drying will depend on the type and size of element.
(iii) The period of vacuum, (evacuation time) appears to be less critical than the
immersion time in molten sulphur after evacuation. For concrete with water-cement
ratio of about 0.55, increased immersion time is essential to achieve full infiltration.
Durability:
Generally, the performance of sulphur-Infiltrated concrete is satisfactory against freezing
and thawing, seawater attack and wetting and drying. The sulphur-Infiltrated concrete is more
durable than conventional concrete in higher concentrations of H2So4 and HCl. When left
submerged in stagnant water over extended periods of time, slight leaching of sulphur may take
place and concrete may eventually show undesirable expansion followed by some cracking. The
instability of SIC in aqueous media is apparently related to the presence of polysulphide anions
formed during infiltration and found to be highly soluble in alkaline pore solutions of wet
concrete. The polysulphide and calcium ions (dissolved from concrete) form concentrated
calcium polusulphide, a yellow orange leachate. Under moist aerated conditions, it reacts with
oxygen to form sulphur efflorescence.
The strength properties of SIC are not significantly affected when it is exposed to shortterm
temperature up to 1000C. at this temperature SIC exhibits certain amount of ductile behavior
before failure.
The magnitude of increase in abrasion resistance of SIC depends on the sulphur loading of
the test specimens. However, the sulphur filling of the pores in concrete provides an
uninterrupted path for heat flow resulting in increased values of thermal conductivity over that of
normal dry concrete.
The sulphur-Infiltrated concrete provides a corrosive protection to embedded steel. The
sulphur loading required for a given corrosion protection depends upon water-cement ratio used
in concrete. Higher the water-cement ratio, higher the sulphur loading required. The minimum
sulphur loading varies from 10% for 0.70 water-cement ratio to 5% for 0.40 water-cement ratio.

Applications:
The sulphur-Infiltrateed concrete is ideally suited for precast units such as
Patio slabs, Sidewalks, Kerbs and Sewer pipes.

3. FerroCement:
Ferrocement is a type of thin reinforced concrete, constructed of cement mortar
reinforced with closely spaced layers of continuous and small diameter wire mesh.
It is well known that conventional reinforced concrete members are too heavy,
brittle, which cannot be satisfactorily repaired if damaged, develop cracks and
reinforcements are liable to be corroded. These disadvantages of normal concrete make it
inefficient for certain types of work.
 Ferrocement is a relatively new material consisting of wire meshes and cement
mortar. It consists of closely spaced wire meshes which are impregnated with rich cement
mortar mix. The wire mesh is usually of 0.5 to 1.0mm dia wire at 5mm to 10mm spacing
and cement mortar is of cement sand ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 with water/cement ratio of 0.4 to
0.45. The ferrocement elements are usually of order of 2 to 3 cm in thickness with 2 to
5mm external cover to the reinforcement. The steel content varies between 300 kg to 500
kg per cubic metre of mortar. The basic idea behind this material is that concrete can
undergo large strains in the neighbourhood of the reinforcement and the magnitude of
stains depends on the distribution and subdivision of reinforcement throughout of the
mass of concrete.
The main advantages are simplicity of its construction, lesser dead weight of the
elements due to their small thickness, its high tensile strength, less crack widths
compared to conventional concrete, easy repairability, noncorrosive nature and easier
mouldability to any required shape. This material is more suitable to special structures
like shells which have strength through forms and structures like roofs, silos, water tanks
and pipelines.
Reinforcement:
Skeletal reinforcement with closely spaced wires is the most commonly used
reinforcement in ferrocement. In the ferrocement a wire mesh is required to control the
cracking and skeleton steel to support the wire mesh. Use of fine meshes with thin wires
at closer spacings for effective crack control.

Types of Wire mesh reinforcement used in Ferrocement:

1) Hexagonal wire mesh
2) Square mesh
3) Three dimensional mesh
1. Hexagonal Wire Mesh: Meshes with hexagonal openings are called chicken wire mesh.
Diameter of wires varies Between 0.5mm to 10mm, the grid size varies between 10mm to 25mm
these meshes are more flexible and easier to work with it, which means we can make it easily
into desired shape.
2. Square Mesh: Square mesh is made out of straight wires in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions. Thus welded-mesh thickness is equal to two wire diameters. Welded
meshes are weak at welded spots. Diameter varies between 1mm to 1.5mm. Grid size varies
between 15 to 25mm.
3. Three Dimensional Mesh: A three dimensional mesh is also available. A crimpled keeper
wire frictionally locks together three alternating layers of straight wire. The mesh is sufficiently
thick so that in some applications, only one layer is required.

Types of mortar for ferrocement:

1. Ordinary Cement Mortar
2. High Performance Mortar
3. Lightweight Aggregate Mortar
4. Fiber Reinforced Mortar
5. Polymer Mortar

1. Ordinary Cement Mortar:

Portland cement is used to make ordinarily cement mortar. The filter material is usually a
well-graded sand capable of passing 2.36mm sieve. However depending upon the characteristics
of the reinforcing material mortar may contain some small-size gravel.
The mix proportion ranges of the mortar for ferrocement are sand-cement ratio by weight,
1.4 to 2.5, water-cement ratio by weight, 0.3 to 0.5.

2. High Performance Mortar:

This mortar is similar to conventional cement mortar but it contains mineral admixture to
produce impermeable matrix. This enhances the durability of ferrocement by providing greater
protection to the steel reinforcement. By proper selection of chemical and mineral activities and
W/C ratio, FC mortar can reduce pore size considerably and thereby achieving very high strength
levels, which are not possible conventionally.
It having comprehensive strengths in the range of 50 to 100Mpa.

3. Light Weight Aggregate Mortar:

It is used to construct low-cost housing, Lightweight aggregate reduces the density of the
mortar. It helps in reduction of dead load, Lightweight aggregate are introduced replacing the
sand in the mortar, Lightweight aggregates reduce the thermal conductivity.

4. Fiber Reinforcement Mortar Composites:

Fiber reinforcement mortar composites are produced by introducing small diameter
discontinuous fibers during mixing of mortar matrices, Fibers which have been produced from
steel, carbon, glass, nylon etc in various shapes & sizes thy posses high modulus of elasticity and
lead to strong and stiff composites.
In ferrocement applications very short length of 2mm to 12mm were used to increase
their properties. The short fibers was used in the composite, with the objective of improving the
crack resistance of the matrix. Short fibers can control micro cracking before the actual mortar
cracks. The long fibers were used to improve the post cracking behavior of the composites.
The length of these fibers allows them to bridge the cracks. The fibers can then transmit
the loads from the cracked matrix to uncracked matrix, which results in more ductility of
composite.

5 Polymer Mortar:
 To overcome the disadvantage of cement mortars and concretes, such as delayed
hardening, low tensile strength, high drying shrinkage and low chemical resistance, polymer
cement or polymer modified cement mortars are being used for man industrial application in the
form of protective coating for concrete.
Polymer modified mortar is obtained by the addition of polymer material to cement
mortar during resulting in a polymer modified mortar. The polymer fills of the capillary pores
makes the concrete impermeable.
Applications:
Boats Construction
Sun Screens
Cylindrical shell roof
Folded plate roof
Water tank
Fibre Reinforced Concrete:
FRC can be defined as a composites material, consisting of mixtures of cement mortar or
concrete and discontinuous, discrete uniformly dispersed suitable fibres.
Fibre is a small piece of reinforcing material that can be circular or flat.
Properties of FRC:
 It have more tensile strength.
 Fibres improve the impact and abrasion resistance of concrete.
 It posses high compressive strength.
 It posses low thermal and electrical conductivity.
Aspect ratio:
The fibre is often described by a convenient parameter called “aspect ratio”. The aspect
ratio of the fibre is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30 to
150.

Types of Fibres:
1. Steel Fibres
2. Glass Fibres
3. Polypropylene Fibres
4. Slurry Infiltrated Fibre Concrete (SIFCON)
5. Asbestos
6. Carbon

1. Steel Fibres:
Steel fibre is one of the most commonly used fibre. Generally round fibres are used.
The diameter may vary from 0.25 to 0.75mm. The steel fibre is likely to get rusted and lose
some of its strength. But investigations have shown that the rusting of the fibres take place
only at the surface. Use of steel fibre makes significant improvements in flexural, impact
 and fatigue strength of concrete. It has very high tensile strength of 1700N/mm2 . Steel
fibres are incorporated in the shotcrete to improve its crack resistance, ductility and energy
absorption and impact resistance characteristics.
Applications: Industrial Flooring
Warehouses
Overlays
Tunneling

2. Glass Fibre:
Glass fibre is a recent introduction in making fibre concrete. It has very high tensile
strength of 1020 to 4080 N/mm2 glass fibre which is originally used in conjunction with
cement was found to be affected by alkaline condition of cement. Therefore, alkaline
resistant glass fibre by trade name “CEM-FIL” has been developed and used. o AR glass
fibres have a density that is similar to that of concrete. o It gives better bond between the
concrete matrix and the reinforcement. o It prevents crack. The fibres also have elastic
modulus which is significantly higher than concrete. This enables the fibres to provide an
effective reinforcement during the hardened stage of concrete.
Application: Noise Barriers
Water ducts and channels
Tunnel lining
Railways.

3. Polypropylene fibre:
They are having good resistance against shrinkage and temperature cracks. It is having
low modulus. They have longer elongation under a given load, which means they can absorb
more energy without fracture. The low modulus fibres can be combined with steel fibres
which is the latest trend what we call hybrid technology. Its applicable for structure exposed
to atmosphere. These fibres can take care of the drying shrinkage where as steel cannot
perform in wet condition.
Applications:
Area of application: Polypropylene fibres can be used for slabs on grade, airport,
highways, pavement, parking areas, bridge deck overlays, sewer pipes, precast concrete
products.

4. Slurry infiltrated fibre Concrete (SIFCON):

SIFCON is a high-strength, high performance concrete. It contains high volume
percentage of steel fibres. It is also called as high-volume fibrous concrete. The volume of
steel varies from 4 to 20 percent. SIFCON has no coarse aggregates. It contains fine sand
and additives such as fly ash, micro-silica and latex emulsions. Proportions of cement and
sand generally used for making SIFCON are 1:1, 1:1.5, or 1:2. Cement slurry alone can also
 be used for some application. Generally, fly ash or silica fume equal to 10% to 15% by
weight of cement is used in the mix. The water cement ratio varies between 0.3 to 0.4.
Applications:
Proportions like ductility, crack resistance and penetration and impact resistance are
very high for SIFCON when compared to other materials, it is best suited for application in
the following areas.
Overlays, bridge decks
Seismic resistance structures
Precast concrete products
Military applications such anti-missile hangers, under-ground shelters
Aerospace launching platforms
Repair, rehabilitation and strengthening of structures
Concrete mega-structures such as offshore and long-span structures, solar towers etc.
5. Compact Reinforces Concrete (CRC):
CRC is a mixer of cementitious content and fine steel fibres and further reinforced
with a high concentration of continuous and uniformly placed larger steel bars. CRC has
structural similarities with reinforces concrete, but is much more heavily reinforced and
exhibits mechanical behavior more like that of structural steel, having almost the same
strength and extremely high ductility.
Applications:
It is best suited for the applications in the following areas:
Load carrying parts in large machines.
Special high-performance joints in conventional steel.

6. Asbestos:
Asbestos is mineral fibre and has proved to be most successful of all fibres as it can
be mixed with Portland cement. Tensile strength of asbestos varies between 560 to
980N/mm2 . The composite product called asbestos cement has considerably higher flexural
strength than the Portland cement paste. For unimportant fibre concrete, organic fibres like
coir, jute, cane splits are also used.
Applications: Sheet pipe, boards, sewer pipes, wall lining etc.

7. Carbon:
Carbon fibres perhaps posses very high tensile strength 2110 to 2815 N/mm2 and
young‟s modulus. It has been reported that cement composite made with carbon fibre as
reinforcement will have very high modulus of elasticity and flexural strength. Carbon fibres
concrete are used to construct structures like cladding, panels and shells.
Rust Eliminators
Cement paste normally provides a highly alkaline environment that projects embedded
steel against corrosion. Concrete with a low water/cement ratio, well compacted and well
cured, has a low permeability and hence minimizes the penetration of atmospheric moisture
as well as other components such as oxygen, chloride ion, carbon dioxide and water, which
encourage corrosion of steel bar.
In very aggressive environments, the bars may be coated with special materials
developed for this purpose. Coating on reinforcing steel, therefore, serves as a means of
isolating the steel from the surrounding environment. Common metallic coatings contain
galvanizing zinc. High chloride concentration around the embedded steel corrodes the zinc
coating, followed by corrosion of steel.
Hence, this treatment used for moderately aggressive environments. For high corrosive
atmospheres caused by chloride ions from the de-icing salts applied to protect against
sodium chloride and calcium chloride, usually near seashores, epoxy coating is applied to
protect steel reinforcing bars from corrosion. Such bars have acceptable bond and creep
characteristics. The coat normally applied is 150 um thick. The reinforcement is epoxied in
the factory itself, where the steel rods are manufactured. Such reinforcement are known as
fusion-bonded epoxy coated steel. Steel manufacturers also manufacture CTD bars with
better corrosion resistance, termed as Corrosion Resistance Steel (CRS). The performance of
the CRS CTD bars is better in resisting corrosion compared to plain CTD bars. However, the
use of CRS CTD bars will only delay the process of corrosion. It will not prevent corrosion
once for all.

Polymer Resin based Coating:

These are generally of two types,
1. Resins blended with organic solvents and
2. Solvent free coating Solvent-based coatings are subdivided into single and two
component coatings. The coatings on drying produce a smooth dense continuous film that
provides a barrier to moisture and mild chemical attack of the concrete. Because of the
resistance to moisture penetration, staining, and ease of cleaning, they are preferred for
locations of high humidity and those in which a lot of soiling occurs.
Most products are low solids content materials which require multiple coats to produce
a continuous film over concrete, since the materials are thermoplastic, and have a significant
degree of extensibility they are capable of bridging minor cracks which may develop in the
concrete surface if they are applied in sufficient thickness. The number of coats required
depends on the surface texture, porosity and the targeted dry film thickness. Although some
of the newer products have some moisture tolerance, enabling them to be applied over damp
surfaces, in normal usage they should be applied over dry surfaces. Due to their relative in
permeability to water vapor, they could blister When applied to concrete surfaces with high
moisture content or where the opposite surface of the concrete is in constant contact with
moisture. Careful control of wet film thickness is therefore necessary during application.
Two component polymer coatings consist of a solution of a compounded polymer with
or without solvent and a reactive chemical component called the curing agent hardener or
catalyst. The materials are usually mixed just prior to use in accordance with the
manufacturer‟s instructions. When using two components polymer based coatings the
following items are of importance to the application of the materials.
1. Most produces are supplied as a kit containing the two components in the required
proportions. Therefore, in order to realize the full potential of the product the correct mix
ratio of the two components must be used.
2. To ensure a complete reaction of the two components they must be mixed thoroughly.
3. Some two component material require an induction period of 15 to 40 min after
mixing. Therefore, such products cannot be used immediately after mixing.
4. Viscosity reduction by the use of thinners should be resorted to only after the
manufacturers are consulted.
5. The storage temperature of solvent based coatings is not critical. They should be stored
are a temperature 16 to 32◦c just prior to use.

Formed Concrete:
If a sufficiently portion of concrete is removed, it can best be replaced with
concrete placed in forms. This concrete can be placed without a bonding agent and
without grout on the prepared surface of the old concrete. US bureau of reclamation
suggests that this method should be used
(i) When the depth of the repair exceeds 150 mm,
(ii) For holes extending right though the concrete section
(iii) For holes in unreinforced concrete with area greater than 0.1m2 and over 100
mm deep, and
(iv) For holes in reinforced concrete which have an area greater than 0.05m2 and
which extend deeper than the reinforcement.
There are some essential requirements that apply to the use of formed concrete as a
replacement material, regardless of its location in the structure.
(i) The concrete should be made from the best possible materials and with the
lowest possible water/cement ratio.
(ii) To keep shrinkage to a minimum, the aggregate size should be large as can be
accommodated and the water content as low as possible.
(iii) The mix should be designed so that no bleeding occurs in order to ensure that
the replacement material remains in intimate contact with old concrete located
above it.
 (iv) The hole to be filled must be shaped so that there are no feather edges and with a
depth normal to the finished seurface of atleast 40mm. It must also be shaped so
that sir is not trapped.
(v) Forms must be robust and firmly fixed so that they withstand any applied
pressure and do not allow grout leakage.
(vi) Old concrete, against which new concrete is to be placed, must be sound,
completely clean and saturated and the surface must be free from moisture.

Mortar and Dry Pack:

Dry packing is the hand placement if a low W/C ratio mortar which is subsequently
rammed in to place to produce a dense mortar plug having tight contact to the existing
concrete.
Because of the low W/C ratio, there is e patch remains little shrinkage and the patch
remains tight, with good durability, strength and water tightness. Dry pack should be used
for filling holes having a depth equal to, or greater than, the least surface dimension of the
repair area; for cone belt, she bolt, core holes and grout-insert holes; for holes left by the
removal of form ties; and for narrow slots cut for repair of cracks. Dry pack should not be
used for relatively shallow depressions where lateralrestraint cannot be obtained, for filling
behind reinforcement, or for filling holes that extend completely through a concrete section.
For the dry pack method of concrete pair, holes should be sharp and square at the surface
edges, but corners within the holes should be rounded, especially when water tightness is
required. The interior surfaces of holes left by cone bolts and she bolts sould be roughened
to develop and effective bond; this can be done with a rough stub of 7/8 inch steel wire rope,
a notched tapered reamer, or a star drill. Other holes should be undercut slightly in several
places around the perimeter. Holes for dry pack should have a minimum depth of 1 inch.

Vacuum Concrete:
It is well known that high water/cement ratio is harmful to the overall quality of
concrete, whereas low water/cement ratio does not give enough workability for concrete to
be compacted hundred percentage. Generally, higher workability and higher strength or very
low workability and higher strength do not go hand in hand. Vacuum process of concreting
enables to meet this conflicting demand. This process helps a high workable concrete to get
high strength.
In this process, excess water used for higher workability, not required for hydration
and harmful in many ways to the hardened concrete is withdrawn by means of vacuum
pump, subsequent to the placing of the concrete. The process when properly applied
produces concrete of quality. It also permits removal of formwork at an early age to be used
in other repetitive work.
It essentially consists of a vacuum pump, water separator and filtering mat. The
filtering consists of a backing piece with a rubber seal all round the periphery. A sheet of
expanded metal and then a sheet of wire gauge also form part of the filtering mat. The top of
the suction mat is connected to the vacuum pump. When the vacuum pump operates, suction
is created within the boundary of the suction mat and the excess of water is sucked from the
concrete through the fine wire gauge or muslin cloth. At least one face of the concrete must
be open to the atmosphere to create difference of pressure. The contraction of concrete
caused by loss of water must be vibrated. The vacuum processing can be carried out either
from the top surface or from the side surface. There will be only nominal difference in the
efficiency of top processing or side processing. It has been seen that the size of the mat
should not be less than 90cm x 60cm. smaller mat was not found to be effective

Rate of extraction of water:

The rate of extraction of water is dependent upon the workability of mix, maximum
size of aggregate, proportion of fines and aggregate, cement ratio. In general, the following
general tendencies are observed.
 The amount of water, which may be withdrawn, is governed by the initial
workability or the amount of free water. A great reduction in the water/cement ratio
can, therefore, be obtained with higher initial water/cement ratio.
 If the initial water/cement ratio is kept the same the amount of water which can be
extracted is increased by increasing the maximum aggregate size or reducing the
amount of fines in the mix.
 Although the depression of the water/cement ratio is less, the lower the initial
water/cement ratio, the final water/cement ratio is also less, the lower the initial
value.
 The reduction in the water/cement ratio is very slightly less with mixes leaner than 6
to1, but little advantage is gained with mixes richer than this.
 The greater the depth of concrete processed the smaller is the depression of the
average water/cement ratio.
 The ability of the concrete to stand up immediately after processing is improved if a
fair amount of fine material is present, if the maximum aggregate size is restricted to
19mm and if a continuous grading is employed.
 Little advantage is gained y prolonging the period of treatment beyond 15 to 20
minutes and a period of 30 minutes is the maximum that should be used.

4.7. The Gunite or Concrete:

Gunite can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically
projected at a high velocity onto a surface. Recently this method has been further
developed by the introduction of small sized coarse aggregate into the mix deposited to
obtain considerably greater thickness in one operation and to make the process
economical by reducing the cement content. Normally fresh material with zero slump can
support itself without sagging or peeling off. The force of the jet impacting on the surface
 compact the material. Sometimes use of set accelerators to assist overhead placing is
practiced. The newly developed “Redi-set cement” can also be used for shotcreting
process.
There is not much difference between guniting and shotcreting. Gunite was first
used in the early 1900 and this process is mostly used for pneumatical application of
mortar of less thickness, whereas shotcrete is a recent development on the similar
principle of guniting for achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregates.
There are two different processes in use, namely the “Wet-mix” process and the
“dry-mix” process. The dry mix process is more successful and generally used.

Dry-mix Process:
The dry mix process consists of number of stages and calls for some specialized plan. A
typical small plant set-up is shown.
 This material is carried by compressed air through the delivery hose to a special
nozzle. The nozzle is fitted inside with a perforated manifold through which water is
sprayed under pressure and intimately mixed with the sand/cement jet.
 The wet mortar is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the surface to gunited.
Wet-mix process:
In the wet-mix process the concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary concrete before
conveying through the delivery pipe line to the nozzle, at which point it is jetted by a
compressed air, onto the work in the same way, as that of dry-mix process.
The wet-mix process has been generally discarded in favour of dry-mix process, owing to
the greater success of the latter.
The dry-mix method makes use of high velocity or low velocity system fully. The high
velocity gunite is produced by using the small nozzle and a high air pressure to produce a
high nozzle velocity of about 90 to 120 meters/sec. This results in exceptional good
compaction. The lower velocity gunite is produced using large diameter hose for large
output. The compaction will not be very high.

General use of Shotcrete:

1. It is useful where considerable savings and peculiar adaptability is needed and it is more
suitable than conventional placing methods.
2. Shuttering and formwork need be erected only on side of the work and hence there will
be considerable saving in the shuttering costs.
3. It can be conveyed over a considerable diameter pipe, makes this process suitable for
sites where access is difficult.
4. The maximum rate of deposition is about 15 m3 hr for the dry process but this can be
exceeded with the wet process.
5. The low water-cement ratio, the thinness of the section deposited and the fact that
normally only one side of the concrete is covered, necessitates careful attention to curing
more than with normal concrete.
6. The normal specifications with respect to cement, aggregate and water, also apply for
shotcrete, but it is desirable that the aggregate should be harder to allow for attrition.
7. Admixtures can be used in shotcrete to produce the same effects as in ordinary concrete.
8. The drying shrinkage will depend on the water content and may, therefore, be expected
to be fairly low for the dry process. The creep of the dry shocrete is similar to that of high
quality normally placed concrete but shrinkage and creep of wet shocrete is likely to be
high.
9. The durability or resistance to frost action and other agencies of dry shocrete is good.
10. About half of the entrained air is likely to be lost while spraying.

Epoxy Injection:
The Injection of polymer under pressure will ensure that the sealant penetrates to the
full depth of the crack. The technique in general consists of drilling hole at close intervals
along the length of cracks and injecting the epoxy under pressure in each hole in turn until
it starts to flow out of the next one. The hole in use is then sealed off and injection is started
at the next hole and so on until full length of the crack has been treated. Before injecting
the sealant, it is necessary to seal the crack at surface between the holes with rapid curing
resin.
For repairs of cracks in massive structures, a series of holes (Usually 20mm in dia and
20mm deep spaced at 150 to 300mm interval) intercepting the crack at a number of
location are drilled. Epoxy injection can be used to bond the cracks as narrow as 0.05mm.
It has been successfully used in the repair of cracks in buildings, bridges, dams and other
similar structures. However, unless the cause of cracking is removed, cracks will probably
recur possibly somewhere else in the structure. Moreover, in general this technique is not
very effective if the cracks are actively leaking and cannot be dried out.
Epoxy injection is a highly specialized job requiring a high degree of skill for
satisfactory execution. The general steps involved are as follows.

i. Preparation of the surface: The contaminated cracks are cleaned by removing

all oil, grease, dirt and fine particles of concrete which prevent the epoxy penetration and
bonding. The contaminants should preferably be removed by flushing the surface with
water or a solvent. The solvent is then blown out using compressed air, or by air drying.
The surface cracks should be sealed to keep the epoxy from leaking out before it has
cured or gelled. A surface can be sealed by brushing an epoxy along, the surface of
cracks and allowing it to harden. If extremely high injection pressures are needed, the
crack should be routed to a depth of about 12mm and width of about 20mm in V-shape,
filled with an epoxy, and stuck off flush with the surface.
ii. Installation of entry ports: The entry port or nipple is an opening to allow the
injection of adhesive directly into the crack without leaking. The spacing of injection ports
depends upon a number of factors such as depth of crack, width or crack and its variation
with depth, viscosity of epoxy, injection pressure etc. and choice must be based on
experience. In case of V-grooving of the cracks, a hole of 20mm dia and 12 to25mm below
the apex of V-grooved section, is drilled into the crack. A tire-calue stren is bonded with an
epoxy adhesive in the hole. In case the cracks are not V-grooved, the entry port is provided
by bonding a fitting, having a hat-like croos-section with an opening at the top for adhesive
to enter, flush with the concrete face over the crack.

iii. Mixing of epoxy: The mixing can be done either by batch or continuous methods.
In batch mixing, the adhesive components are premixed in specified proportions with a
mechanical stirrer, in amounts that can be used prior to the commencement of curing of the
material. With the curing of material, pressure injection becomes more and more difficult. In
the continuous mixing system, the two liquid adhesive components pass through metering
and driving pumps prior to passing through an automatic mixing head. The continuous
mixing system allows the use of fast-setting adhesives that have short working life.

iv. Injection of epoxy: In its simplest form, the injection equipment consists of a
small reservoir or funnel attached to a length of flexible tubing, so as to provide a gravity
head. For small quantities of repair material small hand-held guns are usually the most
economical. They can maintain a steady pressure which reduces chances of damage to the
surface seal. For big jobs power-driven pumps are often used for injection. The pressure
used for injection must be carefully selected, as the use excessive pressure can propagate the
existing cracks, causing additional damage. The injection pressures are governed by the
width and depth of cracks and the viscosity of resin and seldom exceed 0.10Mpa. It is
preferable to inject fine cracks under low pressure in order to allow the material to be drawn
into the concrete by capillary action and it is a common practice to increase the injection
pressure during the course of work to overcome the increase in resistance against flow as
crack is filled with material. For relatively wide cracks gravity head of few hundred
millimeters may be enough.

v. Removal of surface seal: After the injected epoxy has occurred; the surface seal
may be removed by grinding or other means as appropriate. Fittings and holes at the entry
ports should be painted with an epoxy patching compound.
Corrosion Mechanism:
Corrosion of steel reinforcement occurs by a electrochemical process which involves
exchanges of electrons similar to that which occurs in a battery. The important part of the
mechanism is the separation of negatively charged areas of metal or „anodes‟ where
corrosion occurs and positively charged areas or „cathodes‟ where a harmless charge
balancing reaction occurs.
At the anode the iron dissolves and then reacts to form the solid corrosion product,
rust. The rust is formed at the metal/oxide interface, forcing previously formed oxide away
from the steel and compressing the concrete, causing it to spall.
So in other words for corrosion to occur four basic elements are required:
 Anode – Site where corrosion occurs and current flows from
 Cathode – Site where no corrosion occurs and current flows to.
 Electrolyte – A medium capable of conducting electric current by ionic current flow(i.e
Soil, Water or Concrete)
 Metallic path – connection between the anode and cathode, which allows current return
and completes the circuit.
Reinforcing steel in concrete normally does not corrode because of the formation of
a passive oxide film on the surface of the steel due to the initial corrosion reaction.
The process of hydration of cement in freshly placed concrete develops a high
alkalinity, which in the presence of oxygen stabilizes the film on the surface of embedded
steel, ensuring continued protection while the alkalinity is retained.
Normally, concrete exhibits a pH above 12 because of the presence of calcium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide – the term pH is a measure of the alkalinity or acidity,
ranging from highly alkaline at 14 to highly acidic at zero, with neutrality at 7. Although
the precise nature of this passive film is unknown, it isolates the steel from the
environment and slows further corrosion as long as the film is intact. However, there are
two major situations in which corrosion of reinforcing steel can occur.
These include:
1. Carbonation,
2. Chloride contamination

Deterioration through Carbonation:

Carbonation is a process In which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses
through the porous concrete and neutralizes the alkalinity of concrete.
CaCo3+H2OCa(OH)2+CO2
Carbon dioxide, which is present in air in proportions of around 0.3 percent by
volume, dissolves In water to form a mildly acidic solution. Unlike other acids that may
chemically attack and etch the surface of the concrete, this acid forms within the pores of
the concrete itself where the carbon dioxide dissolves in any moisture present. Here it
reacts with the alkaline calcium hydroxide forming insoluble calcium carbonate.
 The pH value then drops from 12.5 to about 8.5. The carbonation process moves
as a front through the concrete, with a pH drop across the front. When it reaches the
reinforcing steel, the passive layer decays when the pH value drops below 10.5. The steel
is then exposed to moisture and oxygen and is susceptible to corrosion.
Concrete inside the building frequently carbonates totally without any sign of
deterioration as the concrete dries out, leaving the steel exposed to air but not moisture.
Problems are seen externally where concrete is exposed to the elements and in certain
situations internally, such as kitchens and bathrooms, where the concrete is susceptible to
condensation or waterleakage.

Deterioration due to Chloride:

Salt causes corrosion by a different mechanism. When salt is dissolved in water
sodium chloride forms a versatile, highly corrosive solution of sodium ions(Na+) and
chloride ions(Cl-).
Salt is used for de-icing roads and its presence in sea water is a major problem for
reinforced concrete structures. The very mobile chloride ions disperse through concrete
pores in solution and where they come into contact with the reinforcing steel they attack
the passive layer. Steel oxidizes in the presence of air and water to form rust which has a
volume of up to 10 times that of the steel consumed.
As concrete has a low tensile strength it will crack when as little as a tenth of a
millimeter of steel has been consumed. Horizontal cracks from, causing corners to
„SPALL‟ and surfaces to „delaminate‟ as the reinforcement‟s concrete cover becomes
detached and falls away in sheets.
The consequence can be seen on the underside of road bridges and many buildings
and structures beside the sea.
ACI recommends the following chloride limits in concrete for new construction,
expressed as a percent by weight of cement:
 Pre-stressed concrete 0.08%
 Reinforced concrete in wet conditions 0.10%
 Reinforced concrete in dry conditions 0.20%
 But in existing structures 0.026% is enough to breakdown the Passive
Layer.

Factors Influencing corrosion of Reinforcement:

Various factors initiate and sustain the process of corrosion in R.C. structures. They
are broadly divided into two groups:
1. General Influencing factors
2. General accelerating factors
 1. General Influencing factors: The following are the factors that generally
influence corrosion of reinforcement in R.C. structures.
pH Value
Moisture
Oxygen
Carbonation
Chlorides
Ambient temperature
Severity of exposure
Quality of concrete
Cover to the reinforcement
Initial curing condition
Formation of cracks
2. General Accelerating factors: The following are the factors which accelerates
the process of corrosion in R.C. structures:
Chlorides
Sulphates
Chlorine
Electrical Charges
Methane Acids

Methods of Corrosion Protection:

The following are some of the methods for protecting steel from corrosion
 Protective coatings for reinforcement
 Cathodic protection
 Corrosion Resistant steel
 Corrosion inhibitors

Protective coatings for reinforcement:

This is an effective means to combat corrosion in such environment where ordinary
concrete with surface coating is not able to protect reinforcement against corrosion. The surface
coating for the reinforcement will increase the protection against corrosion.
There are several methods of providing protective coating to the reinforcement. The
important ones are:
i. Cement Slurry Coating:
 Cement Slurry Coating provides short-term protection until placement in
concrete.
 Several methods have been developed for an effective corrosion protection
using cement slurry.
  One such coating is a mixture of cement, condensed silica and polymer
dispersion.
 This mixer found to be impermeable to water, chlorides and carbon-dioxide.
ii. Epoxy Coating:
 Epoxy coating is formed by application of an epoxy resin with appropriate
curing agents catalysts, pigments and flow control agents.
 Fusion bonding using the electrostatic process is the recent development.
 Fusion bonded epoxy coating provides long-term protection against corrosion.
 Though the cost is relatively high, it is the one which is the most effective in
high alkaline and chloride contaminated environment.
iii. Plastic Coating:
 Similar to epoxy coating, the plastic coatings are very effective in preventing
corrosion of reinforcement even in high alkaline or chloride contaminated
environment.
 However, the reduction in bond between plastic coated bar and the concrete is
quite substantial and hence plastic coating cannot be considered as a solution for
prevention of corrosion which cannot be solved by conventional methods. iv.
iv. Galvanizing:
 Galvanizing gives protection to the reinforcement against corrosion, by means
of metallic coating such as zinc.
 However, in case of corrosion due to excessive chlorides, the effect of
galvanizing protection is reduce and hence is not advisable in highly chloride
contaminated environments.
v. Cathodic protection:
 Cathodic protection interferes with the natural action of the electrochemical
cells that are responsible for corrosion.
 Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to control corrosion of surfaces
that are immersed in water or exposed to soil.
 Cathodic protection in its classical form cannot be used to protect surfaces
exposed to the atmosphere.
 The use of anodic metallic coatings such as zinc on steel(galvanizing) is,
however, a form of cathodic protection, which is effective in the atmosphere.
 There are two basic methods of supplying the electrical currents required to
interfere with the electrochemical cell action. They are
1. Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes.
2. Impressed current cathodic protection

1. Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes:

 Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal
surface by making it work as a cathode of an electrochemical cell. This is
 achieved by placing in contact with the metal to be protected another more
easily corroded metal to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell.
 This method is also called sacrificial anode cathodic protection system, where
the active metal is consumed in the process of protecting the surfaces, so that
corrosion is controlled.
 In sacrificial anode systems the high energy electrons required for cathodic
protection are supplied by the corrosion of an active metal.
 Sacrificial anode systems depend on the differences in corrosion potential that
are established by the corrosion reactions that occur on different metals or
alloys.
For example, the natural corrosion potential of iron is about -0.550 volts
in seawater. The natural corrosion potential of zinc in seawater is about -1.2
volts. Thus if the two metals are electrically connected, the corrosion of the
zinc becomes a source of negative charge which prevents corrosion of the
iron.
In application where the anodes are buried, a special backfill material
surrounds the anode in order to insure that the anode will produce the despired
output. Sacrificial anodes are normally supplied with either lead wires or cast-
m straps to facilitate their connection to the structure being protected.
The lead wires may be attached to the structures by welding or mechanical
connections. These should have a low resistance and should be insulated to
prevent increased resistance or damage due to corrosion. When anodes with
cast-in straps are used, the straps can either be welded directly to the structure
or the straps can be used as locations for attachment.
A low resistance mechanically adequate attachment is required for
good protection and resistance to mechanical damage. In the process of
providing electrons for the cathodic protection of a less active metal the more
active metal corrodes. The more active metal (anode) is sacrificed to protect
the less active metal(cathode). The amount of corrosion depends on the metal
being used as an anode but it is directly proportional to the amount of current
supplied.
The anodes in sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems must be
periodically inspected and replaced when consumed.

2. Impressed current Cathodic protection: In impressed current cathodic protection,

an alternative source of direct electrical current, usually a rectifier that converts
alternating current to direct current is used to provide the required electrical current.
In this system, the electrical circuit is completed through an inert anode material that
is not consumed in the process.
 As shown in Figure low energy electrons that are picked up at a non-reactive
anode bed are given additional energy by the action of a rectifier to be more energetic
than the electrons that would be produced in the corrosion reaction.
The energy for the “electron energy pump” action of the rectifier is provided by
ordinary alternating current. The effect of these electrons at the structure being
protected is the same as that derived from the sacrificial anode type of cathodic
protection system. However, the anode materials (such as magnetic, platinum, and
newly developed ceramic materials) have been successfully used.
For buried anodes, a backfill of carbonaceous material is used to surround the
anode to decrease the electrical resistance of the anode, to provide a uniform, low
resistivity environment surrounding the anode and to allow gasses produced at the
anode surface to vent. In practice, materials such as graphite are used for impressed
current cathodic protection system anodes that are slowly consumed. Anodes in
impressed current systems must be inspected and replaced if consumed or otherwise
damaged.
________________________________________________________________________
 Unit – IV

Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting Techniques: Repairs to overcome low member

strength, Deflection, Cracking, Chemical disruption, weathering corrosion, wear, fire, leakage
and marine exposure, Repair of Structure - Common Types of Repairs - Repair in Concrete
Structures – Repairs in Under Water Structures - Guniting - Shot Create - Underpinning.
Strengthening of Structures - Strengthening Methods – Retrofitting – Jacketing.

14.1 Introduction
Concrete repair is a complex process which is very different from those
experienced in the field of new concrete construction. Concrete construction is
generally believed to give trouble free service throughout its intended design life.
However, these expectations are not realized in many constructions due to variety
of reasons. The structural deficiency, material deterioration over time,
unanticipated overloading or physical damage to the structure in appropriate
specification or deficiency in execution including curing or unforeseen climatic
changes may necessitate repairs and maintenance of the concrete structures. The
most common cause for repairs being when the construction specifications are
deficient or not followed or when the structure is exposed to harsher service
environment than those expected during the planning and design
stages. Physical damage may also be caused due to fire, explosion and internal and
external restraints against structural movement. Almost all the concrete structures
require routine maintenance to meet the functional requirement during their service
life. The timely repairs and maintenance increases the effective service life of the
concrete structure.
The challenge in concrete repair is to successfully integrate new materials with
old materials, forming a composite, capable of withstanding the exposure to the
environment and the intended design life and in addition to technical challenges,
the cost of repairs can be substantial especially resulting from poorly designed or
executed works. The technical and economical success of repair projects depend
on a range of factors, including a proper condition assessment of the structure,
design and execution of remedial measures and planning and implementation
of maintenance strategies. These factors are discussed in the subsequent
paragraphs.

4.2 Causes of Damage of Concrete

A variety of factors influence concrete performance. These factors include design,
materials, construction, service loads, service conditions and exposure conditions.
The behaviour of concrete due to deficiency in above factors results in
disintegration, spall cracking, leakage, wear, deflection or settlement. Developing
the effective repair strategies requires an understanding of what caused the
undesirable behaviour of concrete. The major causes of damage to concrete can be
identified as:

(i) Corrosion induced cracking and spalling.

(ii) Disintegration mechanism due to exposure to aggressive chemicals, Alkali-
Aggregate Reactions, sulphate attack, erosion and freeze-thaw disintegration).
(iii) Moisture effects (drying shrinkage, moisture vapour transmission, volume
change and curling).
(iv) Thermal effects (volume change-which may result in cracking, spalling and
excessive deflection, fire damage).
(v) Load effects (dead loads, imposed loads, wind load, earthquake loads).
(vi) Faulty workmanship (improper reinforcing steel placement, premature
removal of formwork, cold-form plastic settlement, improper grade of
concrete, honeycomb - improper Compaction, etc.

These factors are briefly described in succeeding paragraphs.

4.2.1 Corrosion Induced Spalling and Cracking

Concrete is a high alkalinity material, the pH of fresh concrete is usually between
12 and 13. In this range of alkalinity, embedded steel is protected from corrosion
by a passivating film bonded to the reinforcing steel. However, when the
passivating film is disrupted, corrosion may take place. Corrosion is an electro-
chemical process requiring an anode and a cathode and an electrolyte. A moist
concrete matrix forms an acceptable electrolyte and the steel reinforcement
provides the anode and the cathode. Electrical current flows between the cathode
and anode and the reaction results in an increase in metal volume as the Fe (iron) is
oxidized into Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3 and precipitates as Fe(OH)3 3H2O (rust). The
volume of rust may go as much as 7 times the volume of original steel bar Water
and oxygen must be present for reaction to take place. Accelerated corrosion will
take place if the pH (alkalinity) is lowered either due to carbonation or diffusion of
chloride ions and other aggressive chemicals. In good quality dense concrete, the
corrosion rate will be very slow.
The cracking and spalling of concrete induced by steel corrosion depends
upon the following
factors:
(i) Concrete tensile strength.
(ii) Quality and depth of concrete cover over the reinforcing bar.
(iii) Bond or condition of the interface between the rebar and the surrounding
concrete.
(iv) Diameter of the reinforcing bar.
(v) Percentage of corrosion by weight of the reinforcing bar.

With a cover to bar diameter (C/D) ratio of 3, only 1% corrosion is enough to

crack the concrete. While C/D ratio of 7, concrete cracking starts when corrosion
reaches to 4%.
For general concrete construction, the best control measures against corrosion
induced cracking is the use of concrete with low permeability, increased concrete
cover over the reinforcing bars. In vary severe exposure conditions, additional
protective measures, such as coated reinforcement, sealers or overlays on concrete
and corrosion inhibiting admixtures can be used.

4.2.2 Disintegration Mechanism of Concrete

Aggressive chemical exposures either manmade or natural can cause the
concrete to change its chemical composition, resulting in changes in its mechanical
properties. Depending upon the type of attacks, the concrete can soften or
disintegrate, in part or in whole. Certain chemicals in solution will attack various
constituents in concrete. Aggressive chemicals can be categorized as follows:
(i) Inorganic acids (HCL, H,SO4, H,NO3, etc.).
(ii) Organic acids (Humic, Citric, Acetic, etc.).
(iii) Alkaline solutions (compounds of sodium, calcium, magnesium, etc.).
(iv) Salt solutions (of various metallic elements).

The disintegration mechanism is also caused by Alkali Aggregate reactions which

are internally contained within the originally constructed concrete. They result in
swelling gel which tends to draw water from other parts of concrete. This causes
internal expansion and accompanying tensile stresses, which if large enough, may
eventually result in cracking and disintegration of concrete. Control measures
include proper selection of aggregates, use of low - alkali cement and use of
pozzolans. The typical symptoms are map - cracking on concrete surface and gel
oozing out of the cracks.
Water can also form one of the most aggressive environments causing
disintegration. If concrete is saturated with water and is subject to freezing, the
expansive force due to the increase in volume may cause the concrete to come
apart in small pieces. Similar to the effect of ice is the swelling of salt crystals on
the concrete surface subject to salt solutions.
When the sulphate bearing waters come in contact with concrete, the sulphates
penetrate the hydrated cement paste and reacts with hydrated calcium
aluminate to form calcium - sulfo aluminates with a subsequent large increase in
volume. Which results in high local tensile stresses causing the deterioration of
concrete. The use of fly ash or ggbs as part replacement of cement provide
additional resistance against sulphate attack.
The calcium hydroxide in hydrated cement paste will combine with carbon di-
oxide in the atmosphere to form calcium carbonate which occupies smaller volume
than the calcium hydroxide resulting in Sulphate attack the carbonation shrinkage.
It may result in surface grazing and may be serious on freshly placed concrete
surface if kept warm during winter by combustion heaters.
4.2.3 Moisture Effects on Concrete
In fresh concrete, the space between the particles is completely filled with
water. The excess water evaporates after the concrete hardens. The loss of moisture
causes the volume of the paste to contract. This in turn leads to shrinkage stress
and shrinkage cracking. Concrete also changes volume in response to ambient
humidity changes.
Normal weight concrete shrinks from 400 to 800 micro strains. One micro
strain is equal to 1 x 10-6 mm/mm. If the slab length is 6m and drying shrinkage is
600 micro strains, the shrinkage of slab will be 3.6mm. The drying shrinkage if
unrestrained, results in shortening of the member without a build-up of shrinkage
stress. If the member is restrained from moving, stress-build up may exceed the
tensile strength of the concrete. This overstressing results in dry shrinkage
cracking. Correct placing of reinforcing steel in the member distributes the
shrinkage stresses and controls crack widths.

4.2.4 Thermal Effects on Concrete

Concrete, like all materials changes volume when subjected to temperature
changes. An increase in temperature increases the volume of concrete, conversely a
decrease in temperature reduces the volume of concrete. The volume relationship
to temperature is expressed by the co- efficient of thermal expansion/contraction.
Volume changes in concrete create stress when it is restrained. The resulting
stresses can be tensile, compressive, shear or any other type. The stressed
condition may result in undesirable behaviour such as cracking, spalling, splitting
and excessive deflection. The thermal co-efficient of concrete is approximately 9 x
10-6 mm/.
The temperature gradient exists in many structures. The temperature on the
surface of a deck slab exposed to direct sunlight may reach to 48°C while the
underside of the deck may be at 25°C. This causes the top surface to have a
tendency to expand more than the bottom surface. This results in upward
movement during heating and downward movement during cooling. The cycle of
heating and cooling may result in excessive deflection and consequent cracking.
The heat of hydration of cement also causes the internal temperature of
concrete to rise. In thick sections and with rich mixes the temperature differential
between the surface and inside of concrete may be considerable. As the concrete
cools, it tries to contract. Any restraint on the free contraction during cooling oil
result in tensile stresses which are proportional to temperature differential,
modulus of elasticity and degree of restraint. The more massive, the structure, the
greater is the potential for temperature differential and degree of restraint. The
temperature differential between the surface and inside of the concrete is generally
restricted to 20 in order to limit the development of micro-cracks within concrete.

4.2.5 Load Effects on Concrete

Reinforced concrete is a composite of two materials, plain concrete and
reinforced steel. Concrete possesses high compressive strength but little tensile
strength (about 10% of compressive strength). Reinforcing steel provides the
needed strength in tension. Reinforced concrete structures and individual members
all carry loads. Some carry only the weight of the materials they are made of while
others carry imposed loads applied to the structure. All materials change volume
when subject to stress and concrete is no exception. When subject to tensile stress,
concrete stretches and when subject to compressive stress, it shortens

Steel and concrete work effectively together in a composite material due to

the following reasons:
(i) Steel and concrete have similar co-efficient of thermal expansion.
(ii) Bond between rebars and concrete prevents the slip of rebar relative to the
concrete.
(ii) Good quality concrete adequately protects reinforcing steel from corrosion.
The load effects cause volume change in concrete which may result in
excessive deflection,
cracking or spalling of concrete. When reinforcing bars are subjected to tension,
they stretch. The concrete around the reinforcing bar is consequently subject to
tension and stretches. When tension in excess of tensile strength of concrete is
reached, transverse cracks appear near the reinforcing bars. Similarly when
compression, shear and torsion exceeds the compressive, shear and torsional
strength of concrete, cracks in different configurations appear and require
immediate repairs and rehabilitation.
An inadequate amount of reinforcement may result in excessive cracking. A
design procedure specifying reinforcement should not only resist tensile stresses,
but also to obtain both an adequate crack-distribution and a reasonable limit on
crack width. The flexural and tensile crack widths can be expected to increase with
time for members subjected to either sustained or repetitive loading. A well
distributed reinforcing arrangement offers the best protection against undesirable
cracking.

4.2.6 Faulty Workmanship

In concrete construction raw ingredients are brought together at or near the
construction site, where they are mixed, placed and molded into a final product.
There are so many variables affecting the production of concrete that there is
always a potential for something to go wrong.
The major workmanship defects in concrete construction may be identified as:
(i) Improper reinforcing steel placement: Reinforcing steel is placed in concrete to
carry tensile loads, and if the steel is misplaced, the concrete may not be able
to carry the tensile loads. In addition, reinforcing steel requires adequate
concrete cover to protect it from corrosion.
(ii) Highly congested reinforcement: beams and columns are usually heavily
reinforced members. Lap splices require overlaps of bars and may result in a
mat of steel that concrete mix cannot pass through during placement and
consolidation. The result may be a visible or latent voids around the
reinforcement.
(iii) Improper post-tensioned cable drape: Correct placement of post tension cable
is critical to achieve the designed structural load carrying capacity. Improper
placement may result in tension stress, causing concrete to crack.
(iv) Premature removal of forms: Removal of forms including shoring before the
concrete has 618 Concrete Technology reached its proper strength may result
in compressive and tensile stresses, causing cracking, deflection and possible
collapse.
(v) Segregation of Concrete: Segregation of concrete results in non-uniform
distribution of its constituents. High slump mixes, incorrectly designed
concrete mix, incorrect methods of handling concrete and over vibration are
some of the causes of this problem. Segregation causes upper surfaces to have
excessive paste and fines and may have excessive w/b ratio.
(vi) Cold Joints in Concrete: Cold joints are places of discontinuity within a
member where concrete may not tightly bond to itself. Cold joints may form
between planned placements and within a placement.
(vii) Plastic Settlement (Subsidence Cracking): Plastic settlement cracking is
caused by the settlement of the plastic concrete around fixed reinforcement
leaving a void beneath the bar.
(viii) Plastic Shrinkage Cracking: Plastic shrinkage is caused by the rapid
evaporating of the mixed water (not bleed water) while the concrete is in its
plastic state and in the early stages of the initial set.

(ix) Construction Tolerances: The structural members that are cast out of tolerance
pose aesthetic and structural problems. Such members may have improper
concrete cover and cross section, which may produce eccentric loading.
(x) Honeycombing in Concrete: Honeycomb is a void left in concrete due to
failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarse aggregate
particles.

(xi) Improper Compaction and Curing of Concrete: Due to lack of proper

compaction and curing, concrete may not achieve proper strength and may
remain more permeable affecting its durability adversely.

4.3 Condition Survey and Concrete Evaluation

A thorough survey and logical evaluation of the current condition of the structure
is the first step of any repair or rehabilitation project. Concrete can be defective for
several reasons as enumerated above. Consequently existing reinforced concrete
may not be functioning as intended originally. Dis-functioning of concrete
structure usually occurs in some form of visible distress such as cracking, spalling,
leaching, disintegration, wear, settlement or deflection.
The evaluation of concrete structures can either be a reactive or proactive
process. Generally evaluation takes place as a result of some visible sign of distress
causing structural or durability concerns of poor functional performance. It may
also result in safety concerns. The evaluation process is important for the following
proposes:
(i) To identify the cause of cracking.
(ii) To assess the structure for its safety and serviceability.
(iii) To establish the extent of cracking.
(iv) To establish the likely extent of further deterioration.
(v) To study the suitability of various remedial measures.

(1) Service and Exposure Condition: In many cases, the cause of a concrete
problem is related to a service or exposure condition. Understanding its
interaction with environment is therefore very important. The concrete
evaluation is not limited to studies of its physical condition, mechanical
properties, chemical composition and external manifestation but the exposure
and environment conditions are important to know for the causes of
deterioration.
(ii) Visual and Exploratory Investigation: Any thorough investigation starts with a
visual review of the condition of concrete. Visual examination, mapping the
location of problems on paper and then reviewing these with as built drawings
and construction records can provide a general scope of the problem and
possible clues to the causes of deterioration. During visual examination, the
hidden elements of concrete are exposed through chipping, tapping or drilling.
Rust stains often indicate corrosion of reinforcement but they may also be
caused due to the contamination of aggregate with iron pyrites. If the cracked
concrete is broken out, the appearance of the crack surface gives useful
information, dirt or discolouration show that the crack is there for some time.
In the damaged structure, the colour of concrete gives an indication of the
maximum temperature reached. The crack pattern may be informative, a mesh
pattern suggests drying shrinkage and surface crazing may suggest freeze
attack or alkali – aggregate reaction. The cracks caused by unidirectional
bending will be widest in the zone of maximum tensile stress and will taper
along their length. While cracks caused bydirect tensions will be of roughly
uniform width. Pop outs in concrete are usually associated with particles of
coarse aggregate just below the surface. A thorough visual evaluation may
provide very useful insights in the causes of deterioration of concrete.
(iii) Locating Delaminated Concrete: Sounding of concrete with a hammer
provides a low cost method for identifying delaminated areas. When striking
the areas of delaminated concrete, the sound changes from ‘ping' to a hollow
sounding ‘puck”. For large horizontal areas, the method of chain dragging is
also used. Automated electronic systems are also available which are used for
 general assessment. In bridge decks the infrared thermography is a useful
method of determining delamination of concrete.
(iv) Corrosion Activity Measurements (Half Cell Method): When steel corrodes in
concrete, a potential difference exists between the anodic half-cell areas and
the cathodic half-cell areas on the steel. This difference can be detected by
placing a copper - copper sulphate half-cell on the surface of the concrete and
measuring the potential differences between the reinforcing steel and a wet
sponge on the concrete surface. The voltmeter reads the potential difference at
the test location.

Figure. Corrosion activity measurement (Half cell)

The half-cell tests do not indicate the rate of corrosion, the measurements only
indicate the potential for corrosion at the time of measurement. However,
half-cell measurements are often useful because they are easy to perform and
results can be obtained quickly and at relatively low costs.
(V) Determination of Chloride Content: A sample of concrete is taken from the
structure either by drawing pulverized concrete using a rotary-percussion
hammer, or by taking cores and then pulverizing the concrete in the
laboratory. Samples are generally taken at various locations and at different
depths of the suspect concrete. The powdered samples are analysed by using a
wet chemical method. The cast-in chlorides from chlorides that have entered
 the structure can be identified by comparing the chloride content at various
levels in the suspect member. The concentration of chlorides entering from
outside will be higher at the surface as compared to the chloride content in the
interior of the concrete.
(vi) Depth of Carbonation in Concrete: To determine the depth of carbonation,
fresh concrete surface should be exposed. This is done by core sampling the
suspect surface and splitting the core with a hammer and chisel. The position
of the carbonation front is measured by spraying the concrete surface with a
acid-based indicator which changes the colour at a pH of about 10, indicating
the interface between the carbonated and un-carbonated zones. The commonly
used indicator is a solution of phenolphthalein, which colours the concrete to
intense red (pink) at pH values greater than 10 and is colourless at pH value
less than 10.

(vii) Petrographic Analysis of Concrete: Petrographic analysis is a detailed

examination of concrete to determine the formation and composition of the
concrete. It helps to determine why the concrete in situ behaved in the way it
did. To perform the test, concrete specimens are taken from the structure and
are prepared by either polishing or etching the surface of the specimen. The
petrographic examination includes identification of mineral aggregates,
aggregate paste interface and integrity of the cement paste. Petrographic
examination helps to determine sulphate attack, alkali aggregate reactivity,
 aggregate durability, carbonation and freeze-thaw resistance. Petrographic
examination is a highly specialized practice requiring skilled petrographer,
(viii)Locating Voids, Cracks and Honeycomb (Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method):
An To test concrete, contact between the concrete and the transmitter and
receiver is made with a coupling agent such as a petroleum jelly. The velocity
of sound waves through the concrete is reduced by the presence of voids or
cracks. In general more dense is the concrete, the higher the velocity of the
pulse. There is correlation between pulse velocity and compressive strength,
generally ± 20 percent accuracy. The pulse velocity method is an excellent
tool rapidly to compare concrete uniformity to from one part of the structure
to another. An indication of the extent of the discontinuity can be obtained by
taking readings at a series of positions on the member. The results of
ultrasonic - testing should be interpreted cautiously as saturated crack will
show very different result compared to dry crack. The ultrasonic-testing
method is covered under IS: 13311. The equipment set up is shown in Fig.

Figure. Locating voids, cracks and honeycomb

(ix) Locating Embedded Reinforcing Steel: Magnetic devices known as cover
meters or pachometers are used to determine the location of embedded steel in
concrete. Some pachometers are calibrated to give either the depth or the size
of the bar if the size of the reinforcement is known, the amount of concrete
cover can be determined. In general it can measure cover within 36mm up to
75mm from the surface. The accuracy of the device is dependent upon the
amount of reinforcing steel, more congested and in multilayer steel provides
less accurate results. Other devices such as ground penetrating radar or X-ray
can be used for locating embedded metals when the cover meter fails to
provide the necessary information, however X-ray is the most accurate
method.

Figure. Locating embedded reinforcing steel

(x) Monitoring Crack Widths and Movements: Monitoring movement in

structures is important when assessing the behavior of the structure in
response to changes in loads, temperature, internal conditions and support at
its foundations. The monitoring of cracks can be conducted with various tools
including glued glass strips, optical comparators, glued in-place crack gauges,
electrical transducers and extensometers. Crack width changes are caused by
temperature, settlement, creep and load related strains. Expansion joint
movements can be measured by hand rulers or dial gauges. However, actual
deflection of members is best measured with dial gauges.
(xi) Bond Strength and Pull-off Testing: The bond strength of overlays and other
surface bonded materials can be determined through in-situ testing. The pull-
off test measures the bond between two layers. In this test core is made
through the surface layer into the second layer. The pull-off tester when
attached, generates tensile force on the core until tensile failure occurs. The
testing device can also record the force required to cause the failure. The
results of pull-off tests are greatly influenced by the size of aggregate, core
size, the alignment of the device to the surface and the care taken in
performance of the test. The results are used in qualitative review of the bond
between the two materials or layers.
(xii) In situ Compressive Strength Test (Rebound and Penetration Methods):
Rebound and penetration methods are used to measure the surface hardness of
concrete. The surface hardness is proportional to compressive concrete
strength, the compressive strength can be assessed within ± 25 percent of
accuracy through these tests. Schmidt Hammer/ Swiss Hammer utilizes a
 spring based plunger that impacts the surface and causing the mechanism to
rebound. The rebound is measured and compared to the initial extension of the
spring yielding a rebound number. Rebound can be affected by the
smoothness of the surface, type of aggregate, carbonation of concrete and
moisture content. The rebound method is best suited to know general
uniformity of concrete quality and to identify questionable areas that may
require further study. The test procedure is covered under IS: 13311.
For more reliable results, rebound hammer for NDT (Non Destructive Test)
tests on defective good concrete member during construction, hammer may be
calibrated by testing good concrete member of same grade of concrete and
comparing with concrete crushing strength obtained in the laboratory.
Penetration methods are similar to rebound methods but use more powerful
energy to drive-a-probe into the concrete surface. The Windsor Probe, the
most common penetration methoddrives a hardened alloy probe, 6mm
diameter, into the concrete using a powder charge. Theexposed length of the
probe is measured and is used to determine the compressive strength. The
accuracy of test is subject to many variables and therefore the best is not very
popular in India.
(xiii) Tests on Concrete Cores: The concrete cores are drilled and tested to estimate
the strength of concrete in the actual structure. The extracted cores and core-
holes afford the opportunity to accurately measure the width and depth of
cracks. Usually a core is cut by means of a rosary cutting tool with diamond
bits. The cores are soaked in water, capped and tested in compression in a
moist condition. The height to diameter ratio of core is kept nearly two to
compare its strength with standard cylindrical specimens. In some cases beam
(prism) specimens can be sawn from road or airfield pavement slabs using a
diamond or a carborundum saw. Such specimens are tested in flexure. While
comparing strength of cores with that of standard cylinder specimens, the
factors regarding the site curing and the position of the cut- out concrete in the
structure should be considered and a suitable correction should be made as
provided in the standards. Usually cores have the lowest strength near the top
surface of the structure. With an increase in depth below the top surface, the
strength of cores increase upto about a depth of 300 mm. The procedure of
core-testing and corrections to be made is covered in IS: 516 - 2013.

4.4 Selection of Repair Materials for Concrete

Selection of proper repair material is most important task for ensuring durable and
trustworthy repairs. Since the cementitious products have a tendency to shrink on
hardening with age, it is essential that the repair materials used for repair of
concrete should be non-shrink type and compatible with parent material. Besides
compatibility the repair materials shall also be easy to apply and require no further
attention after repairing. The major characteristics of repair materials for concrete
are:
 Low Shrinkage properties
 Requisite setting/gain of strength properties
 Desired workability and slump retention
 Good bonding with existing concrete sub-strata
 Compatible co-efficient of thermal expansion
 Adequate resiliency to accommodate relative thermal and moisture
movements and be durable
 Minimal or no curing requirements
 Very low air and water permeability
 Aesthetics to match with the surroundings and non-polluting and non-
hazardous
 Cost effectiveness

4.5 Repair Materials Generally Available in the Market

The repair products available in the market are generally available in ready to use
form. These are
pre-proportioned, pre-weighed packed together with accompanying instructions
regarding mixing
procedure, pot life, dosage and application procedure, etc. Though these materials
are marketed
under different brand names, yet these could be broadly classified into the
following categories:
(a) Premixed cement concrete/ mortars (modified with non-polymeric
admixtures/additives).
(b) Polymer/latex modified cement additives for concrete/mortar (styrene
butadiene rubber (SBR) latex, poly acrylics and modified acrylics (vinylidene
chloride (PVDC).
(c) Epoxy resins and
(d) Chemicals for corrosion inhibition and removal of rust.
Though cement based mortar and concrete are most natural repair materials
for RCC, but they are not favoured due to inherent undesired properties like drying
shrinkage, slow setting and gain of strength, low workability, prolonged curing
requirement and higher permeability. Polymer modified mortars or concrete have
superior properties and widely used for repair and rehabilitation of concrete.
Polymer modification improves workability, water retentivity, and increased
resistance to crack propagation, higher strength, better chemical resistance, lower
drying shrinkage, reduced permeability and superior bond strength. Generally these
materials are bio non- degradable after total polymerization takes place. However,
certain polymers tend to disintegrate under ultra violet rays and heat. Particularly
'styrene' based materials are reported to undergo such disintegration and
degradation and hence advised to be avoided. Whereas 'acrylate’ based materials
are accepted due to their non-degradable and robust properties.
The epoxies also come in the category of polymers, but in the case of epoxies,
the polymerization takes place when two materials called the epoxy resin and
hardener come in contact by thorough mixing in specified proportion. The epoxy
resin materials have good mechanical strength, chemical resistance and ease of
working. These are being used for high performance coatings, adhesives, injection
grouting, and industrial flooring and in high performance systems. The material
selection for structural repairs and protective coatings is an intricate process and
requires thorough knowledge of products and adequate experience on the part of a
practicing engineer for satisfactory results.

4.6 Repair and Rehabilitation Methods

Based on preliminary investigation and proper diagnosis, the decision to repair and
rehabilitate a concrete structure is taken, after considering the technical and
economic aspects. A detailed report should be prepared, which should include the
available methods of repair and required materials. The priority should be assigned
to repairs of structural defects to ensure safety of the structure and protection of the
structure from further deterioration. The selected method should be able to
reinstate structural integrity by restoring or increasing the strength and stiffness.
The method should also prevent the ingress of harmful agents such as moisture,
chloride, sulphates and carbon dioxide to improve durability and to maintain the
aesthetics of the concrete structure.
Depending upon the specific condition of the deteriorated structure the option
of the repair method should be one or more of the following:
 Grouting, crack and patch repairs.
 Replacements of structurally weak concrete and to increase strength or
restore load carrying capacity.
 Replacement of the spalled and delaminated concrete.
 Replacement of carbonated concrete, cleaning and passivating the corroded
steel reinforcement.
 Concrete overlay with normal, low or highly fluid concrete, latex modified
concrete and corrosion protection such as jacketing, etc.
 Water proofing and protective coatings and leak sealing.
Depending upon the nature and extent of the damage, one or more repair methods
can be selected. The success of the long term repair procedures chiefly depends on
the nature of crackes as well as the causes behind the cracks. The repair procedures
also depends on the capabilities and facilities available with the applicator repairer
and also on the availability of the repair materials. The common methods used for
repair of concrete structure are described in the succeeding paragraphs.

4.7 Crack Repair

If crack repair is necessary, it must be first established whether a crack is active or
inactive. Active cracks change in width when subjected to structural loads, changes
in environment conditions or ongoing deterioration. The material used to repair
such cracks should be flexible to allow for movement or otherwise the movement
should be prevented. Flexible-crack filling material will generally not aid much to
the strength and stiffness of the structure. Flexible materials like polyurethanes,
polysulphides and some polymer modified mortars are used for repair active
cracks. Epoxy resins are stiff and generally cannot accommodate movement in
active cracks due to loading or temperature cycles.
Inactive cracks, which are not subjected to movement can be repaired using a
rigid material. Repair techniques include gravity-feed crack sealing, and vacuum or
pressure impregnation to induce penetrations of low viscosity adhesives such as
epoxy, polymer, acrylic resins, or cementitious grouts. This method can be used to
repair very fine cracks of 0.05 mm width. Inactive cracks are commonly repaired
by routing and sealing, which is considered an easy and relatively fool-proof repair
method. The routing operation consists of chasing the crack along its length to
open the gap sufficiently for filling with suitable material.

4.7.1 Gravity Filling with - Cement, Polymer Modified or Epoxy Mortars

The method is used for repairs on old hardened concrete for repairing cracks
and defects on exposed concrete surface. The method includes, preparation of
surface and reinforcement that is removal of damaged concrete and applications of
repair material. The preparation of surface for repair involves the following steps:
• Complete removal of unsound material.
• Formation of a well-defined V-groove or cavity with rounded edges.
• Creating rough and uniform surfaces for repair.
The surface so prepared should be clean, dry, free of foreign materials like
dirt, loose particles, grease or oil, paints, resin, etc. Sand or steel shot-blasting is
most effective method of cleaning a concrete surface. The water blasting with low
pressure and compressed air may also be effective in some cases.
 After the concrete surface has been prepared, a bonding coat should be
applied to all the cleaned exposed surfaces. In dry-packing system cement mortar
(1:2.5 or 1:3) is applied by hands followed by tamping, producing an intimate
contact between the mortar and the existing concrete. The water content of the mix
should be carefully chosen because excess water will cause shrinkage, whereas less
water will not make a sound solid pack.
For larger areas and depth exceeding 50 mm, concrete replacement method is
used. The general application of this method are in the repair of wall, piers,
parapets and for resurfacing and realigning. The defective concrete is removed to
expose the sound concrete and reinforcement. The reinforcing bars should not be
kept partially embedded, but at least 25 mm clearance should be provided around
each reinforced bar for repair material to encase it properly. Rich concrete or
mortar mix as per the requirement is applied over the area, tamped and compacted
with suitable methods.
The wide and deep cracks may be filled with cement grout admixed with
suitable admixtures For narrow cracks in concrete, chemical grouts consisting of
solutions of two or more chemicals that combine to form gel, a solid precipitate,
chemical grouts can also be applied in moist conditions.

4.7.2 Surface Impregnation using Vacuum Methods

The surface impregnation is based upon first creating a partial vacuum within
the concrete and then introducing a repair material, the resin of very low viscosity
into the cracks, voids, micro cracks and capillary system. The resin so impregnated
Alls cracks including micro-cracks down to a width of 5 microns. Upon curing, the
repair resin bonds the fractured and fissured matrix into a monolithic structural
member of exceedingly high strength. Vacuum and pressure impregnation are
difficult operations that need to be carried out by qualified and experienced
operators.

4.7.3 Curing of Repair Work

The curing of patch material requires much more care than that required for a
new work. There is a tendency of old concrete of absorbing moisture from repair
material. The common methods used for curing of repair works are as under;
 Vertical or inclined - repaired surfaces may be cured using damp hessain or
horizontal wet burlap pads.
 The surface may be cured by ponding or placing wet-gunny bags.
 When the above two methods cannot be used, membrane curing is very
effective.
 Deliquescent salts which hasten curing by keeping the patch moist may also
be used.
4.8 Surface Protection Systems Coating and Overlays
A variety of surface coatings and penetrant systems are available that are claimed
to be beneficial for protecting the concrete structures. Barrier systems attempts to
seal the surface thereby protecting against corrosion and ingress of harmful
chemicals. A hydrophobic coating sometimes referred to as penetrant may be used
to reduce the moisture content of concrete. The drying action works on the
principle that surface capillaries become lined with a hydrophobic coating that
repels water molecules during wetting, but allows water vapour movement out of
the concrete, to facilitate drying.
In some applications, coating need to have the capability to bridge cracks,
which requires high elasticity of the coating material. In general so called crack-
bridging coatings are able to bridge cracks of upto 0.5 mm in width.
For successful application of coating systems, attention must be made to
providing adequate surface preparation, the use of a proper application method and
the specification and control of the standard of workmanship. Information on the
available coating systems and materials, as well as appropriate substrate surface
preparation and material application techniques is mainly obtained from the
material supplier.
4.8.1 Polymer and Epoxy Overlay
The overlays are used to improve the abrasion resistance and for creating
water proofing barriers on the surface and act as protective coatings. These are
applied in less than 10mm thickness. These are quite suitable for improving surface
characteristics and comprises of one coat of primer and one or more coats of
sealant. The primer coat shall consist of vinyl ester resin, initiator and promoter.
Each coat of sealant shall consist of the same material as in the primer but with the
addition of silica filler and titanium oxide.
The epoxy overlaps are applied in 2 to 3mm thickness, comprising of resin and
hardener. The strength gain of epoxy overlays is much faster than polymer
overlays. There are several types of epoxy overlays to suite the different
performance requirements.

4.8.2 Protective Seal Coats

These are basically liquids that are applied to the surface of hardened concrete
to prevent or decrease the penetrations of moisture, gaseous media, aggressive
solutions, etc, during the service exposure condition. Various coatings like
polyurethane, epoxy alkyds, chlorinated rubbers, acrylic emulsions can be used for
the purpose. However, selection should be done after considering sub- strata,
compatibility, service life, case of application and cost. There are number of
proprietary as well as other systems available in the market.
4.9 Structural Strengthening
Structural strengthening and retro-fitting of concrete structures has become
increasingly important in recent years mainly due to structural -- degradation or
revised design requirements. Methods of structural strengthening generally include
application of external load bearing element such as reinforced overlays, bonded
steel plates or fibre reinforced composites (FRC) sheets or plates, carbon fiber
wrappings and jacketing, etc. More specialised methods include external post-
tensioning with or without overlay systems.
Steel plate bonding has been used to strengthen concrete structures
particularly when additional flexural capacity is required. It is mostly done on large
bridge decks and beams with smooth surfaces that facilitates using bolted and
welded connections. Mechanical anchorage of external reinforcement is of
particular importance in vicw of long-term properties of strength and stiffness of
the system under the influence of creep and shrinkage.
In contrast to rigid steel plates flexible FRC sheets can be bonded to uneven
and rough surfaces and are relatively easily wrapped around columns. FRC
materials consists of a large number of small fibres bundled in a resin matrix. The
fibres are principal stress bearing constituents while resin transfers stress among
fibres, and is commonly used to bond the system to the concrete surface. High
strength and comparatively low weight of the material gives it preference over
conventional steel plate techniques are briefly described below:

4.9.1 Plate Bonding

Plate bonding is an inexpensive, versatile and advanced technique for
rehabilitation, upgradation of concrete structures by mechanically connecting MS
plates by bolting and gluing to their surfaces with epoxy. Plate bonding can
substantially increase strength, stiffness, ductility and stability of the reinforced
concrete elements and can be used effectively for seismic retrofitting. Since epoxy
is prone to premature de-bonding, use of mechanical anchorage along with epoxy
bonding is considered more reliable.
4.9.2 Fiber Wrap Technique
The fiber wrap technique, also known as Composite Fiber System is non-intrusive
structural strengthening technique that increases the load carrying capacity and
ductility of reinforced concrete members without causing any destruction or
distress to the existing concrete. The flexural, shear and axial load carrying
capacities of the structure members can be enhanced by appropriate orientation of
primary fibers of the composites. The resulting cured membrane not only
strengthens the reinforced concrete member but also acts as an excellent barrier to
corrosive agents which are detrimental to concrete and the reinforcement. The
system is useful under severe environmental conditions. It can be used for
retrofitting of a wide variety of structures that include bridges, flyovers, chimneys,
water tanks, buildings, large diameter pipes, industrial plants, jetties, sea front and
under water structures.
4.9.3 RCC Jacketing
RCC jacketing has the advantage of increasing the member stiffness and is
useful where deformations are to be controlled. If columns in a building are found
to be slender, RCC jacketing provides a better solution for avoiding buckling
problem. Design for strengthening is based on composite action between the old
and the new work. As the new jacket is to behave compositely with the parent
member, the new jacket can take additional loads with the increase in the stresses
and the strains in the old one. However, strain compatibility calculations may have
to be carried out giving due account to factors such as creep. It is also necessary to
ensure perfect bond between the old and the new concrete by providing shear keys
and effective bond coat with the use of epoxy or polymer modified cement slurry
giving strength not less than that of new concrete.
4.10 Corrosion Control and Repairs
Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is an electro-chemical process that occurs
when embedded steel is depassivated by a reduction in concrete alkalinity or the
presence of corrosive zones such as chlorides. Two repair techniques,
electrochemical chloride removal (ECR) and realklisation of carbonated concrete
attempt to restore passivating conditions are used. Both methods are essentially
temporary. Cathodic protection systems require electrical continuity in the
reinforcement and a reasonably uniform conductivity of the concrete, no short
circuit between anode and cathode and no insulation layers on reinforcement or
concrete surface. The amount of patch repair work necessary can be minimised
when electrochemical techniques are applied and this could prove to be more cost
– effective.

4.10.1 Chemical and Electro-chemical Methods of Repair

Chlorides are the most difficult to deal with by any other methods of repair
except the electro-chemical methods. These methods have also been used for
realkalisation of concrete in contact with steel reinforcement with some success.
The electro -chemicals methods are not commonly used for buildings but have
been very successfully used for underground structures. The main electro-chemical
methods are;
4.10.2 Cathodic Protection

The principle of cathodic protection is to apply a direct current (DC source) in

opposition to corrosion current. While applying cathodic protection, the entire steel
reinforcement network is made as cathode while a more active metal like zinc,
aluminium or magnesium is made as sacrificial anode. A wire mesh of titanium
substrata insoluble anode in conjunction with suitable rectifier system has also
been widely used. It has been found that the only rehabilitation technique that has
proven to stop corrosion in salt contaminated bridge decks regardless of the
chloride content of the concrete is the cathodic protection. Once, chloride entered
into concrete, other rehabilitation techniques such as overlays, sealants, water
proofing membranes were found no longer effective.
4.10.3 Chloride Removal
In the process of chloride removal, an extra anode is temporarily attached to the
concrete surface and the reactions are driven by a DC power supply, Chloride ions
are negatively charged and the electro-chemical process can be used to repel the
chloride ions from the steel surface and move it towards an external anode. The
essential requirement of the success of electro chemical treatment is good electrical
conductivity to ensure that current flows from the anode to all areas of steel. If
there is no electrical continuity, the current will short circuit the concrete pore
structure and the ions will not flow.

4.10.4 Realkanisation of Concrete

Realkanisation is non-destructive electro-chemical treatment to restore the
alkalinity of ncarbonated concrete to prevent further corrosion of reinforcement. In
this process, instead of breaking and mechanically replacing a sound but
carbonated concrete, pH of such concrete isincreased to more than 12 initially,
which favours the passivation of steel reinforcement with a final value greater than
13.5, which is considered sufficient to maintain the passivity of reinforcement,
During the treatment, electrolyte, which is sodium carbonate solution is transported
into carbonated concrete. Though the transport mechanism may vary, but electro-
osmosis and migration of ions are the two main contributors for realkanisation of
carbonated concrete.

4.11 Repairs Leakages

Leakage in the concrete structure is very harmful from functional and durability
consideration. The leaking water is main cause for reinforcement corrosion. The
cracks in concrete or its porosity provides path for passage of water. The other
common routes for leaks are movement joints like expansion and contraction
joints. In case of water - retaining structures, the extent of leakage can be measured
by monitoring the loss of water from the structure. For an effective leak sealing, it
is essential to identify the routes and sources of leakage and due consideration
must be given to their likely cause, and their behaviour once the structure is in use.

4.11.1 Techniques of Leakage Repair

Leak sealing and repairs require expert knowledge on the subject and
adequate experience in this field. Normally the following leak - sealing methods
are used;
 Conventional Leak - Sealing Methods
 Leak - Sealing by injection technique
These methods are briefly described below;
4.11.2 Conventional Methods of Leak – Sealing
The leak - spots have to be identified before undertaking any repair work.
The method may involve treatment of local spots or complete surface sealing in the
form of coating system. The leakage spots may be monitored during the first rainy
season after the construction of the structure. Some sources of minor leakage may
dry up by autogenous healing, which is an accumulation of calcium salts along the
leak - path. This will obstruct the passage of water over a period of time and reduce
the leakage to negligible proportions.
In conventional leakage - repairs, the following procedure is normally
adopted.
 Surface preparation.
 Filling the surface imperfections with resin based grouts.
 Application of primer
 Application of two coats of coating material
The procedure requires quite extensive surface preparatory work including
filling of minor cracks with a low viscosity resin. The honeycombed concrete may
be filled out using a resin based mortar or putty. The movement joints can be
sealed by filling a resin into the joint which will cure to form flexible sealant to
allow movements due to temperature variations and varying structural loads.
The joints must be well prepared to the application thoroughly cleaned prior to the
application of sealant and an appropriate bonding coat or primer should be used as
per the recommendation of the manufacturer.

4.11.3 Repairs through Injection Sealing

It is most effective to seal the leakage from water retaining side of the structure.
However, when the wet side in the structure is inaccessible like in dams, the
leakage has to be tacked from the dry side, which is considerably more difficult.
The successful leak-scaling requires injection of scalout to fill water passage
completely. It is equally necessary to attain a relatively high velocity of flow
because of short pot life or the working time for the typical repair material. The
first basic step is to restrict or confine the water flow to a tube through which a
sealant may be introduced. Once the flow of water has been controlled, the
connection between the tube and concrete must be made strong enough to
withstand the injection pressure.
To avoid the possibility of concrete being stressed during injection, it is
preferable to maintain lower pressure. A typical direct method entails the injection
of material up the pressure gradient from the down stream side. On the other hand
an indirect method involves the introduction of the sealant on the pressure side, so
that the path ways are filled under the acting hydrostatic head. The direct methods
are very slow due to sealant being pumped slowly through very narrow passage
against the pressure. The pressure has also to be maintained long enough to
achieve complete penetration. In some cases, water may find another finer pathway
leading from the same source. On the other hand the indirect methods enable the
work to be completed quickly because surface seals are not required and
mechanical anchorages instead can be used.

4.12 Conclusions
Invariably almost all civil engineering structures involve use of reinforced
concrete. The concrete in general and reinforced concrete in particular have
tendency to deteriorate with time under different conditions of service loads and
environments. The survey or monitoring the condition of concrete structures at
regular time intervals provides an insight into the need for repairs and
rehabilitation. 'A stich in time saves nine' is aptly applicable to concrete structures.
The concrete structures use large amount of construction materials, manpower and
money and have significant impact on personal, social and economic activities. It
is essential to keep constant watch on structural integrity and safety of concrete
structures not only from service life and durability considerations but equally from
sustainability considerations also.
The repairs and rehabilitation techniques of concrete structures is a very wide
subject and many more methods are used like shoring, and under-pinning for
foundations, use of ferro-cements and many other materials in different
composition Some of the commonly used techniques have been described in this
chapter; however, for specific cases an expert advice should be obtained.
 Unit – V

Health Monitoring and Demolition Techniques: Long term health

monitoring Techniques, Engineered demolition techniques for dilapidated
structures, Use of Sensors-Building Insrumention.

General
1. Preliminary investigation
Demolition is a highly skilled and dangerous activity in terms of damage
to life and property and there are certain basic factors to consider before a
contract is placed:
 The demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type
of work to be offered;
 Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at
all times;
 An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the
work;
 The contract price should include all safety precautions included in
the relevant building regulations;
 The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take
risks to achieve the date.

2. Preliminary Considerations
Demolition operations are the subject of strict legal control – there is
a substantial body of legislation and a great deal of case law relating to
such operations. There may also be some regulations which impose
additional restrictions: for example, action against nuisance such as noise
and dust.
The BSI Code of Practice for Demolition BS 6187 exerts further
influence, in that if the Demolition contractor does not observe the
recommendation of the Code, this may well influence a Court‟s decision
as to his liability in any legal proceedings.

3. General Site Provisions

A. Plant and Equipment: Must only be operated by skilled operators and
must be regularly serviced.

B. Protective Clothing: Buildings where chemicals have been stored or

where asbestos, lead paint, dust or fumes may be present will require
specialized protective clothing, e.g. Respirators, helmets, goggles,
footwear, gloves, etc. Projecting nails, pieces of metal, etc. resulting from
demolition can cause accidents.

C. Shoring and Underpinning: The demolition contractor has a legal

obligation to show technical competence when carrying out the work.
When removing sections of the building which could have leave other
parts unsafe, adequate temporary supports and shoring etc. must be
provided.

D. Working Areas: These will need to be well signposted and clear

warnings given that demolition work is in progress. This may include the
necessity for some kind of lighting.

E. Debris: Sections of the building must not be overloaded with debris

either on suspended floors or against party walls.

F. Weather Conditions: These can affect safety. Strong winds or drifting

snow against unsafe walls. Suspended floors etc. which are unpropped
may lead to collapse.

G. Flooding: The build-up of water can sometimes be hazardous.

H. Overhead Cables: A crane heights etc. must be checked against the

height of any surrounding overhead cables to avoid damage and cutting
off supplies etc.

I. Scaffolding and Hoarding: These must be constructed and illuminated to

the relevant building regulations.
 J. Security: The demolition site and any partially demolished buildings
must be properly secured against entry.

K. Dust: Should be kept to a minimum by spraying with water when

necessary.

L. Noise: Suppressors and silencers, particularly on compressors etc., should

be used to keep noise levels to a minimum.

Supervision of Demolition work:

A method statement showing how the demolition work is to be carried
out should be prepared and the contractors should appoint a “competent
person” to supervise the demolition work.
Demolition Processes
As an intrinsic part of the construction process, efficient demolition of
structures is an important factors deserving careful consideration in the
evolution of any redevelopment project.
Modern emphasis is on reduction of construction periods to ensure
economic redevelopment, coupled with increasing town centre regenerating
calling for careful demolition on constructed and restricted site, have resulted
in more consideration being given to demolition as part of the process of
construction and redevelopment than was typical in previous times.

1. Developing a Demolition Strategy:

The strategy will need to take into account the method of construction
used for the original building and its proximity to other buildings,
structures and the general public. These factors, together with location, the
cost and availability of tipping and disposal and the desirability and
economics of reuse, must be taken into account in the development of an
appropriate strategy for the demolition of a structure.

2. Building Information:
Information on buildings in terms of “as built” drawings and
structural details may often be unavailable or unreliable, and consequently
 some investigative site and desk work may be necessary, both to ascertain
the way in which the building was originally constructed, and to identify
the stresses and strains which exist within it.
In order to plan the most efficient method of demolition, it is
important to have a full understanding of the method of construction and
the stress patterns imposed upon the building. Failure to do so may result in
risks to the safety of both those involved in the demolition and those in
close proximity to the site.

3. Selecting Appropriate Techniques:

Majors factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate techniques
include:-
Safety of personnel and public
Working Methods
Legislation applicable
Insurance Cover.

4. Preliminary Aspects Prior to Site Demolition Work

Considerations should be given to:
 Conducting a site and building survey, with a structural bias;
 The examination of drawings and details of existing construction
where available;
 The preparation of details and drawings from site survey activities
where no such information is available;
 Establishing previous use of premises, especially with regard to
flammable substances or substances hazardous to health or
safety;
 Programming the sequence of demolition work;
 The preparation of a Method Statement.


5. Method statement
 A detailed health and safety method statement, produced before
work starts, is essential for safe working. It should include a full risk
 assessment, identify problems and their solutions, and form a
reference for the site supervision.
 The method statement should be easy to understand, agreed by and
known to all levels of management and supervision, and should
include such matters as:-
 The sequence and method of demolition or dismantling of the
building or structure with details of personnel access, working
platforms and machinery requirements;
 Details and design of any temporary supporting structures to be
used during the demolition process;
 Specific details of any pre-weakening on structures which are to be
pulled down or demolished with explosives;
 Arrangements for the protection of personnel and the public and the
exclusion of unauthorized persons, with details of areas outside the
site boundaries that may occasionally need to be controlled to
improve safety during critical aspects of the work;
 Details of the removal or making safe of electrical, gas and other
services and drains;
 Details of the temporary services available or required for the
contractor‟s use;
 Details of the methods for detailing with flammable materials and
gases which may have been retained or deposited as residue in
process machinery, pipework or storage;
 Details of methods to establish the presence of hidden or other
substances that may be hazardous to health, the methods to be used
for their disposal, and any necessary protective equipment;
 Arrangements for the control of site transport used for the removal
of demolition debris.

6. Demolition Methods
In many circumstances, buildings and structures should be
demolished in the reverse order to their erection; although where partial
demolition is involved, a more careful evaluation of the nature of the
effects of the demolition is necessary.
 Normally, the demolition contractor is able to adopt a method of work
which:-
 Gradually reduces the height of the building; or
 Arranges the deliberate controlled collapse of the building or
structure so that work can be completed at ground level.

7. Demolition Technique Selection

The choice of demolition technique will depend on the nature of the
building or structure and its environment. Risks to the public, operatives
involved in the demolition process and adjacent structures and buildings
should be considered. Demolition techniques may be categorized as;-
 Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools
 Mechanical method by
Hydraulic crusher with Long Boom arm
Wrecking Ball
Pusher Arm
Wire Rope Pulling
Clam Shell
Other Methods like
Non Explosive Demolition Agent
Explosive Demolition
Saw cutting
Cutting and Lifting
Water jet

8. Piecemeal Demolition (Demolition by Hand):

 For demolitions of reinforced concrete buildings by hand, tools such as
electric, pneumatic breakers, jack hammers etc are commonly being
used. Oxy-acetylene torch could be used to cut the reinforcements.
 The reinforcements shall remain until all the concrete connecting to or
supported by the reinforcement is broken away or when its supports
are no longer required.
  Cantilever canopies, balconies and exterior walls are critical elements
in building demolition.
 In congested areas, these features could critically impact on the safety
of the public.
 Demolition of these features shall be performed with extreme caution.
 If rope or tie wires are used to pull down the structural elements, the
pulling wire must be at least 4 times stronger than the anticipated
pulling force.
 In addition, workers shall be shielded from the rope or tie wires. The
rope or ties wire shall be checked at least twice per day.
 Lifting appliances may be necessary to hold larger structural members
during cutting and for lowering severed structural members and other
debris.
 Chutes may be used to discharge debris into a vehicle or hopper.
 Foundations would normally be grubbed up by excavation machines.

Demolition Sequence:
 Demolition sequence shall be determined according to actual site conditions,
restraints, the building layout, the structural layout and its construction.
 In general, the following sequence shall apply:
a) All cantilevered structures, canopies, verandahs and features attached
to the external walls shall first be demolished prior to demolition of main
building and its internal structures on each floor;
b) When demolishing the roof structure, all lift machine rooms and water
tanks at high level shall be demolished in “top down” sequence to the main
roof level.
c) Demolition of the floor slabs shall begin at mid span and work
towards the supporting beams;
d) Floor beams shall be demolished in the order as follows:
1) Cantilevered beams;
2) Secondary beams; then
3) Main beams.
 In the case when structural stability of beams is affected, e.g., due to loss of
restraints affected beams shall be propped prior to loss of support or restraint;
e) Non-load bearing walls shall be removed prior to demolition of load
bearing walls;
f) Columns and load bearing walls shall be demolished after removal of
beams on top;
g) If site conditions permit, the first floor slab directly above the ground
floor may be
demolished by machine sitting on ground level and mounted with
demolition accessories.

9. Mechanical Demolition:
 Mechanical demolition generally involves the use of large
machinery with attachment to dismantle the building from outside.
 The common mechanical methods include the use of a Hydraulic
crusher with long Boom arm, Wrecking Ball, pusher arm, wire
rope, clam shell etc…
 These methods shall only be applied to isolated buildings on
relatively flat ground.
 If it is attached to another structure, the two properties should be
separated by the use of hand methods before the main demolition
process begins.
 The concerns and good practices of the mechanical demolition
generally included the following;
1) The machine shall be operated on smooth and firm ground;
2) It shall also have adequate counter-weight to prevent overturning
during the operation;
3) The equipment and accessories such as attachments and rope
shall be inspected frequently and shall be repaired or whenever
necessary;
4) The impact of the collapsed structural sections on the floor or
ground shall be checked to prevent the potential overloading of
the suspended floor, vibration and disturbance to adjacent
properties and damage to underground utilities.
 5) The site shall have full time security to prevent unauthorized
personnel entering the site. No person shall stay within the
working area of the machine and the building while the machine
is operating.
6) Sufficient water spray or other anti-dust precautions shall be
provided to minimize air pollution by dust;
7) The cab of the machine shall be equipped with impact proofed
glass and its construction shall be robust enough to protect the
operator from flying debris;
8) A spot person shall be on site full time to provide guidance and
assistance to the operator in the demolition process.
Demolition Sequence
In general, the following sequence shall apply:
a) Prior to demolition of internal floors, all cantilevered slabs and beams,
canopies, and verandahs shall first be demolished
b) The structural elements, in general, shall be demolished in the following
sequence:
- Slabs;
- Secondary beams; then
- Main beams
c) Mechanical plant shall descend from the floor with temporary access
ramp, or be lowered to the next day floor by lifting machinery or by
other appropriate means;
d) When a mechanical plant has just descended from the floor above, the
slabs and beams, in two consecutive floors may be demolished by the
mechanical plant simultaneously. The mechanical plant may work on
structural elements on the same floor and breaking up the slabs on the
floor above;
e) The wall panel, including beams and columns shall be demolished by
gradually breaking down the concrete or by pulling them down in a
controlled manner;

A. Hydraulic crusher with Long Boom arm

 The crusher attachment breaks the concrete and the reinforcement by
the hydraulic thrust through the long boom arm system.
  The hydraulic crusher can be operated from the ground outside the
building.
 This method is also suitable for dangerous buildings, silos and other
industrial facilities.
 For environmental reason, it should be used wherever practicable
because of its quietness.
Application Criteria
 The operation shall have a minimum clear space of 1/2 the building
height as a safety zone for the falling debris;
 The equipment shall be inspected and maintained periodically to make
sure the equipment is in good and safe condition.
 The excavator shall operate on firm ground that can support the
machine during the crusher operation;
 Except for special applications, each section of the structure shall be
demolished in a top down sequence to ensure stability of the structure;
 Debris may be used to build up a platform for the excavator to extend
the range of reach. It is important that the debris is densely compacted
to support the operation of the excavator. The platform must be flat and
the slope must be stable. The height of the build up platform shall be
limited to 3 m. The side slope of the temporary platform shall not be
steeper than 1:1 (horizontal to vertical) unless the condition allows a
steeper slope. The slope of access ramp for the machine shall be in
accordance with the manufacturer‟s recommendation. The width in
both directions of the platform shall be at least one and one-half the
length of the machine to allow safe maneuver during the demolition
operation;
 To minimize the dust impact, the structure shall be pre-soaked with
water before demolition. Water shall be continuously sprayed during
the crushing operation;
 Debris may fall out of the building during the demolition. The site shall
be completely fenced off. There shall be 24-hour guarded security to
allow only authorized personnel for site access. During the operation of
the crusher there shall be no worker within the machine operating area
or inside the building;
  The crusher operator shall possess the essential skills and significant
experience in the crusher operation. There shall be a spot person to
assist in the operation and alert the operator of any potential problem
during the operation.

B. Wrecking Ball:
 The wrecking ball application consists of a crane equipped with a
steel ball.
 The destruction of the building is by the impact energy of the steel
ball suspended from the crawler crane.
 The wrecking ball operates outside the building.
 This method is suitable for dilapidated buildings, silos and other
industrial facilities.
 However, the operation requires substantial clear space.
 The application also demands high level skill operators and well-
maintained equipment.
Application Criteria
The recommended criteria for the use of wrecking ball are presented
in the following:
 Except for special application, the balling of each section of the
structure shall proceed from top to bottom. Care shall be taken to
maintain the stability of the structure;
 Recommended techniques for the wrecking ball operations include:
1) Vertical Drop – free falling of the wrecking ball onto the structure;
2) Swing in line – swinging of the ball in-line with the jib.
 A second dragline will normally connect to the ball horizontally to
control the ball motion. The ball shall be swung into the building. The
ball shall strike at the top of the member so as to avoid the member
from falling outside the building.
 Slewing the jib is not recommended. The motion of the ball by
slewing the jib is difficult to control. It demands expert knowledge of
the machine and structure as well as operating skills to safely perform
the task. Slewing can potentially induce a tremendous amount of
stress on the jib, as such, its use shall be avoided;
 The jib or boom shall be operated with not less than 3 m above the
portion of the structure being demolished;
 Clear space for operation between the crane and the structure being
demolished shall be 50% of the height of structure, the clear distance
between the site boundary and the building to be demolished shall not
be less than 50% of the building height plus an additional 6 m for the
crane to maneuver, this criteria shall apply to all sides of the building
to be demolished by wrecking ball;
 The demolition ball shall be connected with swivel type anti-spin
device to prevent twisting and tangling of the wire during operation;
 The wire and boom of the machine used for balling shall have a rated
capacity, at the working radius, of at least 5 times the weight of the
ball;
 The strength of the wire shall be at least twice the tensile strength of
the nominal steel reinforcement of the floor slab and beams. The high
strength wire allows the pullout of the wrecking ball from potential
traps;
 To ensure that the crane is in good condition, the wire connecting to
the ball, the boom components and connecting pins shall be inspected
twice daily.
 A sufficient length of the wire shall be provided to allow the ball to
drop to the lowest working level plus an addition of 10% of the wire
length and no less than 3 drums. For swing in-line method, there shall
be sufficient length of the dragline wire to allow the ball to fall in the
event that the ball is entangled with the falling debris;
 The operation shall not be performed adjacent to overhead power
lines;
 The site shall be entirely fenced off to forbid public access. A 24-hour
security guard shall be assigned to the site to enforce the access
restriction; depending on the relative location between the fence and
the building, and fence shall be designed to withstand accidental
impact by the wrecking ball;
 During the use of the demolition ball, expect for the crane operator
and the spot person, all other workers shall be kept away from the
 demolition ball‟s working radius. Nobody shall stay inside the
building;
 To minimize the dust impact on the surrounding area, the structure to
be demolished shall be pre-soaked with water before demolition.
Water spraying shall continue on the structure during demolition;
 Since the safety and success of the project depend highly on the
operator and site personnel, the operator must have proven experience
and skill for operating the wrecking ball to the satisfaction of the
approval authority; and
 A spot person shall be on site during the operation to assist the
operator and to ensure site safety. The spot person shall have
extensive knowledge and experience in the use of wrecking ball. The
qualification and experience of the spot person shall be equivalent to
those of the wrecking ball operator.

C. Hydraulic Pusher Arm:

 Articulated, hydraulically-powered pusher-arm machines are
normally mounted on a tracked or wheeled chassis, and have a
toothed plate or hook for applying for applying a horizontal force to
a wall.
 The machine should stand on a firm level base and apply force by a
controlled movement of the pusher arm.
 Special conditions for pusher arm demolition are listed below:
1) The pusher arm shall be constructed of steel or equivalent
material and shall have adequate strength to operate on the building;
a crane boom shall not be used;
2) Minimum safety distance of 0.5 times the height of the building
element being demolished shall be maintained between the machine
and the building for pushing into the building.
3) Minimum safety distance of 1.5 times the height of the building
element being demolished shall be maintained if structural elements
are pulling out of the building;
4) The point of application of pushing shall not be less than 2/3 of
the height and not more than 600 mm below the top of the wall; and
 5) The pusher arm method shall be limited to buildings less than
15 m high.
 RRS short answers

UNIT-I

1. Define Maintenance. Maintenance is the act of keeping something in good

condition by checking or repairing it regularly.

2. Define Repair. Repair is the process of restoring something that is damaged or

deteriorated or broken, to good condition.

3. Define Rehabilitation. Rehabilitation is the process of returning a building or an

area to its previous good conditions.

4. What are the two facets of maintenance? The two facets of maintenance are i)
Prevention ii) Repair

5. What are the causes of deterioration? i) Deterioration due to corrosion ii)

Environmental effects iii) Poor quality material used iv) Quality of supervision v)
Design and construction flaws

6. Define physical inspection of damaged structure. Some of the use full in

formation may be obtained from the physical inspection of damaged structure, like
nature of distress, type of distress, extent damage and its classification etc, their
causes preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the samples for
laboratory testing and analysis, planning for in situ testing, special environmental
effects which have not been considered at the design stage and information on the
loads acting on the existing structure at the time of damage may be, obtained. To
stop further damages, preventive measure necessary may be planned which may
warrent urgent execution.

7. How deterioration occurs due to corrosion? Spalling of concrete cover Cracks

parallel to the reinforcement Spalling at edges Swelling of concrete Dislocation
Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel reinforcement.

8. What are the steps in selecting a repair procedure? Consider total cost Do repair
job in time If defects are few & isolated repair on an individual basis. Otherwise do
in generalized manner Ensure the repair prevents further development of defects
Incase of lost strength, repairs should restore the strength If appearance is a
problem, the number of applicable types of repairs become limited & the repairs
must be covered Repair works should not interface with facilities of the structure
Take care in addition of section to a member and in restributing live loads and
other live load moments. After selecting a suitable method of repairs, and after
considering all the ramifications of its application, the last step is to prepare plans
& specification and proceed with the work.

9. Discuss about the environment effects which leads to deterioration of concrete

structure. Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the sources of ingress of
moistures atmospheric carbon di-oxide into the concrete which attack
reinforcement and with various ingredients of concrete. In aggressive
environme4nt concrete structure will be severely reduces.

10. What is the effect of selecting poor quality material for construction? Quality
of materials, to be used in construction, should be ensured by means various tests
as specified in the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack results in
early deterioration. Clayey materials in the fine aggregates weaken the mortar
aggregate bond and reduce the strength. Salinity causes corrosion of reinforcing
bars as well as deterioration of concrete.

11. How can we determine the cause for deterioration of concrete structure? a)
Inspect & observe the structure b) Observe in bad & good weather c) Compare
with other constructions on the area or elsewhere & be patient d) Study the
problem & allow enough time to do the job

12. What are the factors to be considered by the designer at the construction site.
Minimum and maximum temperatures temperature cycles exposure to ultra violet
radiation amount of moisture wet/dry cycles presence of aggressive chemicals

13. What are the steps in repair aspect? i. finding the deterioration ii. determining
the cause iii. evaluating the strength of existing building or structure iv. evaluating
the need of repair v. Selecting & implementing a repair procedure

14. Define the fixed percentage method of evaluating the strength of existing
structure. It is to assume that all members which have lost less than some
predetermined % of their strength are still adequate and that all members which
have lost more than the strength are inadequate. It is usually from 15% onwards
higher values are applicable for piling % stiffness bearing plates etc.
15. Discuss about the design and construction errors leading to deterioration of a
structure. Design of concrete structures governs the performance of concrete
structures. Well designed and detailed concrete structure will show less
deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed concrete, in the
similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to defective
concrete, if detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate
concrete cover may lead to carbonation depth reaching up to the reinforcement,
thus, increasing the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement.

16. Discuss about the quality of supervision to be followed at a site. Construction

work should be carried out as per the laid down specification. Adherence to
specified water-cement ratio controls strength, permeability durability of concrete.
Insufficient vibration may result in porous and honey combined concrete, whereas
excess vibration may cause segregation.

17. What are the possible decisions that can be made after evaluating the strength
of a structure? a. to permit deterioration to continue b. to make measures to
preserve the structure in its present condition without strengthening c. to strengthen
the construction d. if deterioration is exceptionally sever, to reconstruct or possibly
abandon it.

18. How can we evaluate the strength of existing structure by stress analysis? This
method is to make detailed stress analysis of the structure, as it stands including
allowances for loss of section where it has occurred. This is more difficult &
expensive. Here also the first stop is to make preliminary analysis by fixed
percentage method and if it appears that major repairs will be required, the strength
is reevaluated based on detailed stress analysis, considering all contributions to
such strength.

19. Define the load test method of evaluating the strength of existing structure.
Load tests may be required by the local building offered, but they should only be
performed where computation indicated that there is reasonable margin of safety
against collapse, lest the test bring the structure sown. Load test show strengths
much greater than computed strengths when performed on actual structures. When
performed on actual structures. In repair work every little bit of strength is
important.
20. What are the possible decisions after finding a structure to be inadequate? if the
appearance of the existing condition is objectionable – repair now if appearance is
not a problem then Put the condition under observation to check if it is dormant or
progressive. if dormant – no repair if progressive – check the feasibility & relative
economics of permitting deterioration to continue and performing a repair at some
later date & of making the repair right away

UNIT-II

1. How can use prevent the effect of freezing and thawing in concrete? Concrete
can be restricted from frost action, damage of the structure by the entrainment of
air. This entrainment of air is distributed through the cement paste with spacing
between bubbles of no more than about 0.4mm.

2. Write any two tests for assessment of frost damage? The frost damage can be
assessed by several ways: i) Assessment of loss of weight of a sample of concrete
subjected to a certain number of cycles of freezing and thawing is one of the
methods ii) Measuring the change in the ultrasonic pulse velocity or the damage in
the change in the dynamic modulus of elasticity of specimen is another method.

3. How does a concrete structure get affected by heat? Heat may affect cone and as
a result of:- the removal of evaporable water the removal of combined water
alteration of cement past alteration of aggregate change of the bond between
aggregate and paste

4. How can you control cracks in a structure? Use of good coarse aggregates free
from clay lumps Use of fine aggregate free from silt, mud & organic constituent.
Use of sound cement. Provision of expansion & contraction joint. Provide less
water-cement ratio.

5. Define aggregate splitting? This phenomenon occurs most frequently when hard
aggregates are used in concrete. The thermal stresses except close to corners are
predominantly compressive near to the heated surface. This stress causes the
aggregate to split in this direction and the fractures may propagate through the
mortar matrix leading to deterioration.
6. What the factor affecting chemical attack on concrete? High porosity Improper
choice of cement type for the conditions of exposure Inadequate curing prior to
exposure Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying

7. Write the methods of corrosion protection? Corrosion inhibitors corrosion

resisting steels coatings for steel Cathodic protection

8. List out some coating for reinforcement to prevent corrosion? Organic coating
Epoxy coating Metallic coating Zinc coating

9. Define corner reparation? This is a very common occurrence and appears to be

due to a component of tensile stress causing splitting across a corner. In fire tests,
corner separation occurs most often in beams and columns made of Quartz
aggregate and only infrequently with light weight aggregates

10. List any four causes of cracks? Use of unsound material Poor & bad
workmanship Use of high water-cement ratio Freezing & thawing Thermal effects
Shrinkage stresses

11. What are the types of cracks? i) Class-1: Cracks leading to structural failure ii)
Class-2: Cracks causing corrosion iii) Class-3: Cracks affecting function iv) Class-
4: Cracks affecting appearance

12. What changes occur, when hot rolled steel is heated to 500oc? At temp of
500oc-600oc the yield stress is reduced to the order of the working stress and the
elastic modulus is reduced by one-third. Bars heated to this temp virtually recover
their normal temperature.

13. List out the various types of spalling? i) General or destructive spalling ii)
Local spalling which is subdivided as aggregate splitting comer separations surface
spalling Sloughing off

14. List some faults in construction planning? Overloading of members by

construction loads Loading of partially constructed members Differential shrinkage
between sections of construction Omission of designed movement joints

15. Define corrosion? The gradual deterioration of concrete by chemically

aggressive agent is called “corrosion”
16. Give some examples for corrosion inhibitors? i) Anodic inhibitors ii) Cathodic
inhibitors iii) Mixed inhibitors iv) Dangerous & safe inhibitors

[Link] effective cover? The cover to reinforcement measured from centre of the
main reinforcement up to the surface of concrete in tension is called “Effective
cover”

[Link] corrosion inhibitor? Corrosion inhibitor is an admixture that is used in

concrete to prevent the metal embedded in concrete from corroding.

[Link] are the operations in quality assurance system? o Feed back o Auditing o
Review line o Organization

20. List the various components of quality control. Five components of a quality
(control) assurance system are: Standards Production control Compliance control
Task and responsibilities and Guarantees for users

UNIT III

1. What is expansive cement? A slight change in volume on drying is known as

expansion with time will prove to be advantage for grouting purpose. This type of
cement which suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as
“Expansive cement”.

2. What is the action of shrink comb in expansive cement? Shrink comb grout acts
like a Portland cement. It (shrinks) sets and hardens; it develops a compressive
strength of about 140kg/gm2 at 7days and 210kg/cm2 at 28 days.

3. List the various types of polymer concrete. i) Polymer impregnated concrete

(PIC) ii) Polymer cement concrete (PCC) iii) Polymer Concrete (PC) iv) Partially
impregnated and surface coat v) Polymer Concrete. vi) Polymer impregnated
concrete (PIC)

4. Give the various monomers used in polymer concrete. Mehylmethacrylate

(MINS) Styretoc Aerylonitrile t-butyle slynene

5. Define polymer concrete. Polymer concrete is a aggregate bound a polymer

binder instead of Portland cement as in conventional concrete pc is normally use to
minimize voids volume in aggregate mars. This can be achieve by properly grading
and mixing of a to attain the max density and (mixing) the aggregates to attain
(maximum) minimum void volume. The entrapped aggregated are prepacked and
vibrated in a mould.

6. What are the uses of Polymer concrete? During curing Portland cement form
mineral voids. Water can be entrapped in these voids which are freezing can
readily attack the concrete. Also alkaline Portland cement is easily attached by
chemically aggressive materials which results in rapid determination, there as
using polymers can compact chemical attack.

7. What is sulphur infiltrated concrete? New types of composition have been

produced by the recently developed techniques of impregnating porous material
like concrete with sulphur. Sulphur impregnation has shown great improvement in
strength.

[Link] are the applications of sulphur infiltrated concrete? Sulphur –

(impregnated) infiltration can be employed in the precast industries. Sulphur
infiltration concrete should found considerable use in industry situation where high
corrosion resistant concrete is required. This method cannot be conveniently
applied to cast- in place concrete Sulphur impregnation has shown area
improvement in strength.

9. What is drying shrinkage? Concrete made with ordinary Portland cement shirts
while setting due to less of water concrete also shrinks continuously for long true.
This is known as “drying shrinkage”.

10. What is self stressing cement? This cement when used in concrete with
restrained expansion includes compressive stresses which approximately offset the
tensile stresses induced by shrinkage “self Stressing cement”

11. What is polymer impregnated concrete? PIC is a widely used polymer

composition concrete, cured and dried in over or dielectric heating from which the
air in the (pipes) open cell is removed by vacuum. Then low density manpower is
diffused through a open cell and polymerized

[Link] polymer partially impregnated concrete. Polymer partially impregnated

or coated in dep(CID) and surface coated (SC) control partially polymer
impregnated concrete is used to in the strength of concrete. Partially impregnated
concrete is sufficient in situations there the major required surface persistent
against chemical and mechanical attacks.

13. How can we manufacture sulphur infiltrated concrete? Sulphur is heated to

bring it into molten condition to which coarse and fine aggregates are poured and
mixed together. On cooling, this mixture gave fairly good strength, exhibited acid
resistance and also other chemical resistance, but it proved to be either than
ordinary cement concrete.

14. What is the difference between ordinary cement and expansive cement?
Ordinary concrete shrinks while setting whereas expansive cement expands while
setting

15. What are the uses of gas forming and expansive chemicals Gas formation and
expansive chemicals to produce light weight concrete as well as to cause expansion
on application such as grouts for anchor bolts. They are non strinking type.
Principal chemicals used are Hydrogen peroxide, metallic aluminium or activated
or activated carbon. Sometimes bentonite clays and natural gum are also used.

16) what is the use of corrosion inhibiting chemicals They resist corrosion of
reinforcement .in adverse environment sodium benzonate , calcium lingo
sulphonate and sodium nitrate have good results

17) Write the use of antifungus admixtures These are added to control and inhibit
growth of bacteria or fungus in surfaces expressed t moisture. Polyhalogenated
phenol, Dieldrin emulsion and copper compounds are some of the chemicals used
for this

18) What are use of curing compounds They are either wax based or resin based.
When coated in freshly laid concrete they form a temporary film over the damp
surface which stops wter evaporation and allows sufficient moisture retention in
concrete for curing

19) What are the uses of sealants They are used to seal designed joints. They are
formulated from synthetic rubbers or polysulphides. The choice of a sealant
depends on the location of the joint, its movement capability and the function the
sealant is expected to perform.
20)what are the uses of flooring These are usually toppings based on metallic or
non metallic aggregates which are mixed with cement and placed over freshly laid
concrete sub floor. These compounds in high viscosity liquid, form mixed with
recommended filters at site, are based on resins and polymers such as epoxy,
acrylic, polyuretheneor polysulphide.

UNIT V

[Link] is Vacuum concrete? Only about half of the water added in concrete goes
into chemical combination and the remaining water is used to make concrete
workable. After laying concrete, water which was making concreting workable is
extracted by a special method known as “vacuum method”.

2. What are the equipments used in vacuum concrete? The equipment essentially
consists of:- i. vacuum pump ii. water separator and iii. filtering mat

[Link] is Gunite? Gunite can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at a high velocity on to a surface.

4. What are the two types of process in Shotcrete? a. Wet mix process b. Dry mix
process

5. What are the stages in dry mix process in shotcrete? i. In this process, the
concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary concrete before conveying through the
delivery pipeline to the nozzle, at which point it is jetted by compressed air, onto
the work in the same way as that if mix process. ii. The wet process has been
generally desired in favour of the dry mix process, owing to the greater success of
the latter.

6. What is shotcrete? Shotcrete is a recent development on the similar principle of

guniting for achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregate.

7. What are the preliminary investigations before demolition of a structure? The

demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type of work to be
offered; Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all
times; An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work;
The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the relevant
building regulations; The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to
take risks to achieve the date.

8. Write about protective clothing given before demolition. Buildings where

chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead paint, dust or fumes may be
present will require specialized protective clothing, e.g.

9. Give a brief note on shoring and underpinning in demolition. The demolition

contractor has a legal obligation to show technical competence when carrying out
the work. When removing sections of the building which could have leave other
parts unsafe, adequate temporary supports and shoring etc. must be provided.

10. What are the major factors in selecting a demolition procedure? Majors factors
to be considered in selecting an appropriate technique include:- Safety of personnel
and public Working methods Legislation applicable Insurance cover

[Link] the categories of demolition techniques. Demolition techniques may be

categorized as:- Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools or machines, to
reduce the height of the building or structure gradually; Deliberate controlled
collapse, demolition to be completed at ground level.

[Link] short notes on demolition by hand. Demolition of buildings or structure

by hand-held tools such as electric or pneumatic breakers, sometimes as a
preliminary to using other methods, should be carried out, where practicable, in the
reverse order to the original construction sequence. Lifting appliances may be
necessary to hold larger structural members during cutting and for lowering
severed structural members and other debris.

13. In what cases demolition by machine can be done? Simple roof structures
supported on wall plates should normally be demolished to the level of wall plates
by hand, but if this may involve unsafe working, then demolition totally by
machine may be appropriate.

[Link] short notes on balling machine. Balling machines generally comprise a

drag-line type crawler chassis fitted with a lattice crane jib. The demolition ball,
with a steel anti-spin device, is suspended from the lifting rope and swung by the
drag rope.
[Link] are explosives used for demolition of a structure? If explosives are to be
used for demolition, the planning and execution, include preweakening, should be
under the control of a person competent in these techniques. For large demolition,
the competent person is likely to be an experienced explosive engineer; for smaller
work, a shot-firer may be sufficient.

16 What is a hydraulic pusher arm? Articulated, hydraulically-powered pusher-arm

machines are normally mounted on a tracked or wheeled chassis, and have a
toothed plate or hook for applying for applying a horizontal force to a wall. The
machine should stand on a firm level base and apply force by a controlled
movement of the pusher arm.

17. What is pre-weakening? Buildings and structures normally have structural

elements designed to carry safely the loading likely to be imposed during their life.
As a preliminary to a deliberate controlled collapse, after loads such as furnishings,
plant and machinery have been removed, the demolition contractor may be able to
weaken some structural elements and remove those new redundant. This pre-
weakening is essentially a planned exercise and must be preceded by an analysis of
its possible effects on the structure until it collapses, to ensure that the structural
integrity of the building is not jeopardized accidentally. Insufficient information
and planning relating to the structure may result in dangerous and unsafe work.

18. What is deliberate collapse? The deliberate collapse of the whole or part of a
building or structure requires particularly high standards of planning, supervisions
and execution, and careful consideration of its effect on other parts of the structure
or on adjacent buildings or structures. A surrounding clear area and exclusion zone
are required to protect both personnel and property from the fall of the structure
itself and debris which may be thrown up by the impact.

19. How can you develop a demolition strategy? The strategy will need to take into
account the method of construction used for the original building and its proximity
to other buildings, structures and the general public. These factors, together with
location, the cost and availability of tipping and disposal and the desirability and
economics of reuse, must be taken into account in the development of an
appropriate strategy for the demolition of a structure.
20. What are nibblers? Nibblers use a rotating action to snap brittle materials such
as concrete or masonry. In either case, material should be removed from the top of
walls or columns in courses not greater than 600mm in depth, steel reinforcement
should be cut separately as necessary.

21. What are the considerations before demolition? Considerations should be given
to:- Conducting a site and building survey, with a structural bias; The examination
of drawings and details of existing construction where available; The preparation
of details and drawings from site survey activities where no such information is
available; Establishing previous use of premises, especially with regard to
flammable substances or substances hazardous to health or safety; Programming
the sequence of demolition work; The preparation of a Method Statement.

UNIT V 2 Marks

[Link] are the techniques required for repairing cracks? Bonding with epoxies
Routing and sealing Stiitching Blanketing External stressing Grouting Autogenous
healing

[Link] stitching. The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be

restored by stitching in a manner similar to sewing cloth.

[Link] do you mean by blanketing? This is the simplest and most common
technique for sealing cracks and is applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks
and larger isolated. The cracks should be dormant unless they are opened up
enough to put in a substantial paten in which case the repair may be more property
termed as “Blanketing”.

[Link] external stressing. Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile

stress and can be arrested by removing these stresses. Further the cracks can be
closed by including a compressive force sufficient to over come the tension a
residual compression.

[Link] short notes on Autogenous healing. The inherent ability of concrete to heal
cracks within “autogenous healing”. This is used for sealing dormant cracks such
as precast units cracked in handling of cracks developed during the precast pilling
sealing of cracks in water hands and sealing of cracks results of temporary
conditions.

6. What is overlay? Overlays may be used to restore a spelling or disintegrated

surface or to protect the existing concrete from the attack of aggressive agents.
Overlays used for this purpose include concrete or mortar, bituminous compounds
etc. Epoxies should be used to bond the overlays to the existing concrete surface
[Link] short note on Jacketing. Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the
section of an existing member by encasing it in a new concrete. This method is
useful for protection of section against further deterioration by providing additional
to in member.

[Link] an account on how metal bonding is done on concrete member. On the

tension side of the beam 2to 3mm steel plates are to the existing beam to increase
its capacity. The glue or adhesive should compatible with the existing concrete
with behavioral characteristics under load addition to providing integrity with
parent member.

[Link] clamps are used to overcome low member strength? The distress is due to
inadequate stirrups either due to deficiency in the of provision of Cstamps, U-
clamp fixed externally along the length of beam to provide adequate these will be
protected by covering with rich mortar or concreting as the a later stage.

[Link] grouting. Grouting can be performed in a similar manner as the injection

of an epoxy. However the use of an epoxy is the better solution except where
considerations for the resistance of cold weather prevent such use in which case
grouting is the comparable alternative.

[Link] a short note on epoxy coatings. These are organic compound which when
activated with suitable hardening agents form strong chemically resistant structures
having excellent adhesive properties. They are used as binders or adhesives to
bond new concrete patches to existing surfaces or hand together cracked portions.
Once hardened, this compound will not melt, flow or bleed. Care should be taken
to place the epoxy within the pot life period after mixing.

[Link] are protective surface coatings? During of concrete can be substantially

improved by preventive maintenance in the form of weather proofing surface
treatments. These treatments are used to seal the concrete surface ad to inhibit the
intrusion of moisture or chemicals.

[Link] some materials used as protective surface coatings. Materials used for this
purpose include oils such as linseed oils, petroleum etc.

[Link] dry pack. Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and
subsequent tamping or ramming of the mortar into place producing an intimate
contact between the old and new concrete work.

[Link] a brief account on routing and sealing. This method involves enlarging the
cracks along its exposed surface, filling and finally sealing it with a suitable
material. This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated.

[Link] any four causes of cracks? Use of unsound material Poor & bad
workmanship Use of high water-cement ratio Freezing & thawing Thermal effects
Shrinkage stresses

[Link] are the types of cracks? v) Class-1: Cracks leading to structural failure vi)
Class-2: Cracks causing corrosion vii) Class-3: Cracks affecting function
viii)Class-4: Cracks affecting appearance

[Link] is pneumatically applied mortar? Pneumatically applied mortar is used for

the restoration of when the location of deterioration is relatively at shallow depth.
It can be used on vertical as well as on horizontal surfaces and is particularly
restoring surfaces spalled to corrosion of the reinforcement. Damaged concrete
elements also retrofitted using this method. This also has known as gunning or
shotcreting techniques.

19. What is caging with steel? A steel caging is prepared and made to surround the
existing masonry so that lateral expansion when it is loaded in compression. The
confinement of masonry will steel cage increases its capacity and ductility.

20. Give a brief note on dogs in stitching. The dogs are thin and long and to cannot
take much of compressive force. The dogs must be stiffened and strengthened by
encasement in an overlay or some similar means.
[Link] some concrete materials used to overcome weathering action on concrete.
The two concrete repair materials used were (i) a flow able concrete with 16 mm
aggregate and containing a plasticizer and a shrinkage-compensating additive, to
be cast against forms in heights up to 1.5m, and (ii) a patching mortar to be applied
b rendering, for areas less than .01 m2