Gilligan
intro
theory
stage 1: orientation towards individual survival
stage 2: goodness as self sacrifice
stage 3: morality of nonviolence
gender role intensification
gender stereotypes
gender similarities and differences
physical development
cognitive development
socio-emotional development
gender role classifications
gender in context
gender differences in identity formation
marcia’s 4 ethnic identity statuses
other model
self concept and self esteem in adolescence
romantic relationships
intro
differences in socialisation lead to males to value principles of justice and rights
and for females to value care and helping others
she claimed women see morality as more of responsibility of showing care and
avoiding harm- focus on not turning away from others rather than not treating
others unfairly
little support for claim of male bias in Kohlbergs
small gender differences in care related moral reasoning in cultures identified
^reason could be that girls mature earlier + have more initmate social relationships
113 study analysis- difference seen acc to what gilli said but the differences were
small
Gilligan 1
similar to influence of gender on dev- preschool kids display gender identity and
gender typed behaviour that reflects bio-socio-cog influence
theory
differences in way people are raised leads to basic distinctions in how moral
behaviour is viewed
compassion is more prominent as a factor in moral behaviour for women then men
stage 1: orientation towards individual survival
concentration on what’s practical and best for self
gradual transition from selfishness to responsibility, inc thinking about whats
best for others
stage 2: goodness as self sacrifice
initial view is that women should sacrifice own wishes to what others want.
gradual transition from ‘goodness’ to ‘truth’- accounting for self and others
stage 3: morality of nonviolence
moral equivalence between self and others
hurting anyone- inc self- seen as immoral
most sophisticated form acc to this model
gender role intensification
puberty and role differences accentuate gender for some teenagers, may not
affect all and may affect some only on some occasions
ex- girls good in math may curb success at these to ensure they’re not less
popular as other girls & boys do athletics to affirms masculinity
gender stereotypes
Gilligan 2
broad categories reflecting general impressions and beliefs about females and
males
present to a great extend (research shows)
continues to change furing mid and late childhood and adolescense
upto 7/8 years- extensive cause kids don’t recognise ind variations in masc and
fem
by 5- boys stereotyped as powerful and in neg terms, and girls stereotyped in
positive terms like nice
elementary school- more flexible in gender attitudes
US study w 3 to 10yo- girls and older kids used more stereotypes; appearance
stereotypes prevalent w girls and trait stereotypes prevalent w boys; boys
stereotypes more rigid
gender similarities and differences
There are the similarities and differences between the sexes, keeping in mind that
1. differences are averages not all females versus all males
2. even when differences are reported, there is considerable overlap between
the sexes
3. differences may be due primarily to biological factors, sociocultural factors, or
both.
physical development
women have 2x body fat as men- concentrated around breasts and hips; for me it
goes to abdomen
males- 10% taller than females
females have longer life expectance, less likely to develop physical/mental
disorders
males- 2x risk of coronary diseases
female brain- smaller, have more folds, more surface brain tissue, smaller visuo
spatial skills area, emotional expression area has more activity
Gilligan 3
sex differences not directly seen to be linked to psychological differences
can be due to biological origin of differences, behavioural experiences changing
plasticity or combination
cognitive development
no gender differences in general intelligence
girls- better verbal skills (slightly)
socio-emotional development
three areas- aggression, emotion, prosocial behaviour
aggression
boys more physically aggressive
in all cultures
appears very early in development
more pronounced when provoked
bio and env factors- heredity, hormones, cultural expectations, adult and peer
models, social agents
verbal aggression more pronounced in girls (sometimes)
relational aggression
means harming people by manipulating a relationship
increases in mid and late childhood
makes up more percentage of girls’ overall aggression
study found links between parenting and children’s relational aggression (parents’
psych control linked to higher incidence of ra)
expression:
girls more likely show emotions openly and intensely (esp sadness and fear);
better at reading others’ emotions; more likely to show empathy
boys show less self regulation and self control can lead to behavioural problems
Gilligan 4
prosocial behav:
females- view selves as more prosocial and empathic, engage in more prosocial
behav in childhood and adolescence
biggest dif- kind and considerate behaviour
smallest dif- sharing
gender role classifications
1970s- everyone sick of it, decided that ind could have masc and fem features
both
androgyny: presence of masc and fem characteristics in same person
more flexible, competent, mentally healthy
best classification is situation dependent
close relationships- fem is desirable
traditional academic and work settings- masc due to achievement demands here
William Pollack:
not much done to change traditional ways of raising boys
‘boy code’ still present everywhere
says this resulted in ‘national crisis of boyhood’
suggested boys would benefit from being socialised to express anxieties and
concerns and better regulate aggression
gender in context
traits displayed by people vary depending on the situation
females more likely to volunteer to help w kids, personal problems, and engage in
caregiving behaviour
males more likely to volunteer when situations need competence and involve
danger
Gilligan 5
importance of considering gender most imp when culturally prescribed
behaviours are there
US- more accpetance, but in most gender roles are same. males socialised,
females told to child rear (seen in Iran, China)
gender differences in identity formation
Erikson- for women, identity and intimacy develop together- researchers see it as
a point of weakness and where male centrism shows
Gilli- female sense of self develops through establishing relationships more
today- indv difference more imp than gender differences
Marcia- ongoing tension is heart of all Erikson’s psychosocial stages; development
of self esteem supports Gilligan’s view
adolescent girls have lower self esteem (controversial findings) but research
shows self esteem drops during adolescence (more for girls) and then rises in
adulthood
could be due to changes in body image and other anxieties related to
transitions and puberty
marcia’s 4 ethnic identity statuses
1. diffuse- no exploration, no understanding
2. foreclosed- no exploration, clear feelings on it based on others’
3. moratorium- exploration but confusion [study- 42% adolescents here]
4. achieved- explored and accepted ethnicity [study- 27% adolescents, 47%
college students, 56% adults]
other model
3 aspects of racial/ethnic identiy:
1. connectedness to owns racial/ethnic group
2. awareness of racism
3. embedded achievement
Gilligan 6
longitudinal study- all 3 aspects stabilise and increase a bit by midadolesence
this type of identity buffer tendencies towards drop in grades during transition
perceived discrimination interferes w positive identity formation, conduct
problems or depression
protective factors- nurturant, involved parenting, prosocial friends, strong
academic performance
3 year 420 ppl study- group esteem higher in early and mid adolescence (esp for
african americans and latinos)
exploration increased in mid adolescence- reflecting transition
interactions stimulate curiosity about own ethnic identity
minority adolescents gain in self esteem w age (acc to NYC high school)- fam
support strongest factor and positive school climate
cultural socialisation: parental practices that teach kids about heritage, promote
customs and traditions, foster ethnic pride (creates more stronger and more
positive ethnic identity)
self concept and self esteem in
adolescence
teens continue to develop their self concept, ability to think of possibilities and to
reason more abstractly may help further differentiation of self
this stage- understanding of self often full of contradictions leading to them
feeling like a fraud
w parents- angrier and sullen; w friends- outgoing and goofy
emphasis more on traits like being friendly and considerate- highlights increased
concern about others’ perception
teens add moral standards and value to self description
self esteem also differentiates
academic+ social appearance+ physical/athletic dimensions= old self esteem
Gilligan 7
now- perception of competency in romantic relationships, on the jop and close
friendships also added
drops when transition in schools- drops are usually temporary unless additional
stressors like parental conflict/family disruptions
rises from mid to late adolescents
romantic relationships
domain in which adolescents experiment w new behaviours and identities
usually first emerge in adolescence- most americans have alr had atleast one
romantic relationships by the end of this
culture plays a role
Latinas and Asian Americans less likely to date
dating
fun, companionship, status, socialisation, sexual experimentation, intimacy,
partner selecton
begins w engaging in mixed sex group activities in early adolescents
(relationships form in the context of these which used to be same sex groups
when they were younger)
easier to interact in these as among supportive groups, can observe others, and
are kept safe from too early sex
mid adolescence- brief, casual dating/in group dating
late- exclusive intense relationships which tend to be long lasting and may
interefere w friendships
importance
adolescents spend lots of time in these (or lack of these)
positive and negative emotions more tied to these than to friends, fam, school
contribute to identity formation, changes in family and peer relations, and emo and
behav adjustments
Gilligan 8
centrally connected to emerging sexuality (which involves more than the narrow
focus of just having sex)
negative dating experience can adversely impact adolescents development
(desires to gain partner approval can impact sense of authenticity)
relationship inauthenticity- incongruence between thoughts/feelings and actions
in a relationships
Soller: this inauthenticity correlated w poor mental helath (depression, suicidal
ideation, suicide attempts- esp w females)
Gilligan 9