Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics

UNITII - WAVE OPTICS

, INTERFERENCE

Introduction
In the 17th century, the properties of light were explained by Sir Isaac Newton and
Christian Huygens. Sir Isaac Newton was explained the properties of light by introducing
Corpuscular theory in 1675. It explains reflection, refraction, and dispersion properties of
light. It fails to explain interference, diffraction, polarization, photo electric effect, and
double refraction.
In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to Huygens
wave theory, each point on the wave front is to be considered as a source of secondary
wavelets. It explains reflection, refraction, dispersion, double refraction, diffraction,
interference, and polarization properties of light. It fails to explain, photo electric effect,
black body radiation etc.

Interference of light
The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This was
experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801, through double slit experiment.
Due to interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life, such as
multiple colours on soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light.
Interference concept is explained on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept. When two
light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude or intensity in the region of
superposition is different than the amplitude of individual waves.

1. What is the principle of superposition?

Principle of Superposition of waves:
When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement
at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to individual waves.

Let y1 is the displacement of the particle of first wave in a given direction and y2 is the

displacement of the particle in second wave in the absence of the first wave. Therefore
according to principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is

R=y1+ y2

 If the displacements are in the same direction then R = y1+y2.

 If the displacements are in opposite direction then R = y1-y2.

R2 =a12+a22+2a1a2cosδ

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I = R2 =a12+a22+2a1a2cosδ

This represents the equation of resultant intensity.

Case (i): Condition for maximum intensity:

I is maximum when cos δ = +1 => δ = 2nπ, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …

2nπ= (2π/λ) path difference

path difference = n λ
I max = a12+a22+2a1a2

= (a1+a2)2

If a1= a2 then Imax= 4a2

Case (ii): Condition for minimum intensity:

I is minimum when cos δ = -1 => δ = (2n+1) π, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …

(2n+1) π = (2π/ λ) path difference

=> Path difference = (2n+1) λ/2

Imin = a12+a22-2a1a2
= (a1-a2)2

If a1= a2 then I min = 0

2. What is coherence?
Coherence: Two waves are said to be coherent if they have same phase or maintaining
constant phase difference between them. Hence coherence is a measure of the correlation
between the phases of the wave measured at different points.
Methods of producing coherent sources for interference:-
For the formation of interference pattern, two coherent light sources are required. To get
two coherent sources form a single light source, two techniques are used. They are
i. Division of wave front
ii. Division of amplitude
i. Division of wave front
The wave front from a single light source is divided into two parts using the phenomenon
of reflection, refraction, or diffraction. Young’s double slit experiment is belongs to this class
of interference.
ii. Division of amplitude
The amplitude of a single light beam is divided into two parts by parallel reflection or
refraction. Newton’s ring experiment, Michelson’s interferometer belongs to this class of
interference.
3. What is interference?
Interference: Modification or redistribution of light energy due to superposition of light
waves from two coherent sources is known as interference. The phenomenon of interference
obeys law of conservation of energy.
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4. What are the types of interference?
Types of Interference: i. Constructive Interference ii. Destructive Interference
i) Constructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the crest of another wave,
the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is
increased. Hence bright fringe is formed and it is known as constructive interference.
Condition: The path difference between the two waves is equal to the integral multiple of
wave length (𝜆) the constructive interference occurs.
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=𝑛𝜆 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …

A = a1+a2

(Waves are in phase) Constructive interference

ii) Destructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the trough of another wave,
the resultant amplitude is the difference of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is
decreased. Hence dark fringe is formed and it is known as destructive interference.

Condition: The path difference between the two waves is equal to the odd integral multiple
of λ/2 destructive interference occurs
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛−1)/2 Where n = 1,2,3,4 … 𝑜𝑟
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛+1)/2 Where n = 0,1,2,3,4 …

A=a1-a2

(Close to π out of phase) Destructive interference

5. What are the conditions for sustained interference?

Conditions for sustained interference:
i. The two sources should be coherent.
ii. The two sources must emit continuous waves of same wavelength and frequency.
iii. The background should be dark.
iv. The two sources should be monochromatic.
v. The amplitude of interfering waves should be equal.
vi. The two sources should be narrow.
vii. The distance between the two sources should be small.
viii. The distance between sources and screen should be large.

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6. Explain the interference due to uniform thin films by reflected light or derive cosine law?
Interference in thin films by reflection: (Cosine law):
Principle:-
The formation of colours in thin films can explained using the phenomenon of interference.
In this example, the formation of interference pattern is by the division of amplitude.
Consider a thin film of uniform thickness ’𝑡’ and refractive index ‘μ’. Let a monochromatic
light ray AB is incident on the upper surface of the film at point ‘A’ with an angle ‘𝑖’. The
incidence light ray AB is divided into two light rays ray 1 (BC) and ray 2 (EF) by the division
of amplitude principle. These two light rays BC and EF are parallel and superimpose and
produce interference. The intensity of interference fringe depends up on the path difference
between the ray 1 and ray 2.

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Note: In case of transmitted light, the conditions for bright and dark fringes are reversed
than that of in reflected light.
 For bright fringe, 2μt cos r = n λ
 For dark fringe, 2μt cos r = (2n+ 1) λ/2

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7. Write short note on colour in thin films?
Colours of thin films:
i. When a thin film (Soap bubble) is exposed to a white light source beautiful colours are
observed.
ii. The incident light will split up by reflection at the top and bottom surfaces of the film.
iii. These splitted rays interfere with each other and produces interference pattern and is
responsible for colours.
iv. We have 2μt cos r = (2n+1) λ/2 for bright fringe
v. 2μt cos r = n λ for dark fringe.
vi. Hence bright and dark fringes depend on μ, t and r. Here t and r are made constant but μ
changes with wavelength.
vii. At a particular point of the film and at a particular position of the eye, only certain
wavelengths (colours) satisfy the condition for bright fringe. Hence only those colours
appear on thin film.
viii. The colours which satisfy dark fringe condition are absent. If position of the eye changes,
different set of colours are observed.
ix. We know that the conditions for bright and dark fringes in transmitted light are reversed
than that in reflection. Hence colours which appear in reflected light disappears in
transmitted light.

8. What are Newton’s rings? Explain the formation of Newton’s rings. Write the conditions
for maxima and minima?
Newton’s Rings: When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane
glass plate, an air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. At the
point of contact, the thickness of the film is zero. If monochromatic light is incident normally
and the film is viewed in reflected light we observe alternate bright and dark rings around
the point of contact. These rings are known as Newton’s rings.
Principle:-
The formation of Newton’s rings is due to the phenomenon of interference. In this example,
the formation of interference pattern is obtained by the division of amplitude.
Experimental arrangement
 The experimental arrangement of Newton’s rings is shown in figure.
 The Plano -convex lens (L) of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface
on the glass plate (P). The Plano convex lens touches the glass plate at O.
 A monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens with the help of glass plate
M kept at 450 to the incident monochromatic light.
 A part of light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens ‘L’ and a part of light is
transmitted and partly reflected back by the upper surface of the plane glass plate P.
These reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of
circular fringes. These rings are seen through a travelling microscope.
Explanation of Newton’s rings
Newton’s rings are formed due to the interference between the light rays reflected
from the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate (or top and bottom
surfaces of the air film).

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Let a vertical light ray AB be partially reflected from the curved surface of plano
convex lens without phase change and partially transmitted light ray BC is again reflected
at C on the glass plate with additional phase change of π or path difference λ/2.

The path difference between the two rays = 2𝜇𝑡Cos𝑟+𝜆/2

For air film 𝜇=1 and for normal incidence 𝑟=0, so
The path difference =2𝑡+𝜆/2
At the point of contact 𝑡=0, path difference is 𝜆/2 i.e., the reflected and incidence light are
out of phase and destructive interference occur. So the center fringe is always dark.
Constructive interference (or Bright fringe)
General condition: 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=𝑛𝜆
2𝑡+𝜆/2=𝑛𝜆
2𝑡=(2𝑛−1)𝜆/2 , Where 𝑛=0,1,2,………..
Destructive interference (or Dark fringe)
General condition: 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=(2𝑛+1)𝜆/2
2𝑡+𝜆/2=(2𝑛+1)𝜆/2
2𝑡=𝑛 , Where 𝑛=0,1,2,………..
Theory of Newton’s rings
To find the diameters of a dark and bright rings construct a circle with the radius of
curvature R of a lens L. Let us choose a point P at a distance ‘r’ from the center of lens
and 𝑡 be the thickness of air film at point p.

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9. What are the applications of Newton’s rings?
Applications of Newton’s rings:
1. Determination of wave length of sodium light using Newton’s rings:
By forming Newton’s rings and measuring the radii of the rings formed, we can calculate
the wavelength of the light used if the radius of curvature of the lens is known. Let R be the
radius of curvature of the lens and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light used.
So the diameter of the mth dark ring can be written as
𝐷𝑚2=4 𝑚 𝜆 𝑅 ………………………. (1)
Similarly the diameter of the nth dark ring is
𝐷𝑛2=4 𝑛 𝜆 𝑅 …………………… (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2)
we get 𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚2=(4 𝑛𝜆 𝑅)−(4 𝑚 𝜆 𝑅)
𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚2=4 (𝑛−𝑚) 𝜆 𝑅

Using the above relation wavelength can be calculated

2. Determination of refractive index of a liquid using Newton’s rings:

By forming Newton’s rings and measuring the
diameter of the rings formed, we can calculate the
refractive index of the liquid.
In air film, the diameters of the mth and nth dark rings
are 𝐷𝑚 and 𝐷𝑛 are measured with the help of travelling
microscope.
The diameter of the nth dark ring is
𝐷𝑛2=4 𝑛 𝜆 𝑅 …………….. (1)
The diameter of the mth dark ring is
𝐷𝑚2=4 𝑚𝜆 𝑅 ………… (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2) we get

𝐷𝑛2− 𝐷𝑚2=[4 (𝑛−𝑚) 𝜆 𝑅]……… (3)

The Newton’s rings setup is taken in a liquid. Now the air film is replaced by liquid film. In
liquid film, the diameters of the same nth and mth dark rings are 𝐷′n and 𝐷′𝑚 are measured
with the help of travelling microscope.

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10. What are the applications of interference?
Applications of interference: Interference phenomenon is used to
i. Determine the wavelength of light.
ii. Find the difference in wavelengths of two spectral lines having small separation.
iii. Find the thickness of transparent materials.
iv. Determine the refractive index of transparent solids, liquids and gases.
v. Find the velocity of light (Michelson interferometer experiment).
vi. Test the optical flatness of surfaces.
vii. Find the reflecting power of the lens and prism surfaces.

Assignment Questions
1. What is the principle of superposition?
2. What is interference? What are the types of interference?
3. What are coherent sources?
4. What are the conditions for sustained interference?
5. What are the applications of interference?
6. Explain the interference of light due to thin films or derive cosine law.
7. Write a short note on colors in thin films.
8. Discuss the theory of Newton’s Rings with relevant diagram and discuss its applications.
Problems
1. Newton’s rings are observed in the reflected light of wave length 5900 A0. The diameter
of 10th dark ring is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens used. (Feb 2011, Set
No.4), (July 2011, Set No.3; Ans: R=1.059m)
2. A parallel beam of light (λ=5890A0) is incident on a glass plate (µ=1.5) such that angle
of refraction into plate is 600, calculate the smallest thickness of the plate which will
make it appear dark by reflection. (Feb 2011, Set No.2, Jan 2012, Set No.2, Ans: t=3.926
x 10-4mm)
3. In Newton’s rings experiment, the diameters of the 4th and 12th dark rings are 0.40 cm
and 0.70 cm respectively. Find the diameter of the 20th dark ring. (Jan 2012, Set No.3,
Ans: D20 = 0.905m)
4. In Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 10th ring changes from1.40 cm to 1.27
cm when a liquid is introduced between the lens and the plate. Calculate the refractive
index of the liquid.(Jan 2012, Set No.4, Ans: µ=1.215)
5. In Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be
0.59 cm and that of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. If the radius of the plano convex lens is
100 cm, compute the wavelength of light used. (June 2012, set No.1, Set No.4, Ans: λ =
588 nm)
6. Calculate the thickness of a soap film (µ=1.463) that will result in constructive
interference in the reflected light, if the film is illuminated normally with light whose
wave length in free space is 6000 A0.(June 2012, Set No.2, Ans: t=1.025 x 10-4mm)

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Objective Questions

1. The wave nature of light is evidenced by

a) Photo electric effect b) interference
c) Black Body Radiation d) emission

2. In interference the intensity of light gets

a) Modified b) Remains same
c) both (a) &(b) d) None

3. Path difference between coherence wave is

a) Constant b) Zero c) Both (a) & (b) d) None

4. Two light sources are said to be coherent if their waves have

a) same frequency b) constant phase difference
c) same wavelength d) All the above

5. In super position of waves of constant phase difference, the resultant amplitude

is maximum when Ø=
a) 2πn b) nπ c) (2n – 1) π d) none

6. In super position of waves of constant phase difference, the resultant amplitude is

minimum when Ø=
a) 2πn b) nπ c) (2n – 1) π d) none

7. The resultant intensity of the superposition of waves of constant phase difference is

a) I = 2a2 cos2φ/2 b) I=4a2 c) I= 2a2 sin2 φ/2 d) I= 4a2 sin2 φ/2

8. The resultant amplitude of waves of equal phase and frequency is

a) sum of the amplitudes of individual waves
b) difference of amplitudes of individual waves
c) sum of the squares of amplitudes of individual waves
d) none

9. Two light beams interfere have their amplitudes in the ratio 2:1 then the intensity
ratio of bright and dark fringes is
a)2:1 b) 1:2 c) 9:1 d) 4:1

10. In super position of waves of constant phase difference , the phase angle φ
a) tan-1[ b sin φ/ a+b cos φ] b) tan -1 [b cos φ/a+b sin φ]
c) tan -1 [b sin φ/a sin φ +b cos φ] d) tan-1[ b / a+b cos φ]

11. Newton’s rings and Michelson’s interferometer experiments are example for
a) Division of amplitude b) Division of wave front
c) Both a & b d) none

12. In Newton’s rings experiment the condition for bright fringes in the case of reflected
light
a) 2t = (n+1)λ/2 b) 2t = (2n-1)λ c) 2t = (n-1)λ d) 2t = nλ
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13. In Newton’s rings experiment the condition for dark fringes in the case of reflected
light
a) 2t = nλ b) 2t = (2n-1)λ c) 2t = (n-1)λ/2 d) none

14. In Newton’s rings experiment, wave length

a) D2n+p –D2n /4PR b) D2n-D2n+p/4PR
c) D2n+p + D2n /4PR d) D2n+p – D2n/4 λR

15. The refractive index of the liquid from Newton’s rings µ=

a) D2n+p –D2n/ D2n+p –D2n b) D’2n+p –D’2n / D2n+p –D2n
c) D2n+p +D2n/ D2n+p –D2n d) D2n+p –D2n/ D’2n+p –D’2n

16. In Newton’s rings experiment the diameter of dark ring is proportional to

a) Odd number b) natural number
c) Even natural number d) square root of natural number

17. When light wave suffers reflection at interface between glass and air, the
change of phase of reflected wave is equal to
a) π/2 b) π c) zero d) 2π

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Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics
DIFFRACTION
Introduction:
The wave nature of light is first confirmed by the phenomenon of interference. Further
it is confirmed by the phenomenon of diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the
Latin word diffractus which means break to piece. When the light waves encounter an
obstacle, they bend round the edges of the obstacle. The bending is predominant when the
size of the obstacle is comparable with the wavelength of light. The bending of light waves
around the edges of an obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by Francesco Gremaldi.

1. Define diffraction. Give examples of diffraction.

Definition of Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of
obstacles and spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in
the path of light is called Diffraction.

The effects of diffraction can be seen in everyday life. The most colourful examples of
diffraction of light are
1. The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as diffraction grating to form a rainbow
pattern when looking at a disk.
2. The hologram on a book or debit card.
3. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible
around the sun or the moon.
4. A shadow of a solid object using light from a compact source shows small fringes near its
edges.
Explanation: Consider light waves diverging from a narrow slit ‘S’ illuminated by a mono
chromatic source ‘O’ and passes towards an obstacle AB. A small portion of light bends
around the edge and forms a geometrical shadow on the screen which is not sharp. Outside
the shadow parallel to its edge several bright and dark bands are observed. Thus when light
falls on obstacles whose size is comparable with wavelength of light, the light bends round
the corners of the obstacles or aperture and enter in to the geometrical shadow. It was found
that diffraction produces bright and dark fringes known as diffraction bands or fringes.
According to Fresnel, the diffraction phenomenon is due to mutual interference of
secondary wavelets originating from various points of the same primary wave front which
are not blocked off by the obstacle. Hence diffraction is also known as self interference.

2. What are the types of diffraction?

Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomena are classified into two ways

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i. Fresnel diffraction
ii. Fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction:-
In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at finite distance. To study this
diffraction lenses are not used because the source and screen separated at finite distance.
This diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light. In this diffraction the
incidence wave front must be spherical of cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction:-
In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at infinite distance. To study this
diffraction lenses are used because the source and screen separated at infinite distance.
This diffraction can be studied in any direction. In this diffraction the incidence wave front
must be plane.

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

1. The source and the screen are placed 1. The source and the screen are placed
at finite distances from the obstacle at infinite distances from the obstacle
producing diffraction. producing diffraction.
2. No lenses are used for making the rays 2. Lenses are used for making the rays
parallel or convergent. parallel or convergent.
3. The incident wave front is either 3. The incident wave front is plane.
spherical or cylindrical. 4. Extended source at infinite distance
4. Either a point source (or) an is used.
illuminated narrow slit is used. 5. This is also called far-field
5. This is also called near-field diffraction.
diffraction. 6. It is simplified approach.
6. It is general approach. 7. Mathematical treatment is simple
7. Mathematical treatment is quite 8. Examples: Diffraction at a single slit,
complicated. double slit and n slits (grating) etc.,
8. Examples: Diffraction at a straight edge,
thin wire, narrow
slit, a small hole etc.,

Diffraction Interference
1. It is due to interaction of light waves 1. It is due to interaction of light waves
coming from different parts of the same coming from two different wave fronts
wave front. It is also called as self originating from the same source (i.e.
interference. coherent sources).
2. Diffraction bands decrease in their width
2. Interference bands are of equal width
as the order increases.
i.e. all are equally spaced.
3. The bright fringes are of varying
3. All the bright fringes are of the same
intensity.
intensity.
4. Points of minimum intensity are not
4. Points of minimum intensity are
perfectly dark. Hence fringes will not
perfectly dark. Hence fringes will
appear with contrast.
appear with contrast.

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5. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.

Fraunhofer single slit diffraction:
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through an aperture or around objects. It occurs when
the size of the aperture or obstacle is of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the incident wave.
For very small aperture sizes, the vast majority of the wave is blocked. For large apertures the wave passes by
or through the obstacle without any significant diffraction.

Single slit diffraction pattern

In an aperture with width smaller than the wavelength, the wave transmitted through the aperture spreads all
the way round and behaves like a point source of waves (they spread out below).

This is shown in the diagram below:

Fig.1: Single slit diffraction when a Fig.2: Single slit diffraction when
wave passes through an aperture with a wave passes through an
width smaller than wavelength aperture with width larger than
wavelength

The diffraction pattern made by waves passing through a slit of width,a larger than λ can be understood by
imagining a series of point sources all in phase along the width of the slit. The waves moving directly forward
are all in phase (they have zero path difference), so they form a large central maximum.

Fig.3: waves passing straight Fig.4: waves passing through the Single slit at an angle Ө
through the Single slit

If the waves travels at an angle Ө from the normal to the slit,

then there is a path difference x between the waves produced at
the two ends of the slit x= a sin Ө

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The path difference between the top and middle waves is then x’= (a/2) sin Ө

If the path difference between the top and middle waves is λ/2 then they are exactly out of phase and cancel
each other out. This happens to all consecutive pairs of waves at this angle, so there is no resultant wave at
this angle. Thus, a minimum in the diffraction pattern is obtained at

λ=a/2( sin θ)

Now the slit can be divided into four equal sections and the pairing of sources to give destructive interference
can be repeated for the top two sections, which is identical to the result of pairing off matching sources in the
bottom two sections. In the case, we obtain for a minimum (since every pair of waves we consider will
destructively interfere due to our choice of geometry and pairing), to give

λ/2 = a/4 sinθ

We can then divide the slit aperture into six equal sections, and pair off sources in the top two divisions, then
the middle two divisions, and then the bottom two, to give destructive interference for every matched pair.
The minima of intensity are obtained at angles nλ=asinθ where n is an integer (1,2,...), but not n=0. There
is a maximum of intensity in the centre of the pattern. This process only gives the positions of the minima,
does not work for positions of the maxima, and so does not give the intensities of the maxima.

These results lead to the diffraction pattern minima shown below, which can be represented as a graph of
intensity of the diffracted wave against angle

6. Explain Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit and explain the intensity distribution.
Fraunhofer diffraction by a double slit:Young's Double Slits
Two narrow slits are placed a distance d from each other and light from a coherent source is shone through
them onto a distant screen, forming a specific diffraction pattern known as Young's fringes. This setup is often
used to determine the wavelength of light. A graph of the pattern is shown below.

Figure 6: Double slit diffraction pattern

For any angle θ, the path difference between the parallel rays being emitted by the two slits is d sinθ.

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For a maximum to appear in the pattern (a bright band on a distant screen) the two waves must be exactly in
phase at that point, so the path difference must be d sin θ = n λ where ,λ is the wavelength and n = 0, 1, 2 etc

Figure 7: Waves travelling at an angle θ from the two slits

Note that the single slit derivation predicts the minima of intensity at n=1,2, etc. whereas for the double
slit, n=0 is included and the prediction is for the maxima of intensity.

In the small angle approximation, sinθ ≈ x/L where x is the fringe separation between two adjacent
maxima and L is the distance from the slits to the screen.

This gives an approximate formula for the wavelength of light in terms of slit width d and the previous
variables: λ = xd/L

Figure 8: The light beam shows the position of the first maximum in the diffraction
pattern. Thus x is the fringe spacing and L is the distance to the screen.

Diffraction gratings
Diffraction gratings are formed by large numbers of equally spaced slits or lines that diffract the light falling
on them. The path difference between two adjacent slits is the same as in the double slit case, x=d sinθ. So
the condition for a maximum remains the same. dsin θ = n λ

Figure 9: Light passing through

a diffraction grating.

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A large number of equally spaced parallel slits drawn on glass plate is called a diffraction grating. It is a
transparent glass plate whose surface is drawn very thin parallel lines with diamond edge to form diffraction
pattern. Each line on surface of grating works as opaque space and the space between them as a slit to form
diffraction. The light incident on grating surface, diffracted with mutual interference effect occurs and discrete
intensities are formed as diffraction orders.
When a wave front of light wavelength λ is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through slits and
obstructed by opaque space to form diffraction and is called diffraction intensity. If ‘a’ be the width of each
slit and ‘b’ be the distance between slits then (a+b) represents the grating element. The relationship between
grating element and the angles of diffracted beams of light is called grating equation and is given by (a+b) Sin
θ= ±nλ, where n=0,1,2,3……
Let us now see, what happens if white light (comprising many wavelengths) falls on a grating. The resultant
intensity distribution on the screen will be due to all the wavelengths. The conditions for central principal
maxima (θ=0) will be satisfied by all the wavelengths simultaneously and hence a white slit will appear at the
centers. This distribution of all colors in order on either side is called spectrums. The order of spectrum is
representation by n and measuring diffraction angle of respective color the wavelength of light is determined.
If N be the number of lines per 1 cm width then N (a+b) =1
a+b = 1/N
Thus grating equation becomes, (Sin θ)/N = ±nλ
Therefore, the wavelength of light λ = (Sin θ)/Nn From the above equation and using spectrometer, the
wavelength of light can be determined.
Engineering Applications of diffraction
1. Crystal structural study by X-Ray diffraction. 2. The study of reconstruction of hologram. 3. In design of
holographic memory would greatly extend the capabilities of computer memory systems diffraction is used. 4.
Wavelength of light source by using diffraction method. 5. Study design of 3D images as molecular
structures.
Assignment Questions

1. What are the differences between interference and diffraction?

2. What are the types of diffraction and give differences between them.
3. What is meant by diffraction of light and explain Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.
4. Give the theory of Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit. Using this obtain intensity
distribution curve.
5. Explain with the necessary theory of Fraunhofer diffraction due to n slits.
6. What is resolving power? Derive the expression for resolving power of grating.
7. Explain the determination of wavelength of light by a diffraction grating.
8. What are the applications of diffraction?
9. Explain dispersive power of a grating

Problems

1. How many orders will be visible, if the wave length of light is 5000 A0. Given that the
number of lines per centimeter on the grating is 6655 (Ans: 3)
2. Show that the grating with 500 lines / cm cannot give a spectrum in the 4th order for
the light of wavelength 5890A0.
3. A plane transmission grating having 4250 lines per cm is illuminated with sodium light
normally. In second order spectrum the spectral lines are divided by 300 are observed. Find
the wavelength of the spectral line. (Ans: λ = 5882 A0)
4. A diffraction grating having 4000 lines / cm is illuminated normally by light of wavelength
5000A0. Calculate its resolving power in the third order spectrum. (Ans: 1mm, 2mm)

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Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics
5. A grating has 6000 lines/cm. Find the angular separation b/w two wave lengths 500 mm
and 510 mm in the 3rd order. (Ans: dθ = 2.48 )
0

6. Find the highest order that can be seen with a grating having 15000 lines / inches. The
wave length of the light used is 600 mm. (Ans: 2)
7. A plane transmission grating having 6000 lines / cm is used to obtain a spectrum of
light from a sodium lamp in the second order. Calculate the angular separation between
two sodium lines D1 and D2 of wave length 5890A0 and 5896 A0. (dθ = 0.060)
Objective Questions

1. When white light is incident on a diffraction grating, the light that will be deviated more
from central image will be
a. Yellow b. Violet c. Indigo d. Red

2. The diffraction phenomenon is

a. Bending of light around an obstacle b. rectilinear propagation of light
c. Oscillation of light wave in one direction d. None of them

3. To find prominent diffraction, the size of the diffracting objects should be

a. Greater than the wavelength of light used b. Of the order of wavelength of light
c. Less than the wavelength of light d. None of them

4. In Fresnel diffraction
a. Source of light is kept at infinite distance from the aperture
b. Source of light is kept at finite distance from the aperture
c. Convex lens is used
d. Aperture width is selected so that, it can act as a point source.

5. In Fraunhofer diffraction, the incident wave front should be

a. Elliptical b. Plane c. Spherical d. Cylindrical

6. Significant diffraction of X-rays can be obtained

a. By a single slit b. By a double slit
c. By a diffraction d. By an atomic crystal

7. Rising and setting sun appears to be reddish because

a. Diffraction sends red rays to the earth at these times
b. Scattering due to dust particles and air molecules is responsible for this effect
c. Refraction is responsible for this effect
d. Polarization is responsible for this effect

8. The penetration of waves into the regions of the geometrical shadow is

a. Interference b. Diffraction c. Polarization d. Dispersion

9. In a single slit experiment if the slit width is reduced

a. The fringes become brighter b. The fringes becomes narrower
c. The fringes become wider d. The colour of the fringes changes

10. In diffraction due to double slit we observe

a. Wider interference fringes and narrower diffraction bands
b. Interference and diffraction fringes of equal width
c. Wider diffraction bands and within that narrower interference fringes
d. Diffraction pattern due to both the slits independently
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11. In double slit diffraction if the width of the slit is equal to the spacing between the slits
then
a. Even order interference maxima will be missing
b. All interference maxima will be present
c. All interference maxima will be missing
d. Diffraction fringes & interference fringes exactly coincide and hence totally disappear.

12. A parallel beam of mono chromatic light falls normally on a plane diffraction grating
having 5000 lines/cm. A second order spectral line is diffracted through an angle of 300.
The wavelength of light is
a. 5x10-7cm b. 5x10-6cm c. 5x10-5cm d. 5x10-4cm

POLARIZATION

Introduction

Interference and diffraction can be explained by means of wave nature of light. But these two phenomena could
not reveal the nature of light whether it is longitudinal or transverse. Light is an electromagnetic wave with
electric field and magnetic field vectors perpendicular to each other and vibrating perpendicular to the direction
of propagation. Depending on the way that the electric fields in light waves oscillate, we classify waves
into polarized and unpolarized light.

UNPOLARIZED LIGHT

The ordinary light is also an unpolarized light. Sunlight, or light emitted by a filament lamp, are unpolarized.
This means that the oscillations of light waves are not all in a single direction. Hence ordinary light is
symmetrical about its direction of propagation and it is represented by a star as shown in figure.

Light may be polarized by passing it through a sheet of commercial material called Polaroid, invented by E.H.
Land in 1938. A sheet of Polaroid transmits only the component of light polarized along a particular direction
and absorbs the component perpendicular to that direction.

POLARIZED LIGHT

Polarization: It is the phenomenon in which waves of light or other

radiation are restricted in one direction of vibration.

Polarized light is considered as a light waves that have vibrations take

place in a single direction. Typically, when we consider the direction of oscillations, we consider the direction
of oscillation of the electric field. The electric field of the unpolarized light moves in all directions.
For polarized light, the x– and y– components of the electric field have a
constant phase difference between them.

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In natural light, millions of transverse vibrations occur in all the directions perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.

TYPES OF POLARIZED LIGHT

1. Plane Polarized Light

If the vibrations of electric filed are confined to single plane, the light is
said to be plane polarized. If the direction of vibrations is parallel to plane
of the paper then it is represented by straight line arrows as shown (a). The
plane polarized light is called vertical linear polarization. If the directions of vibrations are perpendicular to the
plane of paper, it is represented by a dot as shown in fig (b). It is called
horizontal liner polarization.

2. Circularly Polarized Light

The electric field of light consists of two light waves of equal magnitudes,
𝜋
vibrating perpendicular to each other, having phase difference 2 but rotates
about the direction of propagation such that it sweeps a circular helix in the
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, then light is said to be
circularly polarized.

3. Elliptically Polarized Light

The electric field of light consists of two light waves of unequal magnitudes,
𝜋
vibrating perpendicular to each other, having phase difference 2 but rotates about
the direction of propagation such that it sweeps an ellipse in the plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, then light is said to be elliptically
polarized.

Production of plane polarized light:

Some of the methods for the production of plane polarized light are

1. Reflection, 2. Refraction, 3. Double refraction 4. Selective absorption in crystals and 5. Scattering.

Optic axis : • An imaginary line passing through one of the blunt corners and making equal angles with all the
three faces is called optic axis.
• Optic axis is not only an imaginary line but it is a direction.
• Any line parallel to optic axis also acts as optic axis.
• it represents a direction that there is no birefringence phenomenon when a light travels along this direction
Principle Section: A Plane which contains the optic axis and is perpendicular to two opposite faces is called a principle
section. Crystal having one optic axis are called uniaxial crystal. Eg: quartz and calcite. Crystal having two optics axis
are called biaxial crystal. Eg: mica

Double refraction (Birefringence) The phenomenon of getting two refracted beams instead of the one
refracted beam as in the case of glass, when a beam of monochromatic light is allowed to pass through a
calcite or quartz crystal, is called double refraction or birefringence.

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When an illuminated pin hole is observed through a calcite crystal, two images are seen. If the crystal is
rotated about the incident ray as axis, it is found that one of the images remains stationary while the other
rotates round the stationary image. The stationary image is known as ordinary image while the other is known
as extra ordinary image. The ray giving rise to the ordinary image is called the ordinary ray and the ray giving
rise to the extra ordinary image is called extra ordinary ray.

The ordinary ray obeys laws of refraction while the extra ordinary ray does not. The refractive index of a
doubly refracting crystal is a constant with respect to the ordinary ray. The refractive index of the crystal with
respect to the extraordinary ray varies with the angle of incidence. There is one direction, called the optic axis,
along which the ordinary and extraordinary rays have the same speed, corresponding to the direction for
which vo = ve. The difference in speed for the two rays is a maximum in the direction perpendicular to the
optic axis.

It has been found that both ordinary and extra ordinary rays are plane polarized with their vibrations being at
right angles to each other. Uniaxial crystals have one refractive index for light polarized along the optic axis
(µe) and another for light polarized in either of the two directions perpendicular to it (µo). Light polarized
along the optic axis is called the extraordinary ray, and light polarized perpendicular to it is called the ordinary
ray. These polarization directions are the crystal “principal axes”.

For a calcite crystal, ve is greater than vo. Therefore, µo is greater than µe. µe=1.486, µo=1.658

For a quartz crystal, vo is greater than ve. Therefore, µe is greater than µo. µe=1.553, µo=1.544

Nicol’s Prism
Polarizing prisms exploit the phenomenon of double refraction in uniaxial crystals to produce polarized light.
William Nicol developed the first polarizing prism, called the Nicol prism.

When a beam of light is transmitted through a calcite crystal, it breaks up into two rays: (1) the ordinary ray
which has its vibrations perpendicular to the principal section of the crystal and (2) the extraordinary ray
which has its vibrations parallel to the principal section. The nicol prism is made in such a way that it
eliminates one of the two rays by total internal reflection. It is generally found that the ordinary ray is
eliminated and, only the extraordinary ray is transmitted through the prism. So, it is an optical device made
from a calcite for producing and analyzing in the form of ordinary and extraordinary plane polarized lights is
called nicol prism.

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Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics
Construction and working of Nicol prism:

Let a calcite crystal with principle section ABCD whose length 3 times with breadth as shown in fig. The end
faces of AD and BC of the crystal are ground in such way that they make angles of 680 and 1120 in the
principle axis instead of 710 and 1090 .The crystal cut into two parts along AC corners and well polish the
faces. Now the two parts are pasted with Canada balsam as a single crystal. The Canada balsam has refractive
index lies between ordinary and extra-ordinary rays, so it works as rarer and denser medium to fulfill total
internal reflection. [Canada balsam whose index of refraction n= 1.55 lies between the indices no=1.6583 and
ne=1.4864 of calcite].

When unpolarized light enters the crystal it splits into ordinary and extra-ordinary rays. The ordinary ray
going from calcite to Canada balsam it feels as optically denser medium to rarer medium. As the length of
crystal is sufficient the ordinary ray has incident angle at Canada balsam is greater than critical angle then it
under goes total internal reflection and emerged Figure: Nicol's prism. along the side of BC as a polarized o-
ray and which eliminates e-ray. On the other, the extraordinary ray travels through Canada balsam and crystal
as a polarized light emerged at the side of CD.

Nicol’s prism as Analyzer and Polarizer:

In order to produce and analyse the plane polarised light, we have to arrange two nicol prisms. When a beam
of unpolarised light is incident on the Nicol prism, emergent beam from the prism is obtained as plane
polarised, and which has vibrations parallel to the principal section. This prism is therefore known as
polariser. If this polarised beam falls on another parallel Nicol prism N2, whose principal section is parallel to
that of N1, then the incident beam will behave as E-ray inside the Nicol prism N2 and gets completely
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transmitted through it. This way the intensity of emergent light will be maximum. Now the Nicol prism N2 is
rotated about its axis, then the intensity of emerging light decreases and becomes zero at 90° rotation of the
second prism. In this position, the vibrations of E-ray become perpendicular to the principal section of the
analyzer (Nicol prism N2). Hence, this ray behaves as O-ray for prism N2 and it is totally internally reflected
by Canada balsam layer. This fact can be used for detecting the plane polarized light and the Nicol prism N2
acts as an analyzer. If the Nicol prism N2 is further rotated about its axis, the intensity of the light emerging
from it increases and becomes maximum for the position when principal section of N2 is again parallel to that
of N1. Hence, the Nicol prisms N1 and N2 acts as polariser and analyser, respectively .

Engineering Applications of Polarization:

1. To differentiate longitudinal and transverse nature

2. As sun glasses to cut off unwanted reflected light

3. Frequently exploited using Polaroid microscope to identify minerals

4. Polarization is used in infrared spectroscopy

5. Polarization of cosmic microwave background is being used to study the physics of early universe

6. Polarization is used to make 3D films and 3D Polaroid glasses are also to effects

7. All radio transmitting and receiving antennas and RADARs are intrinsically polarized

8. In engineering, the character of polarization is useful to study differences between stress and strain

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Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics

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Applied Physics Study Material Unit-II-PartII-Wave Optics

KHIT Applied Physics Lab

Manual

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