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Complexity of E-waste and its Management

Challenges in Developing Countries – A Review
Erick Auma Omondi & Gloria Chepkoech Koech
University of Nairobi

ABSTRACT
The escalating growth of e-waste in recent years poses a growing concern for its impact on environment
and human health. Rapid changes in technology and consumption patterns by users, changes in
production media, rising affordability and dynamic need for efficiency, stimulates development of
electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) supporting related technological advancements. The
resultant rise in the rate of disposal of either obsolete or inefficient equipment has not adequately
recognized the toxic components potentially harmful to health and environment. On the global scale,
e-waste generated annually ranges between 20 - 50 million metric tons, which can potentially double to
over 120 million tons by 2050, following the current trend. Projected associated dangers presents a
time bomb that must be addressed as a matter of urgency to avert dangers associated with end-of-life
management. E-plastics and other components of electronic gadgets contain flame retarding
components in the form of polybrominated diethyl ethers (PBDEs), which are contaminants mixed into
the plastic components of electronics. Similarly, electronic products such as computers, refrigerators,
and air conditioning units also contain ozone depleting substances such as; chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), halon, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and hydrochloro fluorocarbons (HCFCs). Developing
countries are associated with lack of, or ineffective legislation and appropriate infrastructure for
e-waste management in addition to deficient guiding framework for end of life management, product
take back and implementation of extended producer responsibility. In effect, there is little commitment
to effective management of e-waste stream.

Keywords: e-waste, developing countries, recycling, health, environment.

Classification: DDC Code: 628.03 LCC Code: TD9

Language: English

LJP Copyright ID: 925683

Print ISSN: 2631-8490
Online ISSN: 2631-8504

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

Volume 22 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0 465U

© 2022. Erick Auma Omondi & Gloria Chepkoech Koech. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncom-mercial 4.0 Unported License [Link] permitting all
noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 Complexity of E-waste and its Management
Challenges in Developing Countries – A Review
Erick Auma Omondi α & Gloria Chepkoech Koechσ

___________________________________________

ABSTRACT is little commitment to effective management of

e-waste stream. On the contrary a lot of effort
The escalating growth of e-waste in recent years
has been put to handling and management of
poses a growing concern for its impact on

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

domestic waste at the expense of the growing
environment and human health. Rapid changes
toxic e-waste. The short and long term impacts of
in technology and consumption patterns by
e-waste on the environment and human health
users, changes in production media, rising
cannot be ignored as improper disposal and
affordability and dynamic need for efficiency,
interaction with electronic products contributes
stimulates development of electrical and
to elevated risks of cancer and developmental
electronic equipment (EEE) supporting related
and neurological disorders. Success in e-waste
technological advancements. The resultant rise in
management demands clear, deliberate and
the rate of disposal of either obsolete or
tactful effort that advocates reuse, recycling and
inefficient equipment has not adequately
ultimate proper disposal of final waste using
recognized the toxic components potentially
environmentally sound techniques.
harmful to health and environment. On the
global scale, e-waste generated annually ranges Keywords: e-waste, developing countries,
between 20 - 50 million metric tons, which can recycling, health, environment.
potentially double to over 120 million tons by
2050, following the current trend. Projected Author α: Department of Civil and Construction
associated dangers presents a time bomb that Engineering, University of Nairobi; P.O. Box
must be addressed as a matter of urgency to 10344-00100 Nairobi, Kenya.
σ: Department of Civil and Construction Engineering,
avert dangers associated with end-of-life
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
management. E-plastics and other components
Technology; P.O. Box 62000 (00200), Nairobi, Kenya.
of electronic gadgets contain flame retarding
components in the form of polybrominated
diethyl ethers (PBDEs), which are contaminants
I. INTRODUCTION
mixed into the plastic components of electronics. The global market for electrical and electronic
Similarly, electronic products such as computers, equipment (EEE) continues to grow
refrigerators, and air conditioning units also exponentially, while the lifespan of those products
contain ozone depleting substances such as; becomes shorter and shorter. Today, the lifestyle
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halon, carbon of the society revolves around technology and is
tetrachloride (CCl4) and hydrochloro constantly propelled by the need for the latest and
fluorocarbons (HCFCs). Developing countries most high-tech products which are contributing to
are associated with lack of, or ineffective mass generation of e-waste (Nganji & Brayshow,
legislation and appropriate infrastructure for 2010; Bhutta et al., 2011). Thus, e-waste is
e-waste management in addition to deficient considered one of the fastest growing hazardous
guiding framework for end of life management, waste stream globally, prompting the need for a
product take back and implementation of comprehensive management to avert potential
extended producer responsibility. In effect, there environmental health impact in both developed

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15
 and developing countries (Huo et al., 2019). et al., 2017; Abalansa et al., 2021). Developed
According to United Nation University report countries have advanced to devise fairly complex,
2017, about 44.7 and 50 MT of e-waste was high-cost systems to handle e-waste, following
generated in 2016 and 2018 respectively while 53 environmental conservation concerns (Balde et
MT was anticipated in 2021 with the annual al., 2017). However, most e-waste across Europe
growth rate of 4–5% (Balde et al., 2017; and North America still goes un-recycled
Chandrasekaran et al., 2018). The alarming (Barba-Gutierrez et al., 2008). Often, dismantling
growth of e-waste continues to attract of electronic equipment in developing countries
considerable attention from policy makers, occur in the informal sector where hazardous
environmentalists and other stakeholders (Bhutta byproducts directly interact with human before
et al., 2011; Ferronato & Torreta, 2019). The rapid discharge into the environment (Perkins et al.,
development of EEE leading to e-waste can be 2014; Abalansa et al., 2021). Acid extraction is
attributed to the rapid change in technology commonly practiced in retrieving precious metals
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

(Bhutta et al., 2011; Ghimire & Arya, 2020), like palladium, silver, gold and platinum from
changes in the consumption patterns by users, printed circuit boards (PCB's), a practice is often
changes in production media, falling prices conducted without proper safety considerations
leading to wide affordability globally, economic (Chatterjee, 2012; Ari., 2016; Van Yken et al.,
developments and short product lifespan due to 2021). Most methods employed in the informal
technological innovations (Needhidasan et al., sector often lack efficient recovery techniques
2014). The drastic advancement in technology (Prakash & Manhart, 2010; Bazargan et al., 2012;
characterized by changes in components or Ohajinwa et al., 2016). Among the exposed groups
electronic equipment necessitates a dynamic are the children from informal settlements often
approach in e-waste management (Robinson B., more vulnerable to most of the components from
2009; Maimba, 2019; Withanage & Habib, 2021). e-waste (Devin et al., 2014; Forti et al., 2020).

Generally, electronic products contain many Most people are unaware of the potential negative
materials requiring special end-of-life handling, impact of the rapidly growing stream of e-waste
most prominently; lead, mercury, arsenic, (Perkins et al., 2014). When e-waste is disposed in
chromium, cadmium, and plastics capable of landfills or incinerated, it poses health risks due to
releasing, among other compounds, dioxins and the hazardous materials contained in it (Bhutta et
furans (Wong et al., 2006; Pinto, 2008; Cholewa al., 2011; Needhidasan et al., 2014). Although
et al., 2016). Presence of such substances e-waste represents only 2 percent of solid waste in
necessitate careful sorting, recycling and disposal landfill, it accounts for up to 70 percent of the
of e-waste (NEMA, 2010; Step Initiative, 2014). hazardous material there (Mmereki et al., 2016;
Unlike municipal wastes, certain components of Ferronato & Torretta, 2019). From landfills,
electronic waste can either be hazardous with the precious metals may be leached by acid baths
potential of posing a threat to the environment from circuit board components and the used acid,
and human health (Bhutta et al., 2011; laden with toxic metals, dumped into the ground
Needhidasan et al., 2014; Maimba, 2019). Such or nearby stream (Robinson, 2009; Luther, 2010;
potential risks call for specialized skills in Edwards, 2016; Ghimire & Arya, 2020).
handling, disposing and recycling in order to
The short and long term impacts of e-waste on the
avoid contamination of the environment and safe
environment and human health cannot be ignored
guard the human health (Needhidasam et al.,
(Lundgren, 2012). In most developing countries
2014; Koloseni & Shimba, 2012; Songa &
with limited infrastructure and resources to
Lubanga, 2015).
handle e-waste, most e-waste end up in open
The fate of e-waste is guided by factors including; dump sites where the surrounding population is
available recycling technology, associated largely unaware of the dangers from such toxic
potential hazards and the governing policy in waste and the associated harm to both
different parts of the world (NEMA, 2010; Balde environment and their health (Bhutta et al., 2011;

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Abalansa et al., 2021). Improper disposal of conditions of the generating country, availability
electronic products contributes to elevated risks of of a reuse market and recycling infrastructure,
cancer and developmental and neurological success of waste segregation programs, and
disorders (Bhutta et al., 2011; Needhidasan et al., successful regulatory enforcement available in the
2014). Partially, solution to e-waste challenges generating country (Prakash & Manhart, 2010;
require technical considerations, however, in Ferronatto & Torretta, 2019). Thus, e-waste
most cases, legal framework, collection, logistics, recycling and disposal methods ought to advance
and other services need to be implemented before with the dynamics of e-waste composition
a technical solution can be applied (NEMA, 2010; (Owusu-Sekyere et al., 2018; Maimba, 2019.
Pedro et al., 2021). Despite the potentially toxic materials associated
with e-waste, the waste contains components
considered valuables and a resource (Perkins
II . COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE
2014; Abalansa et al., 2021). A clear
E-waste composition greatly depend on technical

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

understanding of actual composition is essential
specification factors such as; type of electronic for the development of environmental
device, the model, manufacturer, date of conservation, recovery and recycling (Bazargan et
manufacture, and the age of the scrap (Perkins al., 2012). According to EU directive on e-waste
2014; Mmereki et al., 2016). Other factors classification, the waste is categorized as
considered as socio-economic include; economic tabulated in table 1.

Table 1: Categories of e-waste according to EU directive on WEEE. Source: Otieno & Omwenga, 2015

No. Category Label Examples

Refrigerators, Freezers, Washing machines, Dish washing
Large household
1 Large HH machines, Cooking equipment, Microwaves, Electric
appliances
heating appliances, etc
Small household Vacuum cleaners, Carpet sweepers, Water dispensers,
2 Small HH
appliances Toasters, Fryers, etc.
IT and Printers, Personal computers (CPU, mouse, screen and
3 telecommunications ICT keyboard included), Laptop computer, Networking
equipment equipment, Scanners, Mobile phones, Television sets, etc
Equipment for turning, milling, sanding, grinding,
4 Consumer Equipment CE
sawing, cutting, shearing, drilling, punching, folding, etc.
Fluorescent tubes, Compact fluorescent lamps, High
5 Lighting Equipment Lighting
intensity discharge lamps, etc.
Electrical and Drills, electric saws, sewing machines, lawn mowers,
6 E&E tools
electronic tools large stationary tools, machines
Electric trains or car racing sets, Hand-held video game,
Toys, leisure and
7 Toys Video games, Computers for biking, diving, running,
sports equipment
rowing, etc.
Medical Scanners, Operating equipment, Radiotherapy equipment,
8 Medical devices
equipment Cardiology, Dialysis, Pulmonary ventilators, etc.
Smoke detectors, Heating regulators, Thermostats,
Monitoring and
9 M&C Measuring, weighing or adjusting appliances for
control instruments
household or as laboratory equipment, etc.
Automatic dispensers for hot or cold drink, Automatic
10 Automatic dispensers Dispensers dispensers for solid products, Automatic dispensers for
money etc.

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 The proportion composition of E-waste can further be categorized as shown below in Fig 1.
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

Fig. 1: E-waste categories and its contribution at global level (Akram et al., 2019)

III. CONTAMINANTS IN E-WASTE Fs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, PCDFs)

which are known for their toxicity and
COMPONENTS
carcinogenic properties (Wang et al., 2012).
E-waste contains contaminants such as heavy E-waste also contains some components such as;
metals, metalloids, halogenated hydrocarbons, lithium batteries, contact materials and fire
persistent organic compounds and hazardous retardants which are distinct from other forms of
pollutants that are of environmental and health wastes and makes it complex and unique (Ernst et
concern (Vidyadhar, 2016; Purchase et al., 2020; al., 2003; Needhidasan et al., 2014; Lucier &
Lebbie et al., 2021).The heavy metals and Gareau, 2019), others include (LCD monitors) and
metalloids of environmental concern in e-waste chip glass (Ladou & Lovegrove, 2008). Similarly,
include: arsenic, cadmium, barium cobalt, copper, Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT's) commonly found in
antimony, indium, lead, beryllium, lithium, televisions and computer monitors contain toxic
chromium VI, mercury, nickel, thallium, tin, rare substances such as; mercury, phosphorous,
earth elements (yttrium, euro- pium), and zinc cadmium, barium and lead which on improper
sulfide (Dave et al., 2016; Liang & Gadd, 2017). storage may leak to the surrounding environment
The common practice of e-waste disposal through (Koloseni & Shimba, 2012; Lecler et al., 2015).
burning emits variants of polycyclic aromatic Hence, storage of e-waste containing CRT’s
hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as: benzo should be monitored for possible leakage using
[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a] installed sensor mechanisms for monitory
pyrene, dibenzo [a,h] anthracene, dibenzo [a,l] purposes (Songa & Lubanga, 2015). In practice,
pyrene, in- deno [1,2,3-cd] pyrene, etc., CRT’s are fitted with leaded glass meant to
polyhalogenated dibenzodio- xins (PHDDs; for provide protection against X-rays produced in the
instance, polychlorinated dibenzodi- oxins, picture projection process (Singh et al., 2016). The
PCDDs), polyhalogenated dibenzofurans (PHD- glass can contain lead between 1.6-3.2 kg

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(Chancerel et al., 2009), which is potentially the environment (Luther, 2010). For example the
harmful on release to the environment (Yu et al., concentration of elements of e-waste heavy metals
2016; Wielgus et al., 2021). Consequently, the such as; Copper, Cadmium, Nickel, Lead and Zinc
toxicity characteristics of CRT’s has led to a ban of (Kinuthia et al., 2020), are of impact to the
its disposal in landfils in many developed nations environment and human health depending on
such as the US, Japan and many other EU states. levels released to the environment and impact to
health and the ecosystem (Grant et al., 2013;
Similarly, e-waste comprise plastics and other
Masindi & Muedi, 2018; Purchase et al., 2020).
components of electronic gadgets which contain
flame retarding component in the form of On a positive note, e-waste from IT and
polybrominated diethyl ethers (PBDEs) (Singh et telecommunication source contains larger
al.,2016; Hahladakis et al., 2018), which are also quantity of precious metals than those from
contaminants mixed into the plastic components household appliances (Chancerel et al., 2009; Van
of electronics (Orisakwe et al., 2019). These Yken et al., 2021). For example, mobile phones

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

PBDEs have no chemical bond with the plastics contain up to 40 base metal elements including,
and can easily escape into the environment from copper (Cu) and tin (Sn); special metals such as
the surfaces of the plastics (Rhodes, 2018; Zhang lithium (Li) cobalt (Co), indium (In), and
et al., 2021). The lipophilic characteristic of antimony (Sb);and precious metals such as silver
PBDEs can make it bioaccumulate in organisms (Ag), gold (Au), and palladium (Pd) (Blass et
and bio-magnifications in food chains (Deng, et al.,2008; Shao et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2012).
al, 2006; Hu et al., 2010; Tao et al., 2019). On the Consequently, to minimize loss of such valuable
other hand, circuit boards found in most materials, special attention should be paid when
electronic devices may contain arsenic (As), handling such waste (Shevchenko et al., 2019;
cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), Abalansa et al., 2021). The effort put in mining
mercury (Hg), and other toxic chemicals (Cayumil such mineral ores like gold and palladium can be
et al., 2016; Purchase et al., 2020). Typical complemented by strategic recycling of e waste
printed circuit boards treated with lead solder in containing such metals. (Chancerel, 2009).
electronic devices contain approximately 50g of
tin-lead solder per square meter of circuit board IV. ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH
(Widmer et al., 2005; Bizzo et al., 2014). IMPACTS OF E-WASTE
Obsolete electronic products such as computers,
The impact on health due to chemical exposure to
refrigerators, and air conditioning units are
e-waste and e-waste recycling is increasingly of
known to contain ozone depleting substances such
concern to most researchers particularly in this
as; chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halon, carbon
era of drastic technological advancements (Bhutta
tetrachloride (CCl4),methyl chloroform(CH3CCl3),
et al., 2011; Needhidasam et al., 2014; Perkins et
hydrobromo fluorocarbons (HBFCs), hydrochloro
al., 2014). Exposure to toxic substances of
fluorocarbons (HCFCs), methyl bromide (CH3Br)
electronic waste can nearly affect every system in
and bromochloromethane (CH2BrCl) (Manhart et
the human body (Grant et al., 2013; Abalansa et
al., 2011). These substances may escape to the
al., 2021). Electronic waste materials comprise
environment from improperly disposed items in
diverse and complex toxic components such as;
the dumping sites (Koloseni & Shimba, 2012;
cadmium, mercury, lead, polybrominated flame
Needhidasan et al., 2014; Abalansa, 2021). Thus,
retardants, barium, and lithium (Grant et al.,
the environmental impact and ozone depletion
2013; Cayumil et al., 2016). The toxicity of e-waste
potential associated with e-waste depends on the
is not only limited to the metals but also the
e-waste composition, duration of exposure e.g in
plastic components such as plastic casings, cables
dumpsites and the concentration of contaminants
and wires made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
found in the equipment (Cayumil et al., 2016;
(Brigden et al., 2008; Ari, 2016). Most e-waste
Ferronatto & Torretta, 2019). The method of
components contain persistent bioaccumulative
disposal also determines the potential damage to
toxins (PBTs) that pose environmental and health
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 risks both to human and animals (WHO, 2010). with some of the impacts including; birth defects
Human handling through various processes of and damage to the brain, heart, liver, kidney and
management including; incineration, disposal in skeletal system (Vrijheid, 2000). Further, the
landfills or melting down processes are common toxins can also significantly affect the human
pathways for exposure to the toxic components of body’s nervous and reproductive systems
e-waste (Maimba, 2019; Alabi et al., 2019; Lebbie (Robinson, 2009; Lundgren 2012). Likewise,
et al., 2021. For example, e-waste disposal in incineration or burning of e waste either as a
landfills can lead to discharge of toxic leachate disposal method or recovery of valuable minerals,
into ground water and expose land and aquatic is associated with emission of fumes, gases and
animals to related health risks. The pathway for particulate matter into the air (Lundgren, 2012).
e-waste ingestion by both domestic and wild When computer monitors and other electronics
animals is either through direct consumption of are burned, they release carcinogenic dioxins into
polluted water or indirect intake through plants the air that we all breathe (Needhidasan et al.,
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

(Frazzoli et al., 2010; Ferronatto & Torretta, 2014; Cogut, 2016). Such emissions lead to
2019). atmospheric pollution which ends up in
precipitation and finally polluted rain into the
Possible landfill leachate leakages can result in land and water bodies (Needhidasan et al.,
groundwater pollution, affecting local aquifers 2014).In summary, table 2 shows various e-waste
and indirectly entering the food chain (Companale components, their source appliances and health
et al., 2019). The toxic substances from e-waste impacts.
are known for adverse effects on human health,

Table 2: E-waste components, sources and health impacts

E-waste
Uses in E- Appliances Adverse Health Effects
component
Lead causes damage to the central and
peripheral nervous systems, blood systems,
Lead is used in glass panels and gaskets kidney and reproductive system in humans. It
in computer monitors and in solder on also affects the endocrine system, and
Lead printed circuit boards and other impedes brain development among children.
components. CRTs can contain up to Lead tends to accumulate in the environment
1.5-8 pounds of lead and has high acute and chronic effects on
plants, animals and microorganisms (Pinto,
2008; Uddin, 2012)
Cadmium can leach into the soil, harming
Used on surface mounted chip resistors,
microorganisms and disrupting the soil
infrared detectors and semiconductor
ecosystem. When inhaled, cadmium can cause
chips. It is also very common in
Cadmium severe damage to the lungs and kidney. It can
Nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries
also contribute to low cognitive and learning
which can contain between 6-18%
ability and neuromotor skills in children
cadmium
(Pinto, 2008; Chen et al., 2011; Rao, 2014).
Mercury can lead to damage of central
nervous system including; sensory
Mercury is used in florescent tubes,
impairment, dermatitis, memory loss, and
thermostats, sensors, relays, switches,
Mercury muscle weakness. Environmental effects in
medical equipment, lamps, mobile
animals include death, reduced fertility, and
phones and in batteries.
slower growth and development (Pinto, 2008;
Rao, 2014).
Health effects include damages to vital organs
such as liver, kidney and heart and also causes
Sulfur Used in lead acid batteries eye and throat irritation. When released into
the environment, it increases the problem of
acid rain (Sankahla et al., 2016).
Hexavalent Chromium VI is used as corrosion Can be carcinogenic on inhalation. Chromium
Chromium protector of untreated and galvanized VI can cause damage to DNA and is extremely

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 / steel plates and as a decorative or toxic in the environment. Long term effects
Chromium hardener for steel housings. are skin sensitization and kidney damage
VI (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
Brominate Used as flame retardants in plastic Can be persistent in the atmosphere and also
d flame housing in most electronic equipment. bio-accumulative. Can lead to impairment of
retarders Examples include; PBBs, PBDE, the nervous system, thyroid and liver
(BFRs) DecaBDE, OctaBDE, PentaBDE problems (Sankahla et al., 2016).
Used as a filler in certain thermal
interface materials such as thermal
grease. It is also used in heat sinks for Long exposure is associated with lung cancer.
Beryllium
CPU’s and power transistors and in It can also lead to chronic and acute beryllium
oxide
magnetrons, X-ray-transparent ceramic disease (Rao, 2014).
windows, heat transfer fins in vacuum
tubes, and gas lasers
Its manufacturing involves release of toxic and
hazardous raw material such as dioxins. Some

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

Polyvinyl components of PVC such as chlorine, can be
Commonly used for insulation on
chloride bio accumulative and can cause long term
electrical cables
(PVC) pollution to the air, soil and water, leading to
health problems to human and animals (Rao,
2014; Abalansa et al., 2021).
Used as an antistatic additive in
Perfluorooc Increased maternal PFOA levels is associated
industrial applications and found in
t-anoic acid with an increased risk of spontaneous
electronics and non-stick cookware
(PFOA) abortion (miscarriage) and stillbirth
(PTFE).

V. GLOBAL PICTURE OF IMPENDING States produced 10 million tons which translates

to an average of 29.5 kg per individual American
E-WASTE CHALLENGE
compared with approximately 5 kg per person in
E-waste is a global, interregional and domestic China (Perkins et al., 2014; Kaza et al., 2018). In
problem which is one of, if not the fastest growing the U.S, e-waste presently constitutes 2-3% of the
source of waste worldwide (Widmer et al., 2005; municipal solid waste stream, however, this
Lundgren et al., 2012; Perkins et al., 2014). The proportion is still considered responsible for
exponential growth of e-waste relates to multiple nearly 70% of the countries’ toxic waste (Hanna et
factors such as consumer demand and high al., 2014). In 1991, a study carried out by Carnegie
obsolescence rate leading to frequent and Mellon University established approximately 70
unnecessary purchases of electrical and electronic million personal computers in the United States’
equipment (EEE) (Devin et al., 2014; Purchase et landfills and predicted 150 million PCs by the year
al., 2020). The recent surge in e-waste volumes is 2005 alone. The associated dangers relates to an
traceable to the quick drop of acceptable average computer screen containing at least five
consumer life span of EEE over the years (Perkins to eight pounds of lead, with the cumulative effect
et al., 2014). For example, on average, the life holding a huge detrimental effect on the
span of personal computers has recently dropped environment (Kuehr & Williams, 2003; Matthews
by 50% from 4 to 2 years (Doms et al., 2003). et al., 2014). Considering newer end-of-life
disposition options now available, the general out
While the global population is nearly 7.9 billion, look of the current situation needs to be
there are estimated to be at least 7.1 billion mobile reconsidered.
phones (UNEP, 2007; UN, 2013). Currently, the
global e-waste generated annually is estimated to In 2009, discarded TVs, computers, peripherals
be between 20 - 50 million metric tons, which can (including printers, scanners, fax machines) mice,
potentially double to over 120 million tons by keyboards, and cell phones totaled about 2.37
2050, following the current trend (Devin et al., million short tons (USEPA, 2009). While by 2019,
2014). In 2012 alone, China reportedly generated the world generated a striking 53.6 Mt of e-waste,
11.1 million tons of e-waste while the United which is a 9.2 Mt higher than that generated in
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 2014, the projected generation by 2030 will be average, the total weight (excluding photovoltaic
74.7 Mt, signifying a steady rise in e-waste world panels) of global EEE consumption increases
over (Murthy & Ramakrishna, 2022). The global annually by 2.5 million metric tons (Mt). The fate
quantity of e-waste in 2019 was mainly comprised of 82.6% (53.6 Mt) of e-waste generated by 2019
of small equipment (17.4 Mt), large equipment was uncertain, and its whereabouts and the
(13.1 Mt), and temperature exchange equipment environmental impact varied across the different
(10.8 Mt) (Forti et al., 2020). Screens and regions as large majority of e-waste generated was
monitors, small IT and telecommunication not formally collected and managed in an
equipment, and lamps represent a smaller share environmental sound manner (Forti et al., 2020).
of the e-waste generated (Wagner et al., 2021). On The global e-waste generation trend is graphically
summarized in Fig. 2.
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

Fig. 2: Global E-waste generated per year (Source; Forti et al., 2020)

Out of 20 to 50 million tons of global e waste for everyone globally (Bhutta et al., 2011; Perkins
generated annually, it is estimated that 75% to et al., 2014; Abalansa et al., 2021). As an estimate,
80% is shipped to countries in Asia and Africa for 50t of mercury and 71kt of BFR plastics are found
“recycling” and disposal (Devin et al., 2014). in globally undocumented flows of e-waste
Loopholes in current e-waste regulations allow for annually, which is largely released into the
the export of e-waste from developed to environment and impacts the health of the
developing countries under the guise of exposed workers (Monika & Kishore, 2010;
“donation” and “recycling” purposes. The Parties Orisakwe et al., 2019). Actually, e-waste contains
to the Basel Convention on the Control of a number of toxic additives or hazardous
Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes substances, including; mercury, brominated flame
and Their Disposal (The Basel Convention), retardants (BFR), and chlorofluorocarbons
(Devin et al., 2014). Although most e-waste (CFCs), or hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
challenges are more prevalent in the developing (Castro & Bassin, 2022). Improper management
countries that accept shipments of e-waste for of e-waste also contributes to global warming
processing, toxic waste knows no borders (Needhidasan et al., 2014; Kaur, 2018). By 2019,
(Abalansa et al., 2021; Maes & Preston –Whyte, discarded fridges and air-conditioners that were
2022). The more electronics that get discarded, unmanaged in an environmentally sound manner
the greater the environmental and health dangers released an estimate of 98Mt CO2 equivalents into

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32 Volume 22 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0 © 2022 London Journals Press

the environment (Forti et al., 2020). This is technologies and inadequate infrastructure for
approximately 0.3% of global energy-related ultimate disposal of e-waste (Otieno & Omwenga,
emissions (IEA). 2016). For example, most citizens of developing
nations are ignorant of the regulations regarding
Positively, e-waste can be viewed as a resource, as
e-waste management despite some governments
it contains various precious metals potentially
having such documented plans existing in theory
available for recycling and use as secondary raw
and not practiced (Muhani, 2012). Such ignorance
materials in the manufacturing industry (Schluep
has hampered the contribution of the citizens in
et al., 2009). By 2019, the value of raw materials
assisting the governments meet this objective as
in the global e-waste was estimated to be
successful e-waste management must involve end
approximately $57 billion USD (Forti et al., 2020;
users (Muhani, 2012; Forti et al., 2020). Today,
Abalansa et al., 2021). Among the waste
most developing countries have expressed more
components, cell phones and other similar
concern in addressing domestic waste at the
electronic items were estimated to contain high

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

expense of the growing toxic impacts associated
amounts of precious metals like gold and silver
with special waste streams such as e-waste
(Sahan et al., 2019; Saha et al., 2021). In the U.S,
(Perkins et al., 2014; Abalansa et al., 2021).
the dumped phones were estimated to a value
over $60 million of gold/silver every year Although there are traces of effort in recycling,
(Ferronato & Torretta, , 2019). Harvesting this developing nations have faced the challenge of
valuable resource in the waste can potentially limited technologies, tools and equipment
minimize CO2 emissions relating to mining of the required of e-waste recycling (Perkins et al., 2014;
earth’s crust for fresh minerals (Devin et al., 2014; Ferronato & Torretta, 2019). Ideally, such efforts
Balde et al., 2017). In most developing countries are implemented in an informal set up involving
such as Kenya, Nigeria and Pakistan, imported dismantling of the electronic gadgets and
e-waste has created a growing informal economy scavenging for precious components such as gold
(Maes & Preston –Whyte, 2022), through (Manhart et al., 2011; Cherutich, 2013;
informal employment for people along the waste Amankwaa, 2014). The process involves the use of
handling and management chain despite the crude tools and equipment in an open set up
silent potential exposure to numerous dangers where associated toxic fumes are emitted
(Chimere et al., 2017). endangering the workers and the environment
(Muhani, 2012; Abalansa et al., 2021). Often, the
V I. CHALLENGES IN MANAGEMENT OF sites are characterized by open burning to expose
the targeted components (Ferronato & Torretta,
E-WASTE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2019). In addition, the workers often lack safety
The greatest e-waste challenge facing developing protection and are greatly exposed to life
nations include; lack of legislation and threatening toxins resulting from such operations
appropriate infrastructure in e-waste (Luther, 2010; Perkins et al., 2014). Successful
management (Abalansa et al., 2021). The absence handling of e-waste demands the use of highly
of the guiding framework for EEE end of life trained personnel (Otieno & Omwenga, 2016),
(EoL) management (Onyara, 2020), product take and the use of specialized equipment (Koloseni &
back and implementation of extended producer Shimba., 2012), requirements lacking in most
responsibility (EPR), (Otieno & Omwenga, 2015). developing countries (Songa & Lubanga, 2015).
Most developing countries have shown little to no
commitment in effective management of e-waste Although most developing countries are
stream (Heeks et al., 2015; Ferronato & Torretta, signatories to various international conventions,
2019). Such reluctance is partially attributed to many still lack adequate regulatory framework to
inadequate knowledge of the potential impacts of deal with e-waste within their respective borders
e-waste stream (Shevchenko, 2019), inefficient (Olowu, 2012; Ferronato & Torretta, 2019;
enforcement by responsible regulatory bodies Abalansa et al., 2021). Other developing countries
(Kumar and Singh, 2013), limited recycling have either developed or borrowed policies and

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 legal framework regarding e-waste management, VII. TECHNIQUES OF E-WASTE
despite such policies not being contextualized,
MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING
implemented and practiced (Muhani, 2012;
Abalansa et al., 2021). In other views, the policies COUNTRIES
have been viewed as mere efforts to comply with
certain international requirements at the expense 7.1 Informal Recycling
of action to actually safeguard the environment Informal recycling is a common, growing method
(Lundgren, 2012), and protect health against of e-waste management in developing countries
e-waste threats (McAllister, 2015). Furthermore, owing to its limited technology and infrastructure
the regulatory bodies are always faced with budget requirements (Bhutta et al., 2011; Heeks et al.,
constrains curtailing adequate implementation as 2015; Mmereki et al., 2016). However, the method
there are many competing basic needs (Abalansa is characterized by numerous environmental and
et al., 2021). Additionally, most developing health challenges that limits its promotion and
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

countries have violated e- gadgets import policies preference (Deepali et al., (2005). Informal
resulting in open borders for bulk second hand recycling is common in most developing countries
electronic gadgets which soon end up as wastes with high demand for second-hand electronic
(Wang et al., 2020). Such setback is aggravated by equipment and the practice of selling e-waste to
citizens’ inability to purchase brand new gadgets informal collectors that spur the growth of
resulting in many going for second hand products informal recycling sector (Chi et al., 2011; Davis &
with shorter lifespan (Otieno & Omwenga, 2015). Garb, 2015). The practice is common in the
informal sectors of developing countries where
Unlike the developed countries with well-planned
untrained workers carry out risky procedures
and constructed waste disposal infrastructure,
without personal protective equipment (William,
most developing countries suffer the set back
2005). Thus, the workers are exposed to harmful
where such facilities do not exist (Maimba, 2019;
chemicals such as heavy metals, inorganic acid,
Wang et al., 2020). Infrastructure such as sanitary
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc., which are
landfills and incinerators have widely been used
potential pollutants and causes of serious
in the disposal of e-waste whereas developing
occupational health hazards (Annamalai, 2015;
countries tend to use open dumping, open
Purchase et al., 2020).
burning and burial as an alternative to such
essential infrastructure (Riquelme et al., 2016; Informal recycling procedures involves
Ferronato & Torretta, 2019). As a result, application of crude techniques (Tran & Salhofer.,
numerous cases of land, water and air pollution 2018), that expose the workers and the
characterized by negative environmental and environment to toxic pollutants emitted while
health impacts have been reported in such separating reusable components and recovering
countries (Ferronato & Torretta, 2019; Abalansa valuable metals (Annamalai, 2015; Tran &
et al., 2021). Open burning is often associated Salhofer., 2018; Lucier & Gareeu, 2019). The
with toxic emissions to the air damaging the operations involve: Physical dismantling, using
atmosphere and inflicting adverse health impacts tools such as; hammers, chisels, screw drivers and
(Prakash & Manhart, 2010; McAllister, 2015). The bare hands, removal of components from printed
cost of developing efficient containment circuit boards by heating over coal-fired grills,
infrastructure has always been a challenge to most Stripping of metals in open-pit acid baths to
developing countries. Despite the numerous recover gold and other metals, chipping and
challenges associated with e-waste management, melting plastics, burning cables to recover copper,
there exists several opportunities such as burning unwanted materials in the open air and
employment creation, revenue generation and disposing unsalvageable materials in fields and
production of bi-products suitable for the local riverbanks (Annamalai, 2015; Awasthi & Li,
markets (Mureithi et al., 2008). 2017).

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Unlike other solid wastes, composition of e-waste general public to long term effects of highly toxic
is diverse and complex with the hazardous e-waste related mixtures (EWMs) through;
components existing even to microscopic levels inhalation, contact with soil and dust (Frazzoli et
(Pinto, 2008; Maimba, 2019). The process of al., 2010; Borthakur, 2016), or oral intake of
informal recycling which is associated with contaminated food and drinking water
breakdown of electronic equipment into (Ferronatto & Torretta, 2019). The extent of
recoverable materials such as plastic, Iron, exposure may vary form one developing country
Aluminum, Copper etc, forms the mainstream to another (Abalansa et al 2021).
source of such harmful emissions (Needhidasan et
Open dumping in developing countries is also
al., 2014; Ghimire & Ariya, 2020; Alabalansa et
characterized by large quantities of e-waste
al., 2021). Micro and macro levels of harmful
discarded openly near riverbanks (Ferronatto &
substances of e-waste can leach into the
Torretta, 2019), where e-waste is manually
surrounding soil, water and air adversely effecting
disassembled, working pieces are repaired and

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

human health and ecology (Ferronatto & Torretta,
marketed while useless junks burned openly
2019; Alabalansa et al., 2021). The impacts can be
(Edwards, 2016). Villages living along such rivers
extreme in developing countries, where people
where piles of e-waste are disposed and burned,
engaged in informal recycling of e-waste live
often use the river water directly for drinking,
within the proximity to dump sites or landfills of
cooking and washing (Wong et al., 2007; Yoada et
untreated e-waste and work without any
al., 2014). Uncontrolled open burning of
protection or safeguards (Prakash & Manhurt,
e-plastics, can generate polychlorinated
2010; Balde et al., 2015). Most workers engaged
dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated
in these recycling operations are the urban poor,
dibenzofurans (PCDFs) which are persistent
unaware of the hazards associated with their work
organic pollutants. This dioxins and furans can
(Asha, 2003).
enter the body via inhalation, ingestion and skin
Successful e-waste management by recycling calls absorption (Annamalai, 2015). Exposure to
for transition from informal to formal sector with PCDD/PCDFs at high levels can lead to chloracne
a well-organized structure employing appropriate (severe skin disease), darkening of the skin, and
technology with adequate safety considerations altered liver function (Mukerjee, 1998).
(Akon-Yamga et al., 2011; Williams et al., 2013).
Additionally, this demands formulation and
7.3 Reuse/Repair
strengthening of policies required for improved
recycling rates, working conditions and efficiency Repair and reuse of EEEs involves rectification of
of informal players in the chain of e-waste a number of given faults within the gadgets and
management (Wilson et al., 2006; XinwenChi et returning them to useful service (Nnorom et al,
al., 2011; Abalansa et al., 2021). 2007; Ben Yahya et al., 2021). Thus, the end of life
(EoL) of the product is extended, thereby lowering
7.2 Open Dumping, Open Burning and Burial the rate of disposal as a waste (Mor et al., 2021;
Abalansa et al. 2021). Objectively, a product reuse
Most developing countries practice open focuses on extension of the product life (Tian et
dumping, burning and burial as methods of al., 2022; Yla-Mella et al., 2022), thus diverting its
dealing with their e-waste (McAllister et al., 2015; route from disposal facilities such as landfills
Ferronatto & Torretta, 2019). Often, the waste is (Fontana et al., 2021). Reuse largely takes the
disposed in a mixed form comprising municipal form of repair (Luther et al., 2010; Van Yken et
solid waste resulting in very serious al., 2021), reconditioning and remanufacturing
environmental and health risks occasioned by (Nnorom et al, 2007). Although recycling is the
toxic leachates and emissions (Ayilara et al., most recommended method of e-waste
2020). The method is often associated with management (Chatterjee and Kumar, 2009), the
dumping into informal landfills such as old quarry decision of the most preferred method of
sites or burning in open smelters, exposing the managing WEEE should be guided by the most

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 ecological and economic option available contaminants, pollutants, and toxins from soil,
(Nnorom et al., 2007; Kumar et al., 2022). The water, and other environments with the aim of
consumer decision during the use phase of a restoration to its original form (Azubuike et al.,
product whether to repair, pass to a second user 2016; Siddiquee et al., 2015 & Sharma, 2019).
or dispose, accordingly affect product life spans The process is considered an eco-friendly
and subsequently the rate of e-waste generation technique of biohydrometallurgy potentially for
(Ferronatto & Torretta, 2019; Borthakur & Singh, mobilization of metals from e-waste (Pant et al.,
2022). 2018; Narayanasamy et al., 2021). Cynogenic and
chemolithotrophic bacteria are some of the most
There is a growing trend in repair of EEE in
common bacterial agents used for the bioleaching
developing countries viewed as a way of extension
process (Ilyas et al., 2007; Thakur et al., 2019).
of products life (Long et al., 2016), thereby
Cynogenic bacteria such as Chromobacterium
reducing the quantity of WEEE generated in the
violaceum, Bacillus megaterium and
short-term (Nnorom et al, 2007). According to EU
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

Pseudomonas sp. can extract the metals by

WEEE and other regulations, the hierarchy for
releasing the cyanide (Natarajan et al., 2015),
e-waste loop management considers avoidance
whereas, chemolithotrophic bacteria such as
(Van Ewijik & Stegemann, 2016), re-use of
Acidothiobacllus ferrooxidans, Leptospirillum
components or parts (Mmereki et al., 2016),
ferrooxidans releases the Fe3+ during the oxidation
materials or energy recovery (Cole et al., 2019),
phase (Tapia et al., 2022), which serves as an
and finally appropriate disposal (Herrmann et al.,
oxidizing agent that aids in the reduction of
2002). While most developed countries have not
metals from e-waste (Mejia Rodriguez et al.,
been very keen on repairing EEEs
2018).
(Svensson-Hoglund et al., 2020), many
developing countries have been attracted to The bioleaching mechanism involving the use of
import their obsolete gadgets often dumped to microorganisms is also referred to as a direct
them cheaply in form of second hand equipment method while that involving the use of metabolic
(King et al., 2004). compounds is referred to as an indirect method
(Bosecker, 1997; Watling, 2014). The equations
Repairing/reusing instruments can be a good 1-2 below summarize the bioleaching by
measure for sustainable waste management byproducts of iron-sulfur-oxidizing bacteria while
because it lowers the manufacturing volume of equations 3-4 summarize biocyanidation
EEEs thereby reducing the amount of e-waste bioleaching process.
(Ghimire & Ariya, 2020; Abalansa et al. 2021). A
large volume of EEEs such as mobile phones has Fe2+ + O2 + 4H+ → Fe3+ + H2O. (1)
also created an opportunity to repair and reuse, 3+
2Fe + Cu → 2+
2Fe + Cu 2+
(2)
but is not realized well in many countries (Wieser
HCN → CN - + H + (3)
and Tröger, 2018). However, changes in product
designs, technology, and wireless services often M + CN- + O2 + H2 O→M (CN)2-+ H2O (4)
pose difficulties to upgrade or repair instruments
(Cairns, 2005). The biological technique of bioremediation can
improve extraction efficiency whereas thermal or
VIII. SUSTAINABLE METHODS FOR physicochemical methods are at times less
effective (Azubuike et al., 2016). The efficacy of
E-WASTE DISPOSAL FOR
bioremediation is dependent on microorganism’s
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES enzymatic attack on pollutants and quick
conversion to harmless products (Coelho et al.,
8.1 Bioremediation
2015; Abatenh et al., 2017). The optimal action of
Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that such microorganisms relies on prevailing
employs the use of living organisms, like environmental conditions that permit microbial
microbes, bacteria and plants, in the removal of growth and activity that stimulates degradation
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36 Volume 22 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0 © 2022 London Journals Press

process for the target pollutants (Das & Chandran, (Sharma et al., 2012). Combustion at high
2011; Su, 2014; Azubuike et al., 2016). The temperature, above 1200ºC, is usually associated
microbial resistance and tolerance to the with reduction of CO formation and removal of
pollutants, particularly heavy metals, is critical to maximum PBDD/Fs in the forms of HBr or Br2
the success of bioremediation processes (Volaric which can significantly lower toxicity (Luyima,
et al., 2021). Such microbes include; bacteria, 2013; Ortuño et al., 2014). However, such high
fungi Consortium Organisms, and algae (Abatenh temperatures favor NOx formation above the
et al., 2017; Tarekegn et al., 2020). However, the standard emission level of 500 mg/Nm3. (Liu et
action of the microorganisms can sometimes be al., 2021).
affected by the toxicity of the e-waste (Ankit et al.,
2021), which can be overcome by a two-step Where combustion is carried out at low
bioleaching process using resistant bacteria temperature between 600–800ºC, copper can act
(Thakur et al., 2019). as a catalyst leading to emission of highly toxic

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

substances such as; polybrominated
The action process of microbes in handling
dibenzo-dioxins (PBDDs), polybrominated
pollutants such as heavy metals include; removal
dibenzo-furans (PBDFs), polychlorinated
of the toxins from the environment (Igiri et al.,
dibenzo-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated
2018), break down to less toxic and
dibenzofurans (PCDFs), fly ash, carbon oxides,
transformation to complete benign forms usable
hydrogen bromide, methane, ethylene, benzene,
in their metabolic processes for growth
toluene, phenol, benzofuran, styrene, PAHs and
(Qazilbash, 2004). According to Brandl et al.,
bromophenols (van den Berg et al., 2013; Klima et
(2000), effective in-situ method of
al., 2020). Solid residues of incineration referred
bioremediation of Aluminum, Nickel, Zinc and
to as “bottom ash” usually comprise higher levels
Lead from the leachates of electronic scraps by
of heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, and Cd which can
using bacteria-Thiobacillus thiooxidans,T.
further complicate their safe disposal (Honest et
ferrooxidans and fungi- Aspergillus niger,
al., 2020).
Penicillium simplicissimum.
Studies suggest that pollutants such as mercury
8.2 Incineration (Hg(g)), benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and
Incineration is a controlled complete combustion xylenes can be removed via iron oxide
process, in which the waste material is burned in a nanoparticles adsorbents (Hu et al., 2014; Kurien
specially designed incinerators at a high et al., 2017) but their inclusion in pyrolysis and
temperature between 900-1000ºC (National other recycling processes is yet to be seen.
Research Council, 2000). Incineration presents a National research Council, 2000 presented a
faster and easier method to separate and recycle typical waste incineration process that also suits
metals while the gases and liquids formed from e-waste. The process is illustrated in Fig. 3.
the process may provide required energy to
self-sustain the process thus serving as energy an
energy source (Abdel-Shafy & Mansour, 2018;
Ghimire & Ariya, 2020). The process of
incineration also results in conversion of some
environmentally hazardous organic substances
into less hazardous compounds (National
Research Council, 2000; Abalansa et al., 2021;
Ankit et al., 2021).

E-waste incineration plants can contribute

significantly to the annual emissions of toxic Fig. 3: Typical waste-incineration facility
substances such as Cadmium and Mercury schematic (Source National Research Council,
2000).
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 8.3 Land Filling 8.4 Formal Recycling
Land filling is one of the most popular methods Recycling is the most preferred method of e-waste
for e-waste disposal in the world (Balde et al, management. The technique involves dismantling
2017). The technology involves the use of trenches of the electronic equipment and recovery of
on the flat surfaces. Soil is excavated from the various components (Kumar et al., 2013; Salhofer,
trenches and waste material is buried in it, which 2017; Lucier & Gareau, 2019). Recycling of WEEE
is covered by a thick layer of soil. Modern can broadly be divided into three major steps:
techniques like secure landfill are provided with Disassembly involving dismantling and careful
some facilities like, impervious liner made up of sorting, targeting on singling out hazardous or
plastic or clay; and leachate collection basin to valuable components, upgrading using
collect and transfer the leachate to waste water mechanical/physical processing and/or
treatment plant (NSWMC, 2010). mechanical processing to upgrade desirable
materials, that is, preparing materials for
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

The degradation processes of e-waste in landfills processing and refining targeting return of
are very complicated and run over a wide time recovered materials to their life cycle (Cui &
span (Nagajothi & Kala, 2018). The largest Forssberg, 2003; Ardente et al., 2014). Some of
concentration of leachable Lead comes from the the e-waste components considered recyclable
funnel portion of the CRTs at an average lead include; PCB, plastic, CRT, ferrous and
concentration of 75.3 mg/L (Musson et al., 2000). non-ferrous metals, keyboards, laptops, modems,
Hence discarded electronic devices that contain a telephone boards, hard drives, mobiles, fax
CRT or wiring boards with lead-bearing solder machines, printers, CPUs, memory chips,
have a potential of being hazardous from Lead connecting wires and cables (Uddin, 2012).
(Jang & Townsend ., 2003). Crushed e-waste in However, electronic devices contain up to 60
landfills of Japan have reported high different elements with a mixed combination of
concentrations of Lead (Osako et al., 2004; valuable and hazardous components (Lucier,
Rajesh et al., 2022). According to Ferronato & 2019). The process of recycling must take care of
Torretta (2019), landfill sites cause considerable the sensitivity of the waste, thus consider proper
toxic contamination attributed to medium and categorization of the waste for efficient process.
long-term leakage of Cadmium and Mercury into Fig. 4 represents a recommended categorization
the soil. Cadmium and Mercury are often emitted (He et al., 2006).
through diffusion or land fill gas combustion
(Chen et al., 2021; Abalansa et al., 2021).
Cadmium from one mobile phone battery can
adversely to pollute 600m3 of water (Jhariya et
al., 2014).

The environmental risks from land filling of

e-waste cannot be ignored since the conditions
in a landfill site are different from a native
soil, particularly with respect to the leaching
behavior of metals (Nagajothi & Kala, 2018).
Therefore, the numerous environmental concerns
around landfilling for e-waste indicates its
unsuitability for treatment of volatile and
biologically non-biodegradable components such
as Cd, Hg,CFC and persistent polychlorobiphenyls
(PCB’s). Although e-waste represents less than 2%
of landfill mass, 70% of the hazardous heavy
metals is contained by it (Jiang et al., 2011).

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 London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal
Fig. 4: Recycling process developed by Ragn-Sells Elektronikatervinning AB (Source; He et al, 2006)

Part of the e-waste considered valuable for technique to minimize associated potential
retrieval include gold and silver which hold a high hazards (Bhutta et al., 2011; Cherutich, 2013).
economic value (Van Yken et al., 2021). These Formal recycling of e-wastes demands various
precious metals are rare, though naturally recycling facilities with proper license from the
occurring, highly ductile and possess high melting authorities in order to support risk assessment
point compared to other metals (Wernick & and establish industry specific guidelines
Themelis, 1998; Van Yken et al., 2021). Other including permissible workplace levels and
special metals retrievable from e-waste include; occupational exposure limits (Abalansa et al.,
Nickel, alloys of Nickel, Cobalt base alloys, 2021).
Titanium and Titanium base alloys (Goonan,
2004). A single personal computer can contain The extent of exposure for workers and the
significant recoverable value resulting from gold environment varies depending on the recycling set
plated connectors, components, pins and up, the safety protection and the technology
transistors (Tran & Salhofer, 2018). Thus there is applied (Heacock et al., 2016). For example, some
a justification to recovery of these metals and manual dismantling operations common in
valuable elements from e-waste (Ari, 2016). developing countries expose workers to health
risks while adversely affecting the environmental
Recycling electronics can reduce the
(Ohajinwa et al., 2017). Some of the primary risks
environmental impact associated with primary
associated with dismantling stage includes;
production of the equipment (Luther, 2010). The
accidental releases and spillages of hazardous
primary production of precious and special
substances (Annamalai, 2015).
metals, including energy intensive stages such as
mining and smelting, has a significant impact on E-waste recycling is also associated with emission
carbon dioxide emissions (Van Yken et al., 2021). of organic pollutants such as; PAHs, PCBs,
Reuse and recovery efforts for e-waste can brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as
significantly reduce such environmental impacts PBDEs, and polychlorinated dibenzo-p- dioxin/
(Luther, 2010; Williams et al., 2013; Abalanasa et furans (PCDD/Fs), which can be formed during
al., 2021). crude thermal processes of e-waste recycling
(Kiddee et al 2013; Ferronato & Torretta, 2019).
Positively, there is a growing trend advocating for
Persistent organic and inorganic contaminants
e-waste recycling (Maes & Preston –Whyte,
such as toxic PCBs, PBDEs, and metals can cause
2022), which calls for the upgrade of skills and
a long term effect on human health and the
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 ecosystem (Li et al., 2006; Campanale et al., glass. Efforts to promote e-waste recycling
2020). Moreover, weathering of organic demands a deliberate stakeholders engagement
contaminants is likely to result in the formation of starting from legislation, structured conveyance
metabolites that could potentially be more toxic sector and citizenry awareness campaign (Otieno
than parent compounds (Brigden et al, 2008; & Omwenga 2015).
Needhidasan et al., 2014). Additionally, mercury,
found within light sources (fluorescent tubes in The recommended e-waste recycling chain
scanners, photocopiers, etc.) as well as switches, consists of five main activities; collection,
could be released into the air of a recycling facility evaluation, dismantling separation and recovery
upon breakage of the shell (Aucott et al, 2003), (Fig 5). The recycling chain often yields separate
whereas, CRTs present risk of implosion components or fractions of materials that can
(collapse) resulting from the vacuum inside the re-enter the market for reuse and/or as a source
tubes and further pose inhalation hazard from of feedstock for other processes. (UNEP, Step
London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

phosphor coating on the inner side of the CRT Initiative, 2009; Perkins et al., 2014).

Fig. 5: Desired flow diagram for e-waste within a recycling facility (adapted from Perkins et al., 2014).

management. Such framework needs to oversee

IX. RECOMMENDATIONS TO E-WASTE
and track the waste throughout the entire chain
MANAGEMENT IN DEVELOPING from the generation/ source to the final disposal.
COUNTRIES The legal framework needs to provide for an
extended producer responsibility that ensures the
Success in e-waste management calls for
financing of collection and recycling of the waste.
tightening of laws relating to public procurement
This should further create favorable investment
and disposal by developing countries with a focus
conditions for investors prompting experienced
on capturing the emerging environmental and
recyclers investment in appropriate technology
safety aspects targeting more environmentally
within the developing countries generating
sound policies. Stringent procurement and
volumes of the waste. As such, the common
disposal laws can control e-waste import and ease
informal collection centers must be upgraded and
the burden of e-waste stocks piling in public
formally recognized as part of the waste
institutions. Strengthening the legal framework is
management chain and a feeder to the subsequent
an important step towards successful e-waste
recycling and disposal route. Upgrading such

Complexity of E-Waste and its Management Challenges in Developing Countries – A Review

40 Volume 22 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0 © 2022 London Journals Press

existing experience can form a useful platform resolved. The temporary storage can control the
towards controlled e waste management indiscriminate disposal of these items with
municipal solid waste and the open burning of
Sensitization and citizen education on their role in
such waste material within inhabited areas. The
successful e-waste management can be a central
likely buildup of stockpiles of e-waste will be a
step towards e-waste management. Notably, most
prerequisite economics to e-waste recycling. The
developing countries are characterized by low
large volumes of e-waste can attract recyclers to
citizen awareness on the hazards of e-waste and
invest in developing countries or transfer the
its negative impact on the environment.
technology through subsidiaries or franchise.
Mitigating this challenge, and achieving an
These collected items can also be exported as
effective e-waste management, calls for a
recyclables to foreign facilities, their business
deliberate sensitization effort that encourage
affiliates and/or to third party recyclers. The
citizen participation. A similar campaign has
growing interest in the huge volumes of waste can
created great impact and improved domestic

London Journal of Research in Science: Natural and Formal

also attract significant technology such as
waste handling and disposal in most countries.
landfilling and incineration for final disposal of
Equally, similar effort holds the key to successful
final waste at the end of the chain. The growth
e-waste management. The education sector also
and innovative disposal technologies will alleviate
needs to incorporate e-waste management in their
dangers associated with crude method of disposal
system. Early sensitization through education
such as burying and open burning of such waste
system can serve as an avenue of awareness
material within inhabited areas and/or disposal at
creation on the importance of managing this
informal landfills that are not monitored.
waste stream. The awareness should also put
emphasis on the direct and indirect To avert adverse health impacts of e-waste on
environmental and health benefits of e waste handlers, developing countries must train the
recycling. local manpower to ensure adequate reverse flow
of components/modules and establish
There is need to mount up campaigns promoting
frameworks and the necessary logistics for the
re-use and recycling of e-waste as a way of
take-back of EEE and components for reuse and
minimizing the waste volumes for actual disposal.
recycling. An effort to create a ready market for
Successful re-use and recycling can reduce the
disassembled components either locally or foreign
e-waste volumes destined for already
will create stability in the sector and ensure
overstretched disposal infrastructures, reduce
continuity within the waste management chain.
their sizing, make them affordable to construct
As a way of managing the known hazardous
and improve their performance and efficiency. A
components of e-waste, development of a
well-managed infrastructure can in turn reduce
state-of-art incineration and landfill facilities is
the environmental and health impacts that would
critical for handling sensitive disassembled
otherwise occur while dealing with large waste
components. Ultimately, development of a formal
volumes in large management plants.
recycling facility holds the key to successful
Additionally, re-use and recycling of valuable
e-waste management.
materials within e-waste can promote a circular
economy through secondary material use. Another effort should focus on capacity building
In considering that most developing countries do programs launched in the e-waste management
not have effective recycling facilities for e-waste, sector from the funds generated from possible
an effective e-waste management strategy should fees levied on EEE imports and licensing from
consider a centralized collection point where recyclers and refurbishment plants. The
e-waste can be dismantled /disassembled for capacity development initiatives should be
component reuse and disposal of toxic done at a national level with the involvement
components at designated sites. The centralized of experts and institutions of higher learning.
collection point should warehouse the e-waste Benchmarking with other countries that have
until appropriate EoL management issues are been successful in management of e-waste

Complexity of E-Waste and its Management Challenges in Developing Countries – A Review

© 2022 London Journals Press Volume 22 | Issue 8 | Compilation 1.0 41

15
 should be done and best practices adopted to 9. Annamalai, J. (2015). Occupational health
boost the government efforts hazards related to informal recycling of
E-waste in India: An overview. Indian J Occup
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