LIST OF FIGURES Figure no. Caption Page no.

3.3 Types of welds 68

3.4 Basic Welding Methods 70
Figure no. Caption Page no.
Unit 1: Cutting fluids, lubricants and lathe operations 1 - 22 3.5 Types of flames used in welding 71

1.1 Early tree lathe 7 3.6 Circuit used in electric arc welding 73

1.2 The early manual wheel lathe 7 3.7 View of the arc welding with a coated electrode 74

The early motorised lathe 3.8 Requirements for Electric Arc Welding 80
1.3 7
Basic parts of a lathe machine 3.9 Shielded Metal Arc Welding 81
1.4 9
1.5 Common lathe operations 14 3.10 Various oscillating motions of Electrode Tip 82

Common single point cutting tools for lathe 3.11 Multipass Arc Welding 83
1.6 16
3.12 Submerged Arc Welding 85
Unit 2: Broaching and drilling operations 23 -61 3.13 TIG Welding 86
2.1 (a) Broaching Tool (b) A broaching machine with a broaching tool 25 3.14 MIG Welding 89
2.2 Broaching Operation Types 26 3.15 MIG Setup 90
2.3 Internal and External shapes produced by Broaching 26 3.16 Resistance Welding 92
2.4 Types of Broaching machines 27 3.17 Resistance Spot Welding 94
2.5 Internal Broaching 28 3.18 Rocker-Arm Spot Welding Machine 96
2.6 (a) Vertical surface broaching (b) Continuous surface broaching 30 3.19 Press Spot Welding Machine 96
2.7 Elements of a broach tool 30 3.20 Resistance Seam Welding 97
2.8 Teeth details of a broach tool 31 3.21 Resistance Projection Welding 98
2.9 Drilling tool and the operation 32 3.22 Welding Zones 99
2.10 Nomenclature of a drilling tool and details 33 3.23 Welding Defects 100
2.11 Block diagram of a drill press 36 3.24 Undercut 102
2.12 Feeding arrangement of a drill press 37 3.25 Brazing/Soldering 103
2.13 Non-adjustable multi-spindle machine of a drill press 38 3.26 Brazing Joints 103
2.14 Adjustable multi-spindle machine drill press 39 3.27 Brazing Joints Types 104
2.15 Turret drilling press 39 3.28 Types of Milling Operations 110
2.16 Radial drilling machine 41 3.29 Up and Down Milling 111
2.17 Unit build drilling machine 42 3.30 Plain Column and Knee Type Milling Machines 113
2.18 Drilling and allied operations 43 3.31 Vertical Milling Machine 115
2.19 Common reamer types in use 50 3.32 Duplex Bed Type Milling Machine 116
3.33 Drum Type Milling Machine 116
Unit 3: Welding-brazing-soldering & milling operations 62 - 152 3.34 Plain Milling Cutters 119
3.1 History of welding 65 3.35 Milling Cutters 119
3.2 Basic Welded Joints 67 3.36 Milling Operations 120

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Figure no. Caption Page no. Figure no. Caption Page no.
3.37 Progressive Milling 122 4.25 Production of straight toothed spur (a) forming (b) generation 174
3.38 Indexing Mechanism of Dividing Head 123 4.26 Generation of tooth of spiral and hypoid bevel gear 174
3.39 Dividing Indexing 124 4.27 Electrical discharge machining (EDM) 175
3.40 Differential Indexing 128 4.28 Gear geometry made using 3D printing 176
3.41 Tool Signature of a Plain Milling Cutter 130 4.29 Gear Shaper 177
4.30 Gear cutting in a Planer 178
Unit 4: Gear making and press working operations 153 -236 4.31 Sunderland process 178
4.1 Various gears in usages 156 4.32 Gear hobbing process 179
4.2 (a) Plastic moulded gears (b) Gears used in a toy train 157 4.33 Gear Hobbing of Helical Gear 180
4.3 Sintered Iron gears 158 4.34 Gear form cutting by Planning 180
4.4 Gears used in small mechanism 158 4.35 Gear form cutting by Shaping 181
4.5 Spur gear Nomenclature 159 4.36 Gear form cutting by Slotting 181
4.6 Methods of Gear Manufacturing 161 4.37 Process of Gear Hobbing 182
4.7 Common type of casting for Gears 162 4.38 Cutting teeth of Gear shaving 182
4.8 Casting large gears 162 4.39 Gear shaving Cutters 186
4.9 Investment casting of Gears 164 4.40 Gear teeth finishing by Grinding 187
4.10 Moulding of Gears 165 4.41 Gear teeth grinding on Generation principle 187
4.11 Stamping of gears 165 4.42 History of Press working ((a) hammer type (b) rocker type 191
4.12 Blanking of Gears 166 4.43 Typical Press type (a) Manual (b) Power and (c) Hydraulic Press 192
4.13 Coining of Gears 166 4.44 Types of Presses (a) mechanical (b) hydraulic (c) power 193
4.14 Extrusion of gears 166 4.45 Typical frame designs used for power presses 195
4.15 Rolled gears 166 4.46 Die &Punch as a Die set 201
4.16 Rolling of gears by flat rolling or stepped rolling 168 4.47 Different ways of Holding a punch 202
4.17 Gear manufacturing steps by powder metallurgy 169 4.48 Accessories of a Die set 203
4.18 Forging of a Gear 169 4.49 Machine Blanking, Punching, and Piercing Operations 206
4.19 Gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine 170 4.50 The Role of die clearance across the crack path 207
4.20 Producing teeth by (a)disc type end mill (b)single helix (c)double 171 4.51 The Role of Die clearance across the edge of die and punch 211
helix
4.52 The Role of die clearance on Elastic recovery of Blanking 212
4.21 Faster production of teeth on spur gear 171
4.53 Difference between Blanking and Piercing 215
4.22 External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter (Sunderland 172
4.54 Die & Mold tooling in Blanking operation 216
method)
4.55 Forces in Blanking operation in beginning and during the process 216
4.23 Gear teeth generation by gear shaping (a) external spur (b) internal 173
spur 4.56 Force analysis on Blanking operation in beginning and during the 217
process
4.24 Gear generation by hobbing (a) straight tooth (b) helical tooth (c) 173
worm 4.57 Blanking stress analysis during elastic stage deformation 217
4.58 Blanking stress analysis during plastic stage deformation 218
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Figure no. Caption Page no. Figure no. Caption Page no.
4.59 Blanking stress analysis during fragmentation stage deformation 219 5.28 Vertical honing machine 291
4.60 Blanking stress analysis during fragmentation stage deformation 219 5.29 Buffing 291
4.61 The deformation cutting edges location of spindle section 220 5.30 Barrel tumbling 293
4.62 Quality of Blanking parts (a) zone and (b) the bright band 220 5.31 Barrel rolling 293
4.63 Quality of the burrs generated 221 5.32 Supper finishing 294
5.33 Roller burnishing 296
Unit 5:- Grinding and finishing operations 237 - 340 5.34 Electroplating process 298
5.1 Grinding process 240 5.35 Electroplating of copper 299
5.2 Hardness of some of the hardest abrasives 242 5.36 Flame powder spraying diagram 308
5.3 Grinding wheel and workpiece interaction 243 5.37 Flame wire spraying diagram 309
5.4 Grinding chip formation geometry (a) and one chip geometry (b) 244 5.38 Flame rod spraying 310
5.5 Types of grinding wheels 254 5.39 HVOF flame spraying diagram 310
5.6 External cylindrical grinding machine 261 5.40 Arc spraying diagram 311
5.7 Methods of cylindrical grinding 262 5.41 Schematic diagram of the detonation thermal spray process 312
5.8 Internal grinding 263
5.9 External centreless grinding 265
5.10 Internal centreless grinding 267
5.11 Surface grinding methods 267
5.12 Form grinding 270
5.13 Grinding of gear teeth 270
5.14 Cam grinding 270
5.15 Universal tool and cutter grinder 271
5.16 Abrasive belt grinding 274
5.17 Grinding points 275
5.18 Shapes of grinding segments 275
5.19 Abrasive sticks 276
5.20 Mounting of grinding wheel 277
5.21 Satic balancing device 277
5.22 Process diagram showing manufacturing of a grinding wheel 282
5.23 Profile of surface irregularitie 283
5.24 Surface roughness 284
5.25 External lap 288
5.26 Machine lapping 288
5.27 Vertical spindle honing machine 289

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LIST OF TABLES
Table no. Caption Page no. Cutting fluids, lubricants and lathe machine operations

Unit 1-Cutting fluids, lubricants and lathe operations Introduction; Types of cutting fluids, Fluids and coolants required in turning, drilling, shaping,

1.1 Types of cutting fluids 3 sawing & broaching; Selection of cutting fluids, methods of application of cutting fluid;
Classification of lubricants (solid, liquid, gaseous), Properties and applications of lubricants.
1.2 Usages of cutting fluids 4

1.3 Types of lathes 7

Lathe Operations: Types of lathes- light duty, Medium duty and heavy duty geared lathe, CNC
1.4 Parts of a lathe and their function 9 lathe; Specifications; Basic parts and their functions; Operations and tools- Turning, parting off,
1.5 Descriptions of lathe operations and schematic figure 14 Knurling, facing, Boring, drilling, threading, step turning, taper turning.

Unit 2 - Broaching and Drilling operations

Unit Specific / Learning Objectives
2.1 List of drill type options for different applications 44
 To introduce significance, advantages, properties and applications of cutting fluids, coolants
2.2 Different types of drill bits in use 45
and lubricants in machining
Unit 3 - Welding-Brazing-soldering and Milling operations
 To introduce the machines for machining such as lathe for different operations
3.1 Types of Welding 74  To understand the significance of various types of lathe operations and parts of a lathe
3.2 Equipment for TIG welding 87 machine
3.3 Brazing Materials 105
Additionally, few fundamental questions for self-assessment based on the unit contents are also
3.4 Parameters of a milling cutter and their role 131
included in this unit in form of recall, application, comprehension, analysis, synthesis and videos.
Unit 4 - Gear making and Press working operations There are further suggested readings and reference for reader’s assistance.
4.1 Common terms related to gears 159
Rationale
4.2 Gear Specifications 189
Essence of Engineering and Technology is to make human life more comfortable on the earth.
4.3 Press operations 200
Various needs of individual are fulfilled by converting natural resources into useful products.
4.4 Recommended die clearance 206
These transformation of natural resources into products require machines and manufacturing
Unit 5 - Grinding and finishing operations processes like conventional and unconventional in optimal ways at economical cost. Few
5.1 Grain types and their propertie 243 commonly used conventional method of shaping are casting, machining, welding, forming etc.
5.2 Surface speeds of grinding wheel 256 Popular unconventional methods are electrocheemical machining (ECM), ultrasonic machining
(USM), electrical discharge machining (EDM), 3D printing (give full form of all these) etc.
5.3 Typical range of surface finish, ra value in µm 284
Conventional methods (as well as unconventional methods) are used based on subtractive
5.4 Common metals for electroplating 301
manufacturing methods while Additive manufacturing process or 3D printing works on deposition
of materials to build shapes. Various machine tools like Lathe, Drilling, Milling, Planning,
Shaping etc. are used in subtractive processes where the materials are removed by machining
work-pieces. Machining methods are used to do job work on a machine tool with proper cutting
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fluids and lubricants. The essential application of a machine tool, like Lathe is for product 1.1 Introduction
development and assembly of components.
Cutting fluids are liquid emulsion mixtures used in cutting operations during metal-working and
machining procedures. Cutting fluids can be either gaseous or liquid in nature. It's possible to
Pre-requisites
machine metals or non-metals via milling, turning, drilling processes etc. A cutting fluid may
Basic mechanical engineering and mechanics
occasionally serve as a coolant when it cools the machinery, the cutting tool, and the work piece.
The primary function of cutting fluid is to remove heat generated during metal cutting and other
Learning outcomes
machining operations. It also acts as a lubricant to improve cutting conditions and lengthen the
U1-O1: Ability to choose suitable cutting fluid and lubrication for machining operations life of the cutting tool. A cutting fluid lessens resistance between the tool and the chip and the
U1-O2: Ability to choose suitable machine tool for machining operations work piece. Heat can be eliminated as soon as it is produced if the proper amount of cutting fluid
U1-O3: Ability to choose suitable cutting operations and tools is used. Therefore, reducing fluid usage is required to boost production effectiveness. Cutting
U1-O4: Ability to choose suitable cutting conditions and parameters (revolution per minute fluids can be applied in a variety of ways, including floods, fluid jets, mist spraying, etc. The key
(RPM), depth of cut, and feed rate) difference between cutting fluid and lubricant is that cutting fluids can lubricate the interface
U1-O5: Ability to predict the behavior of machined work piece and its dimensions between the cutting tool’s cutting edge and the chip, whereas lubricants can lubricate between
hard materials by reducing the friction between the objects. Cutting fluids are substances that can
Course objectives
act as both coolants and lubricants.
 To understand the importance of cutting fluids & lubricants in machining process.

 To study and recognise various types of Lathe machine, their parts the operations. Table 1.1: Types of cutting fluids

 To be able to select, operate and control the appropriate lathe operations for specific Cutting fluids Descriptions

applications Straight Oil Straight oils are non-emulsifying and are used without diluting them with water.
The compositions of such type of oil have base minerals or petroleum oil. For
Mapping of learning outcomes and course objectives examples, paraffin oil, Naphthlenic oil, vegetable oil are straight oils. In cases where
environmentally friendly oil is required, vegetable oil is used because it is
EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
Unit-1 biodegradable. Straight oils are best for lubricating, but they cannot serve as a good
(1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes coolant because they have very cool properties.
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U1-O1 1 2 3 Cutting Oil Cutting oil is made by mixing minerals oil and fatty oil. It is used as both as a coolant
U1-O2 1 2 3 and as a lubricant.
U1-O3 1 2 3
Soluble Oil These are made by mixing mineral oil, water, & coupling agents to provide good
U1-O4 1 2 3
1 2 3 lubrication between water-inaccurate liquids. Soluble oils are used in the machining
U1-O5
of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals when high cooling quality is required & chip
bearing capacity is not very high. Soluble oils are the most widely used and they are
very cheap.
Mineral Oil These oils are typically found in high production machines that have high metal
removal rates and cutting operations. A disadvantage of these oils is that they are
corrosives and therefore are not used for copper or its alloys.
Synthetic liquids Synthetic liquids, do not contain mineral oil or petroleum, these are water-based

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Cutting fluids Descriptions Application as escriptions

liquids, and water provides very good cooling properties. Corrosion can be uneven bites.
prevented by adding corrosion inhibitors to synthetic liquids. Typically, synthetic Others By shielding the freshly created surface from oxidation and corrosion, it is
fluids are used in grinding operation. utilized to enhance the surface's polish. It serves to stop rust. Higher cutting
Semi-synthetic Synthetic fluid and soluble oils are combined to create semi-synthetic fluid. About speeds and greater rates of metal removal are now possible. It stops built-up
fluids 5 to 20 percent of mineral oil is released with water in semi-synthetic liquids to edges (BUE) from forming.
cause micro abrasion. Microalgae particles, which range in size from 0.01 to 0.1
mm, are easily able to transmit all light. Semi-synthetic fluids are particularly 1.1.3 Selection of cutting fluid
effective in cooling and are priced halfway between synthetic and soluble fluids.
The choice of cutting fluid in machining processes depends on various factors such as:
Molybdenum disulfides, graphite, wax sticks, etc. are a few examples.
Solid and paste These lubricants come in paste or solid form. Direct application of these lubricants
[Link] Types of machining process
lubricants to the tool or workpiece is required. Examples of this include wax sticks, graphite,
and molybdenum disulphide. Typically, more difficult machining processes utilizes more cutting fluids. Heavy cutting oil is
required for heavy machining processes such as broaching or screwing with a tap. Heavy cutting
1.1.1 Types of cutting fluids oils should be used in horizontal broaching, but in the vertical broaching process, emulsions and
Cutting fluids may be classified as oil, oil-water emission, pastes, gels, etc. The cutting fluid may solutions may be used. For the threading and drilling process, the cooling characteristics of
be referred to as the cutting fluid, cutting oil, coolant, or lubricant, depending on the type of cutting cuttings fluids are more important.
fluid and its application. Cutting fluids is beneficial for most metal and machining processes.
[Link] Type of workpiece material
Table 1.1 lists such cutting fluids with descriptions.
The next factor for the selection of cuttings fluids is the workpiece material. The cast iron and
1.1.2 Uses of cutting fluids cast group of materials are brittle during machining, and therefore small chips are produced that
The cutting fluid can be used for different purposes. Some of its uses are listed below in Table do not cause too much friction. Therefore, emulsion should be used as it increases the surface
1.2. finish, and the concentration should be kept between 10 and 15 percent. For steel and stainless-
Table 1.2: Usages of cutting fluids steel work piece materials, high-pressure cutting oils should be used. For machining of steel alloys,
water-based cutting fluids are used because they are heat resistant & difficult to cut.
Application as escriptions
Coolant The main task for which the fluid was discovered is to cool the equipment
[Link] Type of cutting tool material
and work piece. By cooling the equipment and work piece, we can reduce
tool wear, thermal expansion of the tool, and a good surface finish. Another factor for the selection of cutting tool materials is cutting tool material. High-speed steel

Lubricant Cutting fluids are also used for lubrication for reducing friction between tool cuttings tools can be used with any type of cutting tool, but when the material is difficult to cut,

chip interface, which keeps the cutting forces down and also reduces heat the waterless cutting liquid is used with the HSS cutting tool. For tungsten carbides, the cooling

generation. By cutting fluid flow, chips and other contaminants can be easily characteristics of cutting fluids are more important because higher heat is produced when it is

removed from the work piece. used as a cutting tool material.

Cleaning the Cutting fluids are also used as a cleansing agent and remove chips, dust near
machining area and inside the cutting area. This is important because chips, dust can cause

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1.1.4 Quality of a good cutting fluids

Cutting fluid should have good chemical properties. It should be chemically neutral and should
not harm the machine and operator. It must have high specific heat or high heat-absorbing ability
to disperse the heat generated during machining. It should be transparent so that the operators can
easily go through it in the cutting area. It should have good lubricating properties so that it reduces
friction during machining. It should be nontoxic when it comes in contact with heating and should
not create any toxic fumes. It should be odorless and should not cause any odor at high
Figure 1.1: Early tree lathe [8]
temperatures. It should have low viscosity so that it can flow easily over the work piece. It should
be non-corrosive for work pieces and machines. It should not glue parts of the machine. It should
have small molecular sizes to allow it to penetrate the chip tool interface and spread rapidly. It
should have a high flash point & should not burn due to heat generated during machining.

1.2 Lathe operations

Lathe is the oldest machine tool, stemming from the early tree lathe (Figure 1.1), which was
turned by a rope passing around the work-piece a few times and attaching to springy branch
overhead. The work was supported by two dowels stuck in adjacent trees. Operator foot supplied Figure 1.2: The early manual wheel lathe [9]
the motion, which was fluctuating. The tool was held in the operator’s hand. From this crude
lathe over a period of more than two centuries, the modern engine lathe has evolved. Until about
1770, lathes were useless for metal cutting because it lacked power and a holding torque enough
for accurately guide the tool and later Henery Mauldsley, developed the sliding carriage and in
1800 build a true cutting lathe. Later (Fig. 1.2) early manually operated wheel lathe was
developed and motorised Lathe (Fig. 1.3) became base for next generation of Lathe. Now Lathe
has become general purpose machine tool, employed in production and repair work permitting
large variety of operations to be performed on it. Work piece material from a rotating work is
removed in the form of chips with help of a single point cutting tool which can be fed deep
(meaning is not clear). The cutting tool is harder than the work piece and it is held securely and
rigidly on the machine that may be given any direction.

Figure 1.3: The early motorised lathe [10]

1.2.1 Types of lathe Machines

There are basically five types of Lathes as: Light duty, medium duty, Heavy duty, Geared lathe
and CNC lathe. The differences may be seen as given below in Table 1.3.

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 Spindle speeds range, spindle nose type, spindle bore, taper in nose.
Table 1.3: Types of lathes
 Metric thread pitches, Lead screw pitch, longitudinal feeds, cross feeds.
Types Description  Motor horse power and RPM, Shipping dimension (length, width, height, weight),
Light duty Lathe A light duty lathe machine is designed for small scale jobs at workshops accessories if any.
and tool rooms. One can easily turn, drill, groove, shape, cut, knurl and
create threads on the harder metal or wooden surfaces by using a light duty 1.2.3 Parts of a lathe and their functions
lathe at a workshop. The lathe machine (Figure 1.4) is an assembly of several parts having different functions. These
Heavy duty lathe A heavy-duty lathe is an efficient tool for crafting different objects. The parts are: bed, guide ways, head stock, spindle, and carriage, saddle, cross slide, compound rest,
machine is designed to handle the toughest shaping jobs in numerous compound slide, tool post, apron, tail stock, chuck, face plate, center, feed shaft, lead screw, legs,
industries and several workshops. It is primarily a user-friendly machine chips pan, hand wheel, speed controller, bull gear and sleeve.
that helps to cast a variety of shapes from wood or metal using easy to use
controls.
Medium duty The medium duty lathe machine is typically used for very accurate and
lathe superior grade machining. This multipurpose equipment is highly durable
and can deliver optimum output using limited resources. It can effectively
process high end solid materials in bulk quantities.
Geared lathe The all-geared lathe machine is mainly used for executing various metal
shaping tasks in different industries. They basically have a gear box with
lead screw and feed shaft that increases its machining capacity.
CNC lathe A CNC lathe machine is a Computer Numerically Controlled machine that
can produce a range of products, from larger items such as automobile
frames and airplane engines to smaller items, such as surgical instruments,
gears and garden tools Operated with Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
systems and provided with precise design instructions. CNC Lathes
are machine tools where the material or part is clamped and rotated by the Figure 1.4: Basic parts of a lathe machine [11]
main spindle, while the cutting tool that work on the material, is mounted
and moved in various axis with help of digital motors (stepper and servo While there are different types of lathes as mentioned above, the function of these parts is listed
motor). below in Table 1.4 to facilitate their operations.

Table 1.4. Parts of a lathe and their functions

1.2.2 Specification of lathe
Parts Function
In order to specify a lathe completely, following specifications should be included such as: Bed The bed is a large horizontal structure or beam that's used to support other parts
 Height of the centers, Type of bed (strait, semi-gap, gap type), centre distance. of a lathe machine tool like the head stock and tail stock. .
 Swing over bed, swing over cross slide, swing in gap, Gap in front of face plate, width of
bed.

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Parts Function Parts Function

 Guideways The main function of the guideway is to make sure that the cutting tool or machine wheel is graduated on its rim to enable to give known amount of feed as accurate
tool operative element moves along a predetermined path. There are two guide as 0.05mm.
ways provided, inner ways and outer ways, which are accurately machined to Compound rest is a part which connects cross slide and compound slide. It is
Compound
make them parallel to the axis. The lathe should take up the various vibrations, mounted on the cross slide by tongue and groove joint. It has a circular base on
rest
which are causing due to different types of force. The guide ways provide sliding which angular graduations are marked. The compound rest can be swiveled to the
surfaces to the carriage and the tail stock. required angle while turning tapers. A top slide known as compound slide is

 Headstock The head stock is clamped on left-hand end of bed. It houses the spindle, speed attached to the compound rest by dove tail joint. The tool post is situated on the
change mechanism, and change gears. The head stock supports one end of the compound slide.
work piece and imparts rotational motion to the work. The tail stock merely The compound slide offers a way to turn tapers and cut angles on a lathe without
Compound
supports the other end of the work piece as it rotates. rotating the head stock. Four mounting holes are in the base for solid positioning
slide
Spindle The head-core stock's is its spindle. "Business end" of a lathe is a lathe spindle. on the cross slide. The base has a red anodized finish with laser engraved angle
From the perspective of the operator, the spindle is often found near the left-hand scales to make setting an angle easily readable.
end of the lathe bed. There are many different configurations and sizes available This can be found atop the compound slide. It serves to firmly hold the tools in
Tool post
for lathe spindles, which are used to cut, shape, and mill metal or wood. The sole place. Tools are chosen based on the type of operation, mounted on the tool post,
function of the spindle is to support and rotate the material being worked on while and then set up in a comfortable working position. Tool posts come in a variety
preventing excessive vibration or flutter. The bits, or cutting tools, can be hand- of varieties, including Single way, Four way, and Quick change. The tool is
held, attached as an accessory, or built into the lathe itself. Therefore, the secured in a single way tool post by a screw. It is made out of a round bar with a
component of the machine that distinguishes it as a lathe is the lathe spindle. slotted hole in the middle for attaching the tool with a setscrew. The height of the
 Carriage The carriage is the part of the lathe which slides over the bed-ways between the tool point is fixed at the ideal height using a concave ring and a convex rocker.
head stock and the tail stock and contains apron, saddle, compound rest, cross The tool fits on the rocker's smooth top surface. Because there is just one clamping
slide and tool post. The lead screw is used to move the carriage automatically screw used to secure the tool, the tool post is not sturdy enough for hard
during threading. It is used to move the carriage from left to right and vice versa. operations. The four open sides of the Four Way Tool Post allow for the

Saddle The saddle is technically part of the carriage featuring an H shape. It is responsible simultaneous use of four tools. Separate screws hold the tools in place, and the
for supporting cross slide movements. It comprised of the cross slide, compound Center also has a locking bolt. By rotating the tool post, the necessary tool can be
rest and took post, as well as the apron, which houses the gear box that controls set up for machining. Because the necessary tools are already set, machining can
feed direction and mode. be finished more quickly.

Cross slide A lathe cross slide serves as a mobile platform for a static tool bit when Apron Apron is attached to the carriage and hangs over the front side of the lathe bed. It
performing facing operations. Cross-slide is situated on the saddle and slides on is useful in providing power and hand feed to both carriage and cross-slide. It is
the dovetail guide ways at right angles to the bed guide ways. It carries compound also used to provide power feed to the carriage during thread cutting through two
rest, compound slide and tool post. Cross slide hand wheel is rotated to move it at half nuts.
right angles to the lathe axis. It can also be power driven. The cross-slide hand On the inner guide ways at the right side of the bed, across from the head stock,
 Tail stock
is where you'll find the tail stock. The tail stock spindle is housed in the drilled

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Parts Function Parts Function

body of the tail stock. Inside the hole, the spindle goes forward and backward.  Chips pan Chip pan is used to collect the chips that are produced during the lathe operation.
The dead Centre or the shanks of tools like drills or reamers can be inserted into It is the wheel that is operated by hand to move a cross slide, carriage, tail stock
the spindle's taper hole. The spindle moves forward when the tail stock hand and other parts that have hand wheel.
wheel is turned clockwise. If the hand wheel is turned counterclockwise, the
Hand wheel A hand wheel allows an operator you to control the lathe machine's linear
spindle will be withdrawn into the hole. When a long work piece is machined movements as it cuts through threaded stock, metal, and other materials. Hand
between the centers and, the tail stock supports the other end. It is handy for wheels have different designs and specifications, which determines how an
holding tools like drills, reamers, and taps. operator use them on their lathe machine.

Chuck The body of the tail stock is bored and houses the tail stock spindle. The spindle This device controls the speed of the motor by directly changing the frequency or
Speed
moves front and back inside the hole. the amplitude. By using the system to that end, there are hardly any heat losses
controller
 Face plate A lathe face plate is a basic work holding accessory for a wood or metal and the speed control provides numerous programs that allow an operator to
turning lathe. It is a circular metal (usually cast iron) plate which fixes to the end operate the machines.
of the lathe spindle. Bull gear (inside the gearbox) is used to refer to the larger of two spur gears that
 Bull gear
Center It is used for accurate positioning of a work piece about its point or axis between are in engagement in any machine. The smaller gear is usually referred to as a
a lathe chuck or head stock spindle and tail stock spindle. Lathe centers ensure pinion. On a lathe a "bull gear" is a gear which allows one to connect the spindle
concentricity of work by enabling the work piece to rotate/revolve. to the drive shaft.

 Feed shaft The feed shaft (rod) is a power transmission mechanism used for precise linear Sleeve The Morse Taper Sleeve is mainly used in lathe machine. Morse taper shank
movement of the carriage along the longitudinal axis of the lathe. The lead screw allows the tool to be inserted directly into the machine spindle to facilitate high-
transmits power from the head stock to the carriage for screw thread cutting torque applications such as large cut diameters.
operations.
1.2.4 Operations and tools
 Lead screw A lengthy threaded shaft known as a lead screw serves as a master screw. During
thread cutting, it is activated to move the carriage a predetermined distance. Lead In order to carry out tasks like cutting, facing, knurling, deformation, and more, a lathe rotates the
screw are typically Acme threaded. Two bearings on the beds face support the object on its axis. Other frequent tasks carried out with a lathe machine include metal working,
lead screw. The phrase "gear on lead screw" refers to a gear that is fastened to the thermal spraying, wood turning, and metal spinning. Turning, facing, grooving, parting off,
lead screw. To engage half nuts with the lead screw, a half nut lever is included facing, threading, drilling, boring, knurling, step turning, taper turning, and tapping are among the
in the apron. most popular lathe operations. The frequently used common lathe operations are shown in Figure
This component sends the machine tool's entire weight to the ground while 1.5. Table 1.5 shows descriptions the operations with their schematic diagrams.
Legs
supporting it, and the foundation bolt firmly fastens it to the floor. Legs on a lathe
are the vertical components that create an elevated working surface. However,
lathes don't use any old legs. Commercial-grade lathes typically have legs that
bolt onto the floor on which they are placed because of their enormous weight.

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feeding it work while turning the drill. The drill bit

tool is utilized in this operation to drill the work piece.
Following drilling, a lathe machine performs other
tasks including tapping, boring, internal threading, etc.
Threading The process of creating a thread form on a cylinder or
cone with a single-point instrument is also known as
single-pointing (or merely thread cutting when the
context is implicit). The tool advances linearly, but the
lead of the thread is determined by the precise rotation
of the work piece.
Figure 1.5: Common lathe operations [12] Step Is a turning procedure that uses a lathe to generate a
turning series of steps with various diameters. It incorporate
Table 1.5: Descriptions of lathe operations and their schematic figures
the cylindrical work piece and securely fasten it into

Operations Descriptions Schematic Figures the chuck.

[13] Taper Is a turning procedure where the cutting tool rotates at
Turning Is a type of machining where a cutting tool, typically
Turning an angle to the work piece’s axis to produce a tapered
a non-rotary tool bit -moves roughly linearly as the
surface in the work piece. A tapered component
work piece rotates, describing a helix tool path.
surface has a uniformly changing diameter from one
Parting off Is a technique that involves employing a unique end to the other. The work piece may have an internal
cutting tool to split metal into two parts. or external taper surface.

Knurling Is a manufacturing process in which a design made of

1.2.5 Common tools used on lathe
straight, angled, or crossed lines is rolled into the
A lathe tool is a tool or piece of equipment used on a lathe machine for various operation of
material. Usually, a lathe machine is used for this.
shaping. Following (Figure 1.6) are the types of lathes cutting tools used in lathe machine namely
Facing The face tool is rotated counterclockwise to remove
Turning tool, Chamfering tool, Thread cutting tool, Internal thread cutting tool, facing tool,
the material as the table feeds the work piece across
grooving tool, Forming tool, Boring tool etc. These are all single point cutting tools.
the cutter.

Boring To make a hole, a boring bar, a specialized tool holder,

is used. It is capable of making deep cuts in the metal.
By counter boring, the hole's end is extended through
a predetermined distance.
Drilling The lathe can be carried out in one of two ways: by
turning the task while guiding the drill into it. By

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UNIT SUMMARY

Cutting fluids and lubricants are lifesaving ingredients for a machine tool. Cutting fluids work as
friction reducer, as coolant and as head remover during machining process. Whereas lubricants as
coating on the matting surfaces of a machine tool for easy smooth motion and flow between
relative moving bodies. All machine tools like Lathe, milling, shaper, planner etc. require
lubrication time to time for various parts of a machine tool. Cutting fluids as mixture of water,
emulsion and oil is necessary for smooth cutting of chips under single point or multipoint cutting
tools. A Lathe machine tool is oldest and versatile machine tool on which all operations can be
done using single point or multipoint cutting tools. Many forming operations like sheet metal
forming, grinding etc. can also be performed on it. Tool life plays an important role in machining
and therefore optimal cutting conditions (depth of cut, feed rate and RPM) is needed with proper
cutting fluids and lubricated slides. A well experience operator of a Lathe machine knows about
Figure 1.6: Common single point cutting tools for lathe [14]
how to cut materials on Lathe with proper conditions so that production of components from the

1.2.6 Safety on lathe machine tool is higher.

All lathe operators must be continually aware of the safety risks connected to lathe use and must EXERCISE
be familiar with all safety measures to prevent mishaps and injuries. Two major threats to human
Multiple choice questions for self-assessment
safety are carelessness and ignorance. Working with the lathe can provide additional risks that are
mechanical in nature, such as safe machine setup and maintenance. When operating lathes, it's 1. Which of the following properties should a cutting fluid possess?
crucial to take the following safety precautions: It's crucial to dress appropriately; take off jewelry
and watch, and roll up one’s sleeves. a) It should have a low flash point.

To make adjustments, the lathe must always be stopped. Till the lathe has come to a complete b) It should have high viscosity.

stop, do not modify the spindle speed. Use caution when handling drills, centres, and sharp cutters.
c) It should have a non-foaming tendency.
Chuck keys and wrenches must be taken out before using. Wear safety glasses at all times. When
installing a chuck, use caution when handling heavy chucks and cover the lathe ways with a block d) It should be stable at low temperature.
of wood. Before using the lathe, be aware of the location of the emergency stop.
2. Soluble oil is the mixture of ____.
Never remove chips and swarf with your hands; instead, use pliers or a brush. Tools should never
be placed directly on the lathe ways. Use a large board with cleats on both sides to lay on the ways a) water
if a separate table is not readily accessible. Maintain the shortest tool overhang possible. Never
b) mineral oil
try to measure a turning piece of work. Never use a file on a lathe without a handle. File if at all
possible left-handed. When filing or grinding, keep the lathe ways safe. When sanding the work c) coupling agents
piece, use two hands. Avoid covering the work piece with emery cloth or sandpaper.
d) All of the above.

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6. Production Technology – R.B. Gupta, Satya Prakashan, New Delhi Publication.

7. Fundamentals of Design & Manufacturing- G K Lal, Vijay Gupta, N. V. Readdy, Narosa
Broaching and Drilling Machines
Publication. House, New Delhi
8. [Link] Broaching Machines: Introduction to broaching; Types of broaching machines- Horizontal type
(Single ram & duplex ram), Vertical type, Pull up, Pull down, and Push down; Elements of broach
9. [Link]
tool; Broach teeth details; Nomenclature; Tool materials.
[Link]
10. Drilling: Classification; Basic parts and their functions; Radial drilling machine; Types of
[Link] operations; Specifications of drilling machine; Types of drills and reamers.
OZjNT1oZxosr9JSr8jRA02dOZn9wZ_Kro6KwRpnW53qtfc&usqp=CAU
11. [Link] Unit Specific / Learning Objective

12. [Link] Objective of this unit in to talk about following aspects

13. [Link]
 To introduce significance of Broaching and Drilling function
mF03WVfYNs/VxderXbLKsI/AAAAAAAAAck/NKY4VkB53P4a7fGd06Rf-
LH4iJorKTLXwCLcB/s1600/[Link]  To learning about the importance of Broaching and Drilling tools and their operations
 To introduce the underlying advantages and applications of Broaching and Drilling
14. [Link]
machines
15. [Link]
 To introduce the Broaching and Reaming operations
VIDEOS  To understand the significance of various types of Broaching, Drilling and Reaming
operations
Cutting fluids
 To learn about Broaching, Drilling and Reaming operations and specifications
[Link]
[Link]
Additionally, few fundamental questions for self-assessment based on the unit contents are also
Lathe work included in this unit in form of recall, application, comprehension, analysis, synthesis and videos.
[Link] There are further suggested readings and reference for reader’s assistance.
[Link]
Rationale

Machining methods are used to convert jobs (raw work pieces) into given shape and sizes on a
machine tool like Lathe, Milling, Broaching, Drilling, Boring, Planning, Grinding, Shaper etc.
Proper tooling and cutting fluids are also selected along with holding and supporting the job on
the machine. Each machine tool performs variety of operations according to the choice of cutting
tools and vision of the mechanic who operates the machine. In this unit, essential part of a machine
tools, like broaching and drilling are discussed for making various types and the operations that
can be made on it including their details and materials used for machining components on these

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machines. Basics classifications of broaching and drilling machines also discussed with exercises. 2.1 Introduction to broaching

A particular instrument having many, progressively higher cutting blades is called a "broach," and
Pre-requisites
it is used to remove metal using the technique called as broaching. A broaching tool's teeth (Fig.
A course on basic Mechanical Engineering and mechanics
2.1a) remove the whole machining allowance in a single motion. Early in the 1850s, crucial ways
in pulleys and gears were first cut using the broaching technique, which dates back to that time.
Learning outcomes
Gun barrels were rifled by broaching following World War I. The history of Broaching Machine
Specialties (BMS) in the machine tool industry is quite extensive. The company was founded in
U2-O1: Ability to choose suitable work-piece for machining jobs on broaching, drilling machines
the 1920s under the name Machinery and Equipment Exchange (MEE), and it became a legal
U2-O2: Ability to choose suitable broaching, drilling machine tools and their cutting tools for
entity in 1946.
machining operation
U2-O3: Ability to choose suitable operations and proper cutting tools for broaching and drilling The method of broaching is distinct from other machining procedures in that the tool's primary
U2-O4: Choose suitable cutting conditions and parameters (RPM, depth of cut and feed rate) for cutting action is the sole motion involved. By progressively embedding the teeth deeper inside
broaching, drilling and reaming operations the tool, the feed is obtained, and each tool edge removes a layer of material (refer Fig 2.1 b).
U2-O5: Ability to predict the behavior of machined work piece and its dimensions after broaching, Along the broach axis, translational cutting is used most frequently. Any cross-sectional shape of
drilling and reaming through hole, straight and helical slot, external surface, external and internal toothed gear, spline,
key way, and rifling may be machined with broaching.
Course Objectives

 To understand the importance of broaching and drilling machining process. Surface broaching refers to removing material from exterior surfaces, whereas internal or hole

 To study and recognise various types of broaching and drilling machines, their parts and broaching refers to removing material from interior surfaces. Figure 2.2 illustrates common

operations. broaching designs used for various tasks. A The size of holes, cutting of serrations, key ways,

 To be able to select, operate and control the appropriate broaching, drilling and reaming straight or helical splines, cannon rifling, etc. are examples of common internal broaching

operations for specific applications operations (Fig. 2.3).

Mapping of learning outcomes and Course Objectives

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-2 Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
U2-O1 1 2 3
U2-O2 2 2 3
U2-O3 1 2 2
U2-O4 1 2 3
U2-O5 1 2 3

Figure 2.1: (a) A broaching tool (b) A broaching Machine with a broaching tool [6]

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production rates are quite high. High precision and good surface finish (tolerance of 0.0075mm,
0.8 micron surface finish is feasible), both roughing and finishing cuts are carried out in a single
tool pass. Any profile might be machined by providing the tools various forms, and the process is
appropriate for both internal and exterior surface finishing.

Despite the foregoing benefits, it has certain drawbacks, such as the high cost of tooling, which
makes it uneconomical for small-scale work. It is not appropriate for the removal of huge amounts
of stock because it necessitates sturdy machinery to handle the high forces generated during
cutting. It is suitable for extremely big workpieces that cannot be broached without any
obstructions since a tapered hole cannot be produced with a broach.

Figure 2.2: Broaching operation types [9] 2.2 Types of broaching machines

A broaching machine is made up of an appropriate frame, a driving mechanism, a work-holding

device (fixture), and a broaching tool. The main slide of the broaching machine is typically where
the broach is fixed and moves together with the slide. In accordance with their intended uses,
these devices come in many varieties. Hydraulic or elector-mechanical options are both possible.
Pull-up, pull-down, and push-down types, for example, as well as horizontal (single ram and
duplex ram) and vertical types. A general categorization might be provided as shown in
Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.3: Internal & External shapes produced by broaching [6]

Despite the relatively moderate cutting rates (2 to 15 m per min), utilized in broaching, the total
length of the cutting blades that are operating concurrently is rather long, resulting in a very high
output capacity. If broaching machines with continuous working motion are employed, together
with automated work piece loading and unloading, the output in broaching may be increased even
further. Broaching is becoming more and more popular in the engineering and metal-working
sectors because to its high production, machining precision, and good surface finish. However,
broaches are pricey tools, and their usage is typically only justified in large-scale and mass
manufacturing.

2.1.1 Advantages and limitations of broaching process

Due to its exceptional qualities and benefits, broaching has become a popular metal cutting
technique for tasks requiring mass production. With the right broaches, fittings, and machinery, Figure 2.4: Types of Broaching machines [10]

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Depending on whether the slide moves in the horizontal or vertical planes, a broaching machine for a vertical pull up broaching machine is located above the worktable, while the broach is located
(see Fig. 2.5) may be either horizontal or vertical. The qualities of a horizontal machine are as at the machine's base. The broach is dragged upward as it enters the work while being held up
follows: Any area of it is easily accessible from the floor, particularly the work station. (ii) A against the table's underside. The work is released at the conclusion of the process and drops into
lengthy slide can be levelled and supported at several spots to maintain it in place. a container.

One can identify a vertical machine by its features as (i) It takes up less space on the floor, (ii) A 2.2.1 Surface broaching machines.
pit or a platform for the operator to access the workstation should be sunk for a machine with a
According to the surface they cut through, external surface broaches may be divided into three
long stroke. There are push and pull internal broaching machines, which may be either
categories: flat (slab), peripheral, and contour. The most often used surface broaching devices are:
horizontally or vertically oriented.
[Link] Vertical broaching machine
In pull broaching machines, the shank receives the force while the body of the broach is under
strain (Fig. 2.5 a, b). It is a "push broach" and is in compression if the force is applied to the back Figure 2.6 (a) features a column in the shape of a box that holds the hydraulic and electric driving
of the broach (Fig. 2.5 c). A push broach should be shorter than a pull broach and typically does components. Tools for broaching are mounted on a slide that is hydraulically propelled and
not expand in length by more than 15 times of diameters in order to prevent buckling. Internal precisely directed along the column ways. The hydraulic drive regulates the different speeds at
broaching, such as hole sizing and key-way cutting, is typically done on a vertical push broaching which the slide with the broaches moves. Its stroke is modified to fit the intended broaching
machine. The cutting force in the horizontal pull broaching machine (Fig. 2.5 a) securely clamps operation. There is a quick return stroke on the slide. In front of the column, the base of the
the work against the platen during the broaching process. worktable 1 is mounted. It may be advanced to a predetermined broaching position and retracted
to load and unload the broaching fixture. The broaching device holding workpiece 2 is fixed to
the table. The workpiece is machined once the table has been moved to the broaching position,
clamped, and the slide carrying the broach moves downward. A fresh workpiece is subsequently
loaded onto the table, and the slide moves back up to its top position. After then, the cycle is
repeated in the same manner. "Single slide machine" is the name given to such a device. There
are two slides that operate in opposition to one another in a vertical "double slide" surface
broaching machine. The work is kept on shuttle worktables, which swivel out for loading and
unloading while the slide slides back to its starting position. The other slide is working while this
is going on.

Figure 2.5: Internal Broaching [6] [Link] Horizontal surface broaching machine:

The work piece is held in the fixture on the worktable as the broach is moved over its top surface
Vertical pull-down machines or vertical pull-up machines are both examples of vertical pull
in this instance. Cutting speeds range from 3 to 12 mpm, while returning speeds can reach 30
broaching machines. In vertical pull down broaching machines, the broach is dragged through the
mpm.
work rather of being pushed (Fig. 2.5 b). The machine's base houses the pulling mechanism. An
upper carriage suspends the broach above the work surface. The broach is lowered through the [Link] Continuous surface broaching machine:
workpiece that is being held in a fixture on the worktable to begin the broaching operation. The
Figure 2.6 (b) depicts a continuous chain type surface broaching machine. A continuous chain 4
pulling mechanism automatically engages the broach, which is then drawn downward throughout
moves over sprockets positioned in a box-shaped base in a horizontal plane. 2 locating and holding
the task. The broach then reverses direction to return to its initial location. The pulling mechanism

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tools for work pieces on the chain, 3 are mounted at various intervals. Under bracket 7 that is 2.4 Nomenclature and broaching tool materials
attached on the base, broach 5 is fastened horizontally above the chain. In the area where the work
The nomenclature of Teeth details of a common broach tool is shown in Figure 2.8 as given below.
pieces pass under the broach, a rigid guiding member 6 is positioned under the chain to allow for
The important elements of broaching tool are:
horizontal movement of the chain and a certain amount of stock removal from the work pieces.
At station A, the work pieces are put into the fixtures and either manually or mechanically
clamped. The work pieces are located and clamped on the travailing chain, which moves the work
pieces between the broach and the guiding plate. At station B, the work pieces are automatically
unclamped and discharged, where they fall into the machine's hopper 8. Machine for continuous
surface broaching boosts output.

Figure 2.8: Teeth details of a broach tool [11]

Broaching machine can be specified in terms of length of the stroke, driving force (rated pulling
force–10 /12 ton), broaching speed (cutting stroke speed), return stroke speed, type of drive,
(a) (b)
maximum size of cut and the machine power (HP).
Figure 2.6: (a) Vertical Surface broaching (b) Continuous Surface broaching [6]
High speed steel (HSS) or an alloy steel is the material used most frequently for broaches, and
2.3 Elements of a broach tool: titanium nitride (TiN) coatings are frequently used to extend the life of HSS. However, because
the cutting edge would shatter on the first pass when used to broach materials like cast iron,
Figure 2.7 shows the various elements of a broach tool, including the front pilot, length, rear pilot,
tungsten carbide is rarely employed as a tooth material. Some popular work materials used in
cutting teeth, tooth land, pitch and gullet, chip load, and chip-breakers. The pull end is used to
broaching include cast or malleable iron, brass, aluminium, titanium, stainless steel, and alloy
engage the broach in the machine and places it centrally with the hole that has to be broached.
steel. The broaching process, similar to shaping with multiple teeth, is used to machine internal
Front pilot neck is close to the pull end. Where the broach is permitted to fail when overloaded is
and external surfaces such as holes of circular, square, or irregular shapes, key-ways and teeth of
at a lesser diameter and length neck. The purpose of the front pilot is to first locate the broach in
internal gears.
the hole. Metal removal is accomplished by the roughing and finishing teeth. For lighter cuts,
finish and burnish the teeth. After the final tooth has exited the work-piece, the rear pilot and
2.5 Introduction to drilling
follower rest or retriever is used for support.
Drilling is the process of creating a hole for a job. This is a sizeable portion of the machining
operations carried out by the multi-point drilling tool's rotary and axial feed movements (Fig 3.1).

Figure 2.7: Elements of a broach tool [6]

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ii. The hole's axis or cylindrical surface must be straight and meet the requirements.
iii. The hole needs to have a true cylindrical shape, meaning there must be no taper, ovality,
or lobed edges.
iv. The part's faces and the hole must be square to one another.

When compared to milling an external surface of a revolution of the same size and accuracy,
drilling correct holes always takes more time on the machine and costs more in cutting tools. The
reason is because, in comparison to turning tools, hole-making equipment lacks the same rigidity,
particularly in the design of its mounting components and clamping mechanisms.
Figure 2.9: Drilling tool and the operation [12]
2.6 Basic nomenclature of drill tool and their functions

The body of the drill is made somewhat smaller in diameter, leaving a narrow "margin" at full
Homo sapiens first utilised rotational tools, which were pointed rocks spun between their hands
nominal diameter along the edge of each flute. As a result, there is less friction between the drill
to pierce other materials, some 35,000 years ago. This discovery gave rise to the hand drill, which
and the hole wall, which enables the cutting fluid to reach the drill point. The two margins make
was employed by numerous ancient civilizations, including the Mayans. Since they transform a
it easier to remove the heat produced while drilling and correctly position and guide the drill. To
back-and-forth action to a rotating motion, bow drills (also known as strap-drills) are the first
facilitate Tang Taper Shank, Shank Axis, Neck Flutes, Helix, or Rake Body Length, Point Margin,
machine drills. They date to about 10,000 years ago. By 3000 BC, Egypt had invented the core
Web, Flute Length, Overall Length, Cutting Lips Spaces Land Dead in the Center Flute (a)
drill. In ancient Rome, the pump drill was developed. As early as 221 BC, under the Chinese Qin
Principal parts: Diameter Tool Land Machine Drill bodies are given a modest back taper (about
Dynasty, churn drills were created in the East. These drills could go 1500 meters beneath the
0.0075 mm per cm of length) in order to further reduce the rubbing motion.
earth's surface. The advent of the electric drill was a result of the next significant development in
drilling technology. The inventors of the electric drill are credited as being William Blanch Brain
and Arthur James Arnott of Melbourne, Australia. The brothers Wilhem and Carl Fein of Stuttgart,
Germany invented the first portable hand-held drill in 1895. The electric drill has been produced
in several forms and sizes throughout the past century.

Round holes are machined in drilling machines, boring machines, engine lathes, vertical boring
mills, turret lathes, semi-automatic and automatic lathes, broaching machines and grinders.
Whereas, drilling machines and lathe machines are used to originate or cut a hole in none
previously existed one. The boring machines, broaching machines and grinders are mainly used
Figure 2.10: Nomenclature of a Drilling tool & details [13]
to enlarge/ finish the existing holes. Of course, holes are also being enlarged and finished on
drilling machines and lathe type machine tools. Holes up to 75 mm in diameter can be machined The twist drill with two cutting edges or lips is the most used drilling equipment (Fig. 2.10 (a) &
on drilling machines and lathe type machine tools, holes over 75 mm in diameter are usually cut (b). The point, body, neck, and shank are the four primary components of a twist drill. While the
by special drilling heads and, this operation is performed in boring machines. Generally, holes body steers the drill while it is operating, the point contains the cutting components. Due to the
should meet the following requirements: drill's web thickness, the cutting edges are straight and spaced apart. The web gets thicker as it
gets closer to the shank, which helps give the drill enough strength and rigidity. Various angles
i. The diameter size must be restricted to the predetermined range.

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are present on other portions of the drill, as shown in Fig. 2.10 c.

The range of the helix angle is 10° to 30°. The advantages of these drills over a typical twist drill
2.6.1 Lip relief (Clearance) angle are as follows: The three or four margins (finding and guiding components of the drill) enable
superior machining precision by avoiding tool swerving to one side during use, and (ii) having
To provide relief behind the cutting lips, the heel of the drill point is backed off when ground. The
more cutting edges allows for higher feed per revolution, increasing productivity. These drills are
cutting edges will be able to cut freely as a result. This is equivalent to the single point cutting
often referred to as spiral or core reamers. Standard drills come in four size series, with the size
tool's end relief angle. It is maintained between 12 and 15 degrees as shown in Fig. 2.10 c.
reflecting the drill body's diameter: Fractional Size (i) Sizes are available in increments of 1/64
2.6.2 Point angle inch and 1/ 4 inch. Millimeter Size (ii) Sizes are available in increments of 0.1 mm from 0.5 to 10
mm. Numbered Size (iii) (80 to 10). Sizes are available in very small increments between 0.0135
The tip angle is chosen to complement the material's hardness and brittleness. Cast iron and
and 0.228 inches and Lettered Size (iv) (A to Z). Sizes range from 0.234 to 0.413 in really small
medium hard steel are 116° to 118°, hardened steel is 125°, and brass and bronze are 130° to 140°.
steps.
Only 60 degrees apply to wood and fibre. The side cutting edge angle of a single point tool is
indicated by this angle (half) as shown in Fig. 2.10 c.
A drill's shank is used to hold and rotate it, as stated above. Both straight and tapered drill shanks
are available. For smaller drills, a straight or cylindrical shank is offered (up to 12.7 mm diameter).
2.6.3 Helix angle
Drills with a taper shank are placed right into the drilling spindle's taper hole (the taper is standard
The rear rake angle of a single point cutting tool is the same as this helix angle and most drills Morse taper, 1:20). The tang at the end of the tapered shank engages a slot at the end of the tapered
operate between 24° and 30°. hole to prevent any potential slippage. Adapting mechanisms, such as tapered sockets or sleeves,
are used when the diameters of the tool shank and spindle hole tapers do not match. A drift in the
2.6.4 Dead centre
shape of a wedge that fits into the spindle hole is used to withdraw the drill from the hole.
The "dead centre" or "chisel edge" is a sharp elevated line that is created at the drill's centre by Depending on the chuck's construction, straight shank drills are held in drill chucks and clamped
the intersection of the two ground surfaces of the point and the web. either by hand or with a chuck key. These chucks may fit inside the drilling machine spindle's
tapered hole because of their taper shanks.
The "chisel-edge angle" is the angle formed by the elevated line at dead centre and the cutting
edges. The clearance on the cutting edge close to the chisel edge is shown by this angle. Typically, 2.6.5 Materials of drill
this angle ranges from 120° to 135°. The chisel edge doesn't actually cut anything. It only shifts
Although drills made of carbon tool steel have a cheap initial cost, they should only be used
the material so that the cutting edges may remove it later. When beginning a hole, the chisel edge
infrequently and at medium speeds. The most widely used and strong drills are made of high speed
frequently wanders or walks over the surface. By making an indentation where the hole will begin
steel. While pricey and needing cautious handling to prevent breakage, drills with cemented
on the work piece with a centre punch or a centre drill, the drill must be held in place.
carbide tips are inexpensive for high production. These are mostly used for drilling malleable iron
castings as well as nonferrous metals and alloys including copper, brass, aluminum, magnesium,
Drill bushings can be used to guide the drill, which will help keep it in position. When using a
and zinc as well as plastics and hard rubber, etc. Due to the possibility of breaking from high tip
twist drill, two cutting blades are occasionally offered for further cutting, which increases
pressure, these should not be used for steel components.
efficiency. Cutting pressures are evenly distributed, helical flutes allow cutting fluid access and
aid in chip disposal, and small margins left on the cylinder's surface offer further guidance. Core
2.7 Classification of drilling machines
Drill has three or four flutes with helical ribs. These drills are used to widen already-drilled holes
Drilling machines are classified as: General-purpose, single purpose and sspecialized drilling.
as well as holes that have been punched, cast, or forged because they cannot create new holes.
General purpose machines

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Manufacturing Engineering Manufacturing Engineering

Here, any hole making operation can be performed This class includes: bench type drill press,
single and multiple-spindle upright drill presses, radial drilling machines and others. Single
Purpose Machines: This class includes centre-drilling and deep hole drilling machines (horizontal
and vertical types); semi- automatic and automatic drilling machines.

2.7.1 General purpose drilling machines

The block diagram of a single-spindle general purpose machine (drill press) is shown in Fig. 2.11,
wherein various parts of it are: Head Spindle, Column, Table, Base Distance, Throat, Pulley,
Bearing Housing, Pinion, Bearing, Spindle, Sleeve Bearing, Key, Key-way, drill etc. Its main
parts are: the base, column, table and head. The upright column is supported by a heavy base. The Figure 2.12: Feeding arrangement of a drill press [6]
table is suspended from the column and may be moved up and down and clamped at the desired
The rack pinion is rotated through a worm gearing (in power feeding) and hand feed lever (in
height. The drill head is mounted on the top of the column and consists of the main operating
manual feeding). The pinion meshes with a rack secured to a non-revolving sleeve or quill in
parts. The cutting tools (held in spindle) are power driven from the motor by a pair of cone pulleys-
which the spindle freely rotates. The spindle is fed in the axial (vertical) direction together with
V belt drive or through a speed gear box to obtain various speeds. The axial feed of the tool is
the sleeve. Tables and often bases, are provided with T slots for clamping work or work-holding
controlled by hand (on small machines) but larger machines provide power feed for the drill
devices.
spindle. The spindle has a key way or spline, so that it may be moved up and down along its axis
for feeding, but, still retains its drive at any point (Fig. 2.12). The size of a drill press is expressed in one or more of the following ways: (i) by the “swing”
which is twice the distance from the nearest face of the column to the centre of the spindle. This
2.7.2 Specialized machines
indirectly refers to the diameter of the largest disc that can be drilled through the centre. (ii) by
Special unit-built multiple-spindle drilling machines, intended for performing a single definite the maximum diameter of the drill that can be used on steel. (iii) by the maximum distance
operation, are used in mass production. between the spindle and the table, that is, the maximum height of the job that can be
accommodated with the table in its lowest position. (iv) by the distance the spindle moves up and
down, that is, by the length of the spindle feed.

2.8 Types of drill presses

The drill press, often known as the drilling machine, is a tool for making holes in hard materials.
The work piece, which is typically secured in a vice resting on a table, is fed into and the drill is
held in a rotating spindle. Such presses come in several varieties, and some machines can
automatically feed the drill into the workpiece while others may provide changing spindle speeds.

2.8.1 Bench type

This is the simplest type used in industry. They are also called “sensitive” drill presses because
Figure 2.11: Block diagram of a drill press
the feed lever is operated by hand. This allows the operator to “feel” how the force is operating.

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If the drill gets into trouble, the pressure on it can be released. With little drills, this style is utilized
for light labour (upto about 9.5 mm to 12.5 mm diameter drills). 800 to 9000 rev/min is a normal
range, and the controls are delicate and light.

Figure 2.14: Adjustable multi-spindle machine drill press [6]

Figure 2.13: Non-adjustable multi-spindle machine of a drill press [6].

2.8.2 Upright drill presses

These are medium heavy duty machines and stand on floor. This machine usually has a gear-
driven mechanism for different spindle speeds and an automatic or power feed device. This
machine will take larger drills and cutting tools than the standard bench type machines. Single-
spindle upright drilling machines can drill holes up to 75 mm in diameter and up to 350 mm deep.
These machines have a wide range of spindle speeds and feeds and are employed, therefore, not
only for drilling from the solid, but also for core drilling, reaming and tapping operations.

There are two constructions of the column: (i) Box-Column arrangement (Upright Machine). The
Figure 2.15: Turret drilling press [6]
column is of box section. The box column is bolted to the base. The work table is incorporated
with a bracket which slides on ways at the front of the machine. Support and elevating movement
2.8.3 Multiple-spindle drilling press
of the table is provided by a telescopic screw underneath its centre. The table on these machines
These machines also called as ‘cluster drilling machines’ are mass production machines with the
can be swung. (ii) Round-Column type (Pillar Machine). Here, the table instead of being carried
several spindles (from 4 to 48 or more) driven by a single power head and fed simultaneously into
on vertical slides is carried on the round pillar. This helps in swinging the table to one side so that
the work. These machines are very useful when a number of parallel holes must be drilled in a
tall work pieces can be mounted on the base. Here, the table support is less rigid than the upright
part. These machines are subdivided into two group (according to the design of their spindles):
machine and places a restriction on its width. A box-column machine being more rigid than a
those with nonadjustable (fixed position) spindles and those with adjustable spindles. (i) Non-
round column machine, is adopted for heavier work.

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adjustable Spindle Machine. (Fig. 2.13). The main drive spindle is rotated by an electric motor 2.8.6 Radial drilling machine
through a change speed gearbox. From the main drive spindle, the motion is transmitted to the
These machines (Fig. 2.16), are used for drilling holes at different locations on heavy and bulky
drilling spindles, through appropriate gearing. The multiple-spindle head is moved up and down
work pieces which are either inconvenient or impossible to mount on the table of an upright
by the feed drive which has facilities for rapid traverse and feed motions. The worktable can be
drilling machine and cannot be moved easily. A large arm extends out from the column. It can be
raised or lowered along the ways on the column.
raised or lowered along the column with the help of an elevating screw and it also swings in a
complete circle around the column. The drilling head moves back and forth on this arm. On most
The drilling spindles have a fixed position in the head designed for drilling the holes in a definite
radial drilling machines, the movements of the arm, the drill head, and the spindle are controlled
work piece. Their arrangement may be either symmetrical or asymmetrical, as the case may be.
by power feeds. Due to the back and forth movement of the drilling head along the arm and the
The spindle head can be replaced by another head designed for some other work piece or to
swinging motion of the arm around the column, holes can be drilled in many different locations
perform some other operations. Different spindles in such a head may run at different speeds but
without moving the work-piece
they all have the same feed. (ii) Adjustable Spindle Machine. The drilling head of a multiple-
spindle machine with adjustable spindles is shown in Fig. 2.14. Here, the main drive spindle
travels up and down the column ways with the drilling head, being actuated by the feed drive. The
drill spindles are driven from the main drive spindle through gears and through the universal joints
and telescopic shaft. This arrangement enables the offset spindles to be driven. The drill spindles
are mounted in a plate which has slots in various directions along which the spindles can be
adjusted. Consequently, drill spindles can be positioned in the plate as required for a certain work
piece. They can be readjusted to other positions for drilling some other work piece.

2.8.4 Gang drilling press

A gang drilling press is equivalent to 2, 3, or 4 or more (upto 8 or 10) upright drill presses in a
row with a single common long table or base. Because of its small size, this machine is particularly
practical for mass production. It is possible to configure the machine such that work can be
transferred between spindles to complete two or more processes that may be related (drilling holes
of various diameters) or distinct (drilling, reaming, counter- boring etc.). The identical processes
could be carried out over all spindles in another configuration. With automatic feed control, two Figure 2.16: Radial drilling machine [6]

or more operations may be going on simultaneously attended only by one operator.

Three different designs are offered for radial drilling machines: (i) Simple one, the only spindle
2.8.5 Turret drilling press motion in this design is vertical, Semi-universal (ii) this machine allows for the drilling of holes

A turret drilling press, (Fig. 2.15), overcomes the floor space restriction caused by a gang drill at an angle in a vertical plane by allowing the spindle head to be swung about a horizontal axis

press. Numerical control is also available. Two fixtures can be located on the worktable. This normal to the arm, Universal is (iii). Additionally, the radial arm can be turned around a horizontal

enables loading and unloading of one part while the other part is being machined. This reduces axis. This enables holes to be drilled at any desired angle. Radial drilling machine size. A radial

the cycle time. drilling machine's dimensions are as follows: (i) The column's diameter in centimeters (ii) The
diameter of the greatest disc into which a centre hole can be bored while the drilling head is at the
farthest end of the arm.

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2.8.7 Specialized drilling machines

1. Core drilling - A core drill is used to drill holes in order to increase their size and enhance
In mass production, special unit-built multiple-spindle drilling machines are employed for drilling
their geometric form.
housing-type and other parts. These machines are assembled from standard units and mechanisms.
2. Step drilling -The "Step drill" or "combination drill" is an operation that involves creating a
Such machines perform drilling, reaming, tapping and other operations that are commonly done
hole of two or more diameters with a single drill.
in drill presses. In many cases, such multiple-spindle machines are built into an automatic transfer
3. Boring - Boring is the process of completely completing and widening the hole using a single
line. As a rule, the only special units of these machines are the spindle head and the jig or fixture
point cutting instrument. Although the lathe group of machine tools can also be used, boring
for holding the work piece. To changeover to the production of a new part, it is usually necessary
machines are often used for this activity. By boring, the hole's location is adjusted and brought
to design, manufacture and install these two special units only. Various arrangements of the
into alignment with the spindle's axis of rotation.
standard units to obtain different designs of unit built machines are illustrated as shown in Fig.
4. Reaming - Reaming, which often comes after drilling or core drilling, uses a multipoint
3.9 (a-f).
cutting tool called a "reamer" to eliminate all coarse remnants of earlier machining processes.
A hole that has been reamed is precise in size and has a smooth surface. Since the reamer
only follows the previously drilled hole, reaming cannot change the location of the hole.
5. Counter boring - Consists of making the surface at the bottom of a bigger diameter hole
level and square and extending a section of an existing hole to a larger diameter. This is done
to allow space for a screw head, bolt head, or nut beneath the hole's top surface. Using a
"Counter bore," a specialized tool, or a standard boring tool, the procedure is carried out.
6. Countersunk - is carried out after a hole has been drilled in order to chamfer the entry or to
create a conical recess or seat for a flat-headed screw or rivet so that the heads are flush or
below the main surface. Standard countersinks have an incorporated angle of 60, 82, or 90°.
A countersink is a small instrument that resembles a reamer.
7. Spot facing - spot facing is the process of milling a boss or pad onto a hole's face. The goal

Figure 2.17: Unit build drilling machines [6]. is often to provide a square bearing surface for a washer and nut or the bolt head. Pilot
guidance is used for both spot facers and counter-borers.
2.9 Specifications of drilling machine

Varied drilling machines have different specifications, such as the work piece surface, drilling
size, hole diameter, number of holes, maximum drill diameter that might be coupled to it, etc. The
arm length and column diameter of radial drill machines can be used to identify them. The drilling
area, hole size, and number that the tool may create serve as indicators of a multiple spindle drill.

2.10 Types of operations

There are numerous linked drilling operations. In order to make seats for a bolt head and nut, a Figure 2.18: Drilling and allied operations [6].

screw or rivet head, a washer, etc., further machining is done to holes that have already been
2.11 Types of drills
drilled from a solid with one drill. Figure 2.1 shows these allied efforts that are described later.
Drills are an essential part of every person's toolbox for the garage. When drilling is required, it

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can be utilized for commercial operations, do-it-oneself-projects, and household maintenance. In Drill types Descriptions Figure
the history of human creation, the first drill was the primordial awl. However, a variety of drill
be used as a regular drill. Because of its strong hammering
types are used nowadays. Drills come in two primary categories: electric and manual. They are
action, it is very different from other varieties.
all equipped with the same features, such as multi-function power, a selection of driving bits, and
Cordless drill Cordless drills are nearly identical to their corded
various drilling powers. By being informed of the many types of drills, one may get the precise
counterparts in terms of design. However, their weight
drilling equipment they desire. Table 3.1 list the best drill type options for such situations:
makes the distinction clear. This type is lighter than other
Table 2.1: List of drill type options for different applications [14] drills due to the fact that it is cordless. A greater voltage can
provide a more powerful drilling function. Drills that run on
Drill types Descriptions Figure
batteries, such as the Cordless Drill batteries, are not
Hand drill Gear-driven manual tools include the hand drill and designed for heavy drilling in concrete. As an alternative,
eggbeater drill. In order to drill a hole, a handle must be one may use it on wood, plastic, fibreglass, and thin metal
turned. The pinion and chuck both move in tandem with the sheets.
rotating wheel. The connected bit or shank spins as a Drill press The drill press, a stationary form of drill, is constructed
consequence. Soft metal, plastic, and softwood can all be using both stationary and motor bits. With specified width
drilled through with this kind of drill. and depth, they quickly and repeatedly drill holes. The
Brace drill The invention of this manual drilling instrument dates back angles from which you wish to drill holes can be changed.
to the 1420s. The U-shaped spindle distinguishes this drill You may easily apply this to both softer and harder
from others. More torque is produced by cranking the materials, depending on your use.
spindle's grip. The top spindle makes it simpler to hold and
adjust the manual tool. In order to drill and countersink 2.12 Types of drill bits

holes in timber materials, brace drills are employed. The drill bits are designed to create holes in a variety of materials. This uses a variety of materials,
Corded drill The corded drill type is an excellent option when it comes including concrete, ceramic tile, porcelain, metal, plastic, and wood. Additionally, drill bits for
to electric drills. For best performance, it needs a power sheet metal, fiberglass, brick, cast iron, steel, aluminum, copper, and other materials are available.
source. The pistol grip is the most widely used style. Drill bits are made in a variety of designs depending on their diameter to help with particular jobs.
Projects involving drilling become more pleasant and easy. According to Table 2.2, there are 22 different types of drill bits.
In contrast to cordless drills, this kind of drill has higher
power since it has more torque. This may be used to drill Table 2.2: Different types of drill bits in use [15]
into wood, fibreglass, plastic, and metal.
Drill bits Descriptions Figure
Hammer drill The hammer drill, which combines rotary and hammer
movements, is a great instrument for drilling into concrete, Flat Drill Typically, thin sticks of high carbon steel are pounded into this

metal, and stone blocks. Depending on needs, one may sort of drill. They are tempered and toughened after grinding their

choose between corded and cordless hammer drills. The cutting edge. Any size or form may be manufactured with ease.

hammer drill can cut through thick concrete, yet it may also Upon forging, they are then produced in various sizes. They are

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Drill bits Descriptions Figure Drill bits Descriptions Figure

relatively affordable drills. For drilling holes in iron, it is not used to drill the centre of a rod when lathe machines are turning
employed. It is typically used to bore holes in soft metals for long jobs from centre to centre.
carpentry work. Keep the cutting point at a 90° angle. After being Counter In order to countersink, holes must be drilled where counter head
suitably hardened and heated, this drill may be used on those solid Sinking Drill
screws are to be placed. In this manner, the screw's head work fits
metals where conventional drills break. well. This drill has four flutes and is multi-fluted. At 60° or 82°,
Straight A straight fluted drill has grooves or flutes that are perpendicular the cutting point is ground. This kind of drill is seen in the
Fluted Drill
to the drill axis. A straight fluted drill is comparable to a cutting illustration together with a screw that is placed within the hole
tool without rakes. Soft metals like brass or copper are frequently that it creates.
drilled with the help of these drills. The conventional twist drill Counter With this drill, counter boring is done when Allen screws are
has a propensity to grind or gouge into soft metal. The head, neck, Boring Drill
installed. On the surface of the project, these kinds of screws are
and shank make up a straight or flat drill. The sides of the skull likewise installed like countersunk screws. The task surface stays
might be parallel or have a little backward taper. To lower the comparable to the plain surface for the purpose of fitting this type
friction during drilling, a rear taper of 2° to 3° may be offered. of screw. There is no functional difficulty caused by the screw
The operation accuracy and tool life of drills with parallel sides heads. One interesting difference between counter boring and
are both better. A flat drill's tip angle spans from 90° to 120°. countersinking is that with counter boring, the hole is drilled
Twist Drill Today, twist and thick drills are utilized to swiftly bore holes that deeper and larger, up to the height of the screw head. A counter
Bit
are clean and the right size. High-speed steel and thin alloy steel boring cutter is another name for the drill used for counter boring.
rods are typically used to make them. The bottom end is then Oil Hole or When drilling holes, a coolant or lubricant is required to keep the
formed with a cutting edge, and the body is then cut with a flute, Tube Drill
drill tip from losing its cutting ability as it gets heated. A hole is
which is a twisting groove running from top to bottom. It is constructed from the shank to the cutting point of some drills, in
referred to as a twist drill because to the twisted flute. Tang, addition to standard drills, to allow lubrication up until the cutting
shank, body, point, and neck are some of its primary components. point.
Double This kind of drill is the finest and most powerful. In this drill, two Spirec Drill These drills are extremely fine. These are used to drill very small
Fluted Drill
flutes are cut in opposition to one another. Nearly every form of holes in items like the spray pump nozzle and storage nipple.
employment uses it. They are between 0.0086′′ to 0.0984′′ in size.
Multi-fluted This drill is utilised for very specialised tasks. In this drill, there
drill Shell Drill Unlike other drills, this one is unique. When milling, a face cutter
are more than two flutes. Its standout characteristic is how swiftly
with a shape akin to a side is employed. It is formed into four
and cleanly the hole is bored because to its larger cutting edge.
flutes. 1/3" per foot is the taper of its top portion. Mandrels are
Centre Drill It is sometimes referred to as a combination drill. It has a cutting
needed in order to use it. For expanding a hole, they are frequently
edge on both of its ends, and its midsection is plain. With this
employed.
drill, countersinking and drilling may be done concurrently. It is

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Drill bits Descriptions Figure Drill bits Descriptions Figure

Step Drill A step drill is required if you wish to drill holes in sheet metal. Its varieties allow for even greater chip removal since the centres are
appearance resembles a ladder that is falling. Even so, if one hollow.
works with sheet metal frequently, this is what one needs even if Tile Bit To drill into specific tile and lessen the possibility of chips and
their working method is slightly more expensive than other drill cracks, these drill bits include a carbide tip. According to the
bits. The step bit's construction makes it possible to firmly drill different sorts of tiles, different tile bits are designed.
holes of various sizes. Deburring holes are another great feature Hammer Bit In order to accurately and completely measure relative humidity,
these bits produce, allowing one to remove superfluous materials. a precise hole must be drilled in a concrete slab using a hammer
Installer Bit These drill bits are specialized twist drill bits that are employed bit.
to drill holes for the installation of cables for security and Glass Bit With this sort of drill bit, holes may be made through glass,
entertainment systems. These drill bits, which may reach a length plastic, composite materials, brick, marble, and hollow bricks. It
of 18 inches, resemble auger bits. They work well for drilling offers a greater endurance to high temperatures, speeds up dust
through masonry, wood, and some plaster. In the bit's tip, there is clearing, and is perfect for drilling into dense material.
a little hole. After drilling a hole in the surface, one must force Forstner Bit This kind of drill bit is ideal if one want to drill neat, smooth holes
the wire through the hole by inserting it into the tip's hole. Pull it in wood. With this bit, precise holes may be made. It features a
while assuming the opposing side. sharp tip that aids in keeping the bit in the desired location. It
Masonry Bit Wherever brick, stone, and concrete work is being done, these doesn't have a flute, and you have to routinely remove it to dust
drill bits are employed. Despite how durable these parts are, you and chip the flute. A drill press with this kind of drill bit is
must repair them frequently as they wear out. The tip will melt if necessary for a number of applications.
you drill into the concrete for an extended period of time. By Hole Saw If installing door hardware or creating a wire pass-through is
frequently taking the drill out of the concrete, you can lessen this required, this kind of drill bit can be used. A side cutout in the
issue. saw cylinder forces the worthless plug that the hole saw produces
Rivet Drill The usage of these rivet bits is probably not possible unless one out of the way. To centre the hole and steady the blade, one can
works in professional construction. These particular drill bits are also use an attachment and a pilot bit. A built-in shank is used
made for drilling small rivets into thin sheets of metal. instead of a pilot bit by small hole saws. You can cut holes in both
Auger Bit A drill bit called an auger can be used to create a hole in thick, wood and metal with a bi-metal hole saw.
dry wood. One doesn't need to exert as much pressure since a hole Plug Cutter This kind of drill bit is required if one wish to create a hole in the
may be made in the trees relatively quickly. These have a screw wood or cut a wooden plug together. Having woodworking that
tip that both drills the hole and aids in pulling out the bit to is on par with expert work is advantageous using this kind of bit.
produce a tidy hole. Since several of these bits are up to 18 inches
in length, they may be used on thicker wood. Its big flute, which 2.13 Reaming and types of reamers

allows dust to enter the opening, supports the channel. Some Reaming is a continuous cutting activity using a multi-edged cutting instrument. To finish drilled
holes precisely to size and with a fine surface quality, reaming is used. Reaming has the benefit

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of allowing for the production of a higher quantity of holes of consistently high quality. This calls iv. Expansion Reamers can have their size enlarged by bending or deflecting certain reamer body
for a hole that has been exactly pre-machined (good true-running accuracy and sufficient parts.
machining allowance). Some of the common reamer types are listed in Fig. 2.19. Lubricants can v. Adjustable reamers have movable blades that may be slid or moved in relation to the reamer
be used to increase the reamer's lifespan. Fitting and taper holes both require reaming. For axis to vary the size of the reamer.
finishing morse taper holes or sleeves, use morse taper reamers. Car parts including steering arms,
Reamers can also be categorized according to how they are held or operated:
ball joints, and tie rod ends are reamed from steel using automotive reamers.
i. The left and right hands. Reamers are used to characterize the rotational axis and flute helix
direction of reamers.
ii. Hand of Cut (or Hand of Rotation):
iii. Right Hand Rotation, also known as Right Hand Cut, is the counterclockwise rotation of a
reamer that, when viewed from the cutting end, rotates to form a cut.
iv. A left hand rotation, also known as a left hand cut, is the clockwise rotation of a reamer so
that, when viewed from the cutting end, it makes a cut.
v. Pull reamers are said to be right-hand cut if, when seen from the cutting end, cutting requires
a clockwise rotation.
vi. The Hand of the flute helix
vii. Reamers with straight flutes have cutting blades that are parallel to the reamer axis.
viii. Alternate helix reamers are those with every other flute having a different (left and right hand)
helix.
ix. Right hand or Left hand helix reamer only have one orientation for the flute helix.
Figure 2.19: Common Reamer Types in use [16].
UNIT SUMMARY
For diverse machining purposes, numerous types of reamers made from various materials exist.
Reamers are also divided into groups according on how they are held or driven and how they are Broaching, drilling machining operations are integral part of machining operation system for such

built. The common types and classes that machinists could encounter are listed above in Fig 2.19. processes. In this section, types of broaching and drilling processes and operations are explained

When viewed from either end of the reamer, the flutes of the reamer exhibit a right hand helix, including the machines on which various operations of broaching and drilling can be done.

which twists away from the viewer in a clockwise motion. Alternatively, when they twist in a Common cutting tool materials used for broaching, drilling and reaming is also clarified. It is wise

counterclockwise manner, they have a Left hand helix. decision of the designer and application engineers to select a proper machine and tooling as per

Reamers can be grouped according to how they were made: the application and material to be cut. It also important to select proper steps of operations and
the optimal machining conditions for a tool-work piece combination for economical machining.
i. Solid Reamers are ones that are crafted from a single piece of tool metal. Generally, specialized operators are needed to carry our broaching and drilling operations.
ii. Tipped Solid Reamers have a body made of one material with cutting blades that are brazed
or attached to the body of the tool.
iii. Inserted Blade Reamers feature replaceable, mechanically held, solid or tippable, and
typically adjustable, blades.

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8. [Link] VIDEOS

9. [Link] Broaching

10. [Link]

[Link] [Link]

vg/400px-Broach_tooth_geometry.[Link]
Drilling
11.
[Link] [Link]

6@1589914436335/[Link] [Link]

12. [Link]
[Link]/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRmZ2GTCddDcwDYDBP8MljseYWDsPZN0yq
5tg4nCU3LcVoiqdW2F4j4INJJ5fOxIucEEnM&usqp=CAU

13. [Link]

14. [Link]
[Link]

15. [Link]

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welding of various welding methods. Brazing and soldering methods are popular for joining
dissimilar metals, their applications are chosen wisely for safe joints. Milling is also an important
Welding-brazing-soldering and milling machines
machining process using milling cutters. The details of milling machines are needed to understand
Classification; Gas welding techniques; Types of welding flames; Arc Welding- Principle,
their constructional details. Specifications of milling machine require many parameters for
Equipment, Applications; Shielded metal arc welding; Submerged arc welding; TIG / MIG
deciding proper machine applications. Various milling operations gives an idea to choose proper
welding; Resistance welding- Spot welding, Seam welding, Projection welding; Welding defects;
one for better sequence. Therefore, different differential indexing methods used for holding the
Brazing and soldering: Types, Principles, Applications.
workpiece is also important before cutting. Different milling cutters & their types with their

Introduction; Types of milling machines: plain, Universal, vertical; constructional details- nomenclature of teeth are also equally important in gear cutting. There are different milling cutter

specifications; Milling operations: simple, compound and differential indexing; Milling cutters - materials available for machining different work materials.

types; Nomenclature of teeth; Teeth materials; Tool signature of milling cutter; Tool & work
Pre-requisites
holding devices.
A course on Engineering mechanics, basics of mechanical elements & mechanisms
Unit Specific / Learning Objective
Learning outcomes
Objective of this unit in to talk about following aspects
U3-O1: Ability to choose suitable work-piece for joining and machining job on welding and
 To introduce significance of Welding and Milling functions milling machines
 To learn about the importance of Welding and Milling processes & their working U3-O2: Ability to choose suitable welding process and their joining tool for welding, milling
principles machines & tools for machining operation
 To introduce the underlying advantages and applications of Welding and Milling machines U3-O3: Ability to choose suitable operations and proper tools for welding and milling
 To introduce the welding and milling toolings, their operations and materials U3-O4: Ability to choose suitable working conditions and parameters (welding process & milling
 To understand the significance of various types of welding, and Milling operations process) for welding and milling operations

 To learn about Welding, and Milling machine equipment and their specifications
U3-O5: Ability to predict the behavior of welded/ milled part workpieces and its dimensions after
welding, and milling.
Additionally, few fundamental questions for self-assessment based on fundamentals are also
included in this Unit in form of recall, application, comprehension, analysis and synthesis. There Course Objectives
are further suggested readings and reference for reader’s assistance.
 To understand the importance of welding and milling machines and the process
equipments.
Rationale
 To study and recognise various types of welding and milling machines, their parts and
Welding and Milling processes are very versatile processes and are being used since 3000 BC.
operations.
Various types of welding exists like Gas welding with different flames as per their applications.
 To be able to select, operate and control the appropriate welding and milling operations
Other welding methods are Arc Welding for joining similar metals together. Shielded metal arc
for specific applications.
welding, Submerged arc welding, TIG / MIG welding, Resistance welding, Spot welding, Seam
welding, and Projection welding are some more types of arc welding. Any welding process must
control defects. The common welding defects and their remedies are important precautions during

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Mapping of learning outcomes and course objectives

EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES

Unit-3 Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)

CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6

U3-O1 1 3 3

U3-O2 2 2 2

U3-O3 1 2 3

U3-O4 1 3 3

U3-O5 1 2 3

Figure 3.1: History of Welding

3.1 Introduction to welding

The welding process is widely used in almost all branches of industry and construction, and it is
Welding is the process of permanently connecting two metallic parts together using heat and/or extensively used in the fabrication and erection of steel structures in industrial construction and
pressure. It is a localised metal coalescence in which coalescence is accomplished by heating to civil engineering, such as structural members of bridges and buildings, for example; vessels of
an appropriate temperature, with or without pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal. welded-plate construction (steel reservoirs, boilers, pressure vessel tanks, and pipelines, for
The melting point of the filler metal is similar to that of the base metals. The welding process is example); and concrete reinforcement. It is the primary method of connecting panels and members
used to metallurgically combine two metal parts to create what is basically a single piece of metal. together in vehicle bodies, as well as in the aviation industry. For a considerable part of machine,
The procedure produces a 'permanent joint.' A well-welded junction is as durable as the parent jig, and fixture bases, bodies, and frames, it has replaced castings. The procedure is also widely
metal. The product is called 'Weldment.' employed in the repair of broken parts, the construction of warning surfaces, and the restoration
of defective castings. In fact, the destiny of every metal may be determined by how well it lends
During the late nineteenth century, Le Chatelier and Joule, among others, used developments in
itself to manufacture via welding.
electricity to heat and/or combine metals, and before to World War I, welding was not trusted as
a means to join two metals due to crack concerns. However, from the 1930s to the 1940s, industrial 3.2 Advantages and limitations of welding
welding gained favour and was widely employed during the war effort to construct tanks, aircraft,
Welding is becoming increasingly popular due to the following benefits:
and ships, among other things. Modern welding during the nuclear and space ages contributed to
the advancement of welding from an art to a science, as seen in Fig 3.1. 1. Welding results in material savings and a lower labour component of production.
2. Welded joints are inexpensive to produce.
3. Welded constructions are often lighter in weight than riveted or bolted structures.
4. Welding joints provide optimal efficiency, which other types of joints do not.
5. Additional and alternative structures can be readily added to the existing structure.A welded
joint provides very rigid joint and has a great strength.
6. The welding procedure is faster than other types of joints.
7. The medium's dependability, that is, the weldments are safer.
8. It allows the designer a lot of freedom in terms of planning and creating.

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9. Welding can also be used to repair cracked, worn, or defective metal parts. As a result, the 3. Greater strength.
cost of reinvestment can be avoided. 4. Maximum homogeneity.
10. Lightweight fabrication technologies, which are critical to the automotive and aerospace
Design and economic considerations determine whether machine parts should be welded in each
industries, would be unimaginable without welding procedures.
scenario. The disadvantages of welding include: not all metals are suitably weldable, and
The welding procedure is easily adaptable to streamline structures, and the welded joints are weldments are less easily machinable than castings.
extremely tight and sturdy, even under static strain. However, because to stress concentration,
3.3 Types of welded joints
residual stresses, and numerous weld flaws such as cracks, incomplete fusion, slag inclusions, and
so on, they have low fatigue resistance. However, all of these disadvantages can be mitigated to a The relative positions of the two pieces being welded determine the type of joint. Welded
great extent. structures are assembled by five basic types of joints such as: Butt, Lap, Corner, T and Edge joints,
as shown in Fig. 3.2. All other possible joints are variations of these basic joints.
3.2.1 Advantages of welded joints over riveted joints

1. Economy of material and lighter weight of structure owing to:

(a) improved usage of metal elements (plates, angles) since their working sections are not
weakened by rivet holes; as a result, the sections of welded parts can be made smaller than the
sections of riveted elements for the same acting forces. (b) the ability to use butt-jointed seams
widely without the need for extra elements such as cover straps, and (c) reduced weight of the
connecting elements (rivets weight more than the welds). Welds account for roughly 1 to 1.5 Figure 3.2: Basic welded joints.

percent of total work weight, while rivets account for about 3.5 to 4%. Welding, rather than
riveting, saves between 10% and 20% of the weight.
The two pieces to be linked are located and clamped or held in the precise position to perform a
2. Greater joint strength due to the absence of riveting holes.
weld. Butt joints are created by welding the components' end surfaces or edges together. The two
3. There is less labor required because there is no need to mark out and drill or punch holes.
elements being welded should overlap by 3 to 5 times their thickness in lap joints. Each piece's
Riveting requires far more labor and is a lot more intricate and time-consuming task than
edge is soldered to the surface of the other. T-joints are used to link two parts with surfaces that
welding, which can frequently be entirely automated.
are roughly at right angles to each other. Butt Joint (a) Halfway Open (d) Edge Joint (e) Full Open
4. The ability to combine curved pieces.
(d) Lap Joint (b) Corner Joint (d) T-Joint as the basic Welded Joints shown in Fig. 3.2. Corner
5. The joint's tightness and impermeability.
joints are used to connect the edges of two parts whose surfaces are roughly perpendicular to one
6. Noiselessness, riveting is inevitably accompanied by noise.
another. Fig. 3.3 shewn below is various types of welds used in making a joint.

3.2.2 Aadvantages welded joints over casting process

1. Lighter weight and material savings due to: (a) lower machining allowances and (b) the ability
to use smaller sections, because the wall thickness of cast parts, which is often defined by the
casting process, is 2 to 3 times more, and often even more, than that of welded components.
Metal savings in welded machine components may amount to 40% when compared to cast
ones.
2. Lower the cost.

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Types Descriptions Representative Figures 4.3 Pressure Welding 3. Pressure Gas Welding 4. Electric Resistance Welding
Bead’ weld A 'bead' weld is one in which the filler (b) Fusion Procedures Without the use of pressure, the material at the junction is heated to a
metal is placed at a joint when the two molten condition and allowed to solidify to form the joint. Some joints can be produced without
adjacent surfaces are in the same plane. the use of a filler metal in this case, but in general, a filler metal must be added to the weld to fill
A 'bead' is a single run of welded metal. the space between the pieces being welded. Normally, the filler metal deposited should be of the
A 'fillet' weld is one that has the filler same composition as the base metal. The following are some of the most frequent welding
Fillet’ weld metal deposited at the intersection of methods in this category: 1. welding with gas 2. welding with an electric arc 3. fusion welding
two intersecting surfaces, such as a T or with Thermit.
Lap joint.
There are three types of welding processes: Autogeneous, Homogeneous, and Heterogeneous. In
A 'groove' weld is one in which the filler
'autogeneous' procedures, such as cold and hot pressure welding and electric resistance welding,
Groove’ material is deposited in a groove created
no filler metal is injected to the joint interface. In 'Homogeneous' methods, filler metal of the
weld by the edge preparation of one or both Figure 3.3: Types of welds
same type as the parent metal is applied, for example, welding plain low- C steel with a low- C
components.
welding rod and welding 70 - 30 brass with a 70 - 30 brass welding rod. In 'Hetrogeneous'
A 'plug' or'slot' weld is one in which a
techniques, such as brazing and soldering, a filler metal of a different kind than the parent metal
Plug’ or hole is made through one of the to-be-
is utilised.
‘Slot’ weld welded pieces, and the filler material is
then placed into this hole and fused with According to the definition of welding process given above, brazing and soldering are not
the matching part. precisely welding procedures. These methods, however, are also part of the welding process
family. The two most common welding techniques are gas welding and arc welding. Because an
3.4 Methods of welding
electric arc has a far higher temperature than a gas flame, the joint zone melts almost instantly in
Welding techniques are categorised based on the source of energy used to heat the metals and the arc welding. Gas welding requires a lengthy preheating period during which the metal close to
state of the metal at the welded location. Welding procedures are characterised based on the the junction is heated to a high temperature. This has an adverse effect on the crystalline structure,
source of heat as follows: resulting in significant stresses being created. As a result of this difficulty and the time required
1. Chemical (oxygen + flammable fuel gas, such as acetylene, propane, butane, natural gas, for preheating, gas welding is inappropriate for relatively large cross-sections. Plates in excess of
hydrogen, and so on). 20 mm thick are, therefore, best welded by arc welding. However, as illustrated in Fig. 3.4, the
2. Mechanical - Chemical (Pressure gas welding, Thermit welding) basic welding methods can also be categorised as:
3. Electro chemistry (Atomic hydrogen welding)
4. Electro-Mechanical (Electric resistance welding) (Electric resistance welding)
5. Arc welding with an electric current.

These may be divided further into two groups as follows:

(a) Pressure Processes The parts to be joined are heated to a plastic state (fusion may occur to a
limited amount) and then pressed together with external pressure to form the junction. Some of
the most prevalent processes in this category are listed below: 1. Forge welding 2. Thermit

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Figure 3.5: Types of flames used in welding

Natural flame, carburizing flame, and oxidising flame are the three types of flames utilised in
welding. Natural flames have a synchronised mixing of fuel and oxygen, whereas carburizing
flames contain more fuel and oxidising flames contain more oxygen. Depending on the weld
situation, different materials used different flames.

(a) Natural flame. In this gas welding flame, oxygen and acetylene are released in a one-to-one
ratio. That is, an equal amount of oxygen and acetylene is emitted. It collects additional
oxygen from the air while providing complete combustion. A neutral flame is fine, clear, and
well-defined. It is often preferred for welding. It generates a light cone that indicates the

Figure 3.4: Basic welding methods completion of the flame. Neutral flames are used to weld both ferrous and nonferrous metals
such as mild steel, cast iron, copper, stainless steel, aluminium, and so on. Welders are
3.5 Types of welding flames expected to adjust to neutral before using any other flame. The flame is identified by its inner

Different flames (Fig. 3.5) are employed to heat and cool metals or thermoplastics. The majority cone, which consists of a brilliant cone that is bluish-white. It is also noted for its

of gas welding procedures employ oxyfuel welding. It is one of the oldest welding methods, surroundings, which have a bright blue flame coating. A flame with feather extension of inner

having been invented in 1903. A liquid fuel or gas, such as acetylene, is required for oxyfuel cone is produced by raising the oxygen valve. The acetylene flame feather vanishes, and only

welding, also known as oxyacetylene welding. To raise the temperature of the flame, the gas is the neutral flame remains. The temperature of the inner core tip is roughly 585 degrees

mixed with oxygen. The torch utilised in this operation is made up of hoses that connect to gas Fahrenheit, whereas the temperature of the outside sheath or envelope is approximately 2300

tanks. When ready to begin welding, open the valve and ignite the gas as it escapes the flashlight. degrees Fahrenheit.

The valves must then be adjusted to modify the flow of each gas with proper gas ratio. Each flame Carburizing flame. Excess acetylene is supplied in this oxyacetylene flame. This white feather,

has numerous regions. also called as acetylene feather, has a feather edge that extends beyond its inner core. This
acetylene is 2x if it is twice as long as the inner cone, which assists in determining the amount of

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acetylene supply. Carbon may be added to one volume of welded metal by a carburizing flame. It temperature range for arc welding will be 6k degrees Celsius to 7k degrees Celsius.
is accomplished by first adjusting to a neutral flame and then increasing the acetylene valve. The
The definition of arc welding is a welding procedure that uses electricity to generate enough heat
inner core will undergo a transformation, revealing an acetylene streamer or "feather" at its tip.
to soften the metal, and then the metals are welded once the softened metal is cooled. This type
The length of the streamer determines the level of carburization flame. The length of the streamer
of welding (Fig. 3.6) employs a power supply to create an arc between a metal stick and the base
should not exceed half the length of the inner core. Three distinct flame zones distinguish the
material, softening the metals at the point of contact. These welders can use either DC or AC
carburizing flame:
power, as well as consumable or non-consumable electrodes. In general, the welding region can
be protected with a shielding gas, slag, or vapour. This welding procedure could be entirely or
1. A distinct bluish-white inner cone
partially automated.
2. A white cone indicates the amount of excess acetylene.
3. A bright blue flare envelope on the outside. Heat can be generated in the Arc welding process by striking an electric arc between an electrode
and the workpiece. The electric arc is a bright electrical discharge between two electrodes created
This flare emits a coarse rushing sound when it burns. The temperature at the inner cone tip is by the use of ionised gas. Any form of arc welding process is dependent on an electric circuit,
around 3700 degrees Fahrenheit. When welding with a carburizing flame, carbon absorbs from which consists of several components such as a power supply, a workpiece, a welding electrode,
the flame, causing metals to boil. When this metal boils, it transforms into high carbon steel, and electric cables that connect the electrode and the workpiece to the power supply.
becomes brittle, and cracks.

(b) Oxidizing flame. This is the third and last oxyacetylene flame. It is formed when slightly
more than one volume of oxygen is combined with one volume of acetylene. The torch is set
to a neutral flame, just as it is in a carburizing flame. The oxygen valve will then be opened
until the inner core is one-tenth of its original length. If the flame is appropriately set, it will
be slightly purple with a pointed inner cone. This flame is also distinguished by a distinct
hissing sound. Figure 3.6: Circuit used in electric arc welding

The temperature of the oxidising flame at its inner core tip is roughly 6300 degrees Fahrenheit.
3.6.1 Principle electric arc welding
Metals such as zinc, copper, manganese steel, and cast iron are welded with it. When this flame
The operating idea of arc winding is that during a welding operation, heat can be generated by an
is applied to steel, molten metal forms and sparks off, suggesting that the steel is receiving an
electric arc strike between the workpiece and an electrode. This is a blazing electrical discharge
excess of oxygen. It is not utilised to weld steel because it makes it porous, oxidised, and brittle.
between two electrodes in an ionised gas. An electric arc between the electrode and the work piece
3.6 Electric arc welding can produce the arc winding circuit. The temperature of the arc may reach 6500°C, which is
sufficient to join the work piece's edges. When a long join is required, the arc can be shifted
The first arc welding technology was created in the nineteenth century, and it became
through the joint line. Once the back edge of the pool hardens to form the connection, the weld
commercially relevant in shipbuilding during WWII. It is still an important process for automotive
pool of the front edge dissolves the welded surface whenever a filler metal is required.
and steel structure manufacturing today. This is one of the most well-known welding processes
for combining metals in industries. The joint can be made in this method of welding by melting The chemical composition of a filler metal is connected to that of the work piece. The molten
the metal with the help of electricity. As a result, it is known as an electric arc. The fundamental metal in the weld pool is chemically active and responds to the surrounding atmosphere. As a
advantage of this welding is that a high temperature may be easily created for welding. The

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result, the weld may become infected by oxide and nitride inclusion, weakening its mechanical Type of Working details Representative Figures
qualities. As a result, the weld pool can be shielded against contamination using neutral shielding Welding

gases such as helium, argon, and shielding fluxes. Shields are supplied in the form of a flux coating Metal arc Metal arc welding (MAW) is a welding procedure that
(Fig. 3.7) for the weld zone and in different forms for the electrode. Arc welding equipment welding primarily employs a metal electrode. Depending on the
primarily consists of an AC or DC machine, an electrode, a holder for the electrode, cables, cable application, this metal electrode might be consumable or
connectors, earthing clamps, a chipping hammer, a helmet, a wire brush, hand gloves, safety non-consumable. The majority of the spent consumable
goggles, sleeves, aprons, and so on. electrode can be covered by flux, and the main advantage
of this type of welding technique is that it requires less
heat than others.
Carbon arc For welding the metal joint, the carbon arc welding
welding procedure primarily employs a carbon rod as an
electrode. This is the earliest arc welding process and
requires a high current, low voltage to generate the arc.
In some situations, an arc can be created between two
carbon electrodes, a process known as twin carbon arc
welding.
Gas tungsten Tungsten inert gas welding is another name for gas
arc welding tungsten arc welding (TIGW). A non-consumable
Figure 3.7: View of the arc welding with a coated electrode tungsten electrode can be used to weld the material in this
type of welding procedure. The electrode used in this
3.6.2 Types of Arc Welding
welding can be surrounded by gases like as argon,
Arc welding is categorised into several categories, which are listed in Table 3.1 below. helium, and others. These gases will protect the weld area
Table 3.1: Types of welding from oxidation. This type of welding is suitable for

Type of Working details Representative Figures joining thin sheets.

Welding Gas Metal Metal inert gas welding (GMAW) is another name for gas
Plasma arc Plasma arc welding (PAW) is analogous to gas tungsten Arc Welding metal arc welding (GMAW) (MIGW). It employs a new
welding welding (GTAW). In this type of welding operation, an metal electrode that is shielded by a gas such as helium
arc will form between the work piece and the tungsten or argon. These gases shield the join region from
electrode. The main difference between plasma arc oxidation and create numerous layers of welding
welding and gas tungsten welding is that the electrode in material. In this sort of arc welding procedure, a filler
plasma arc welding is positioned within the torch. It is wire can be fed continuously while welding the metal
possible to heat the gas to 30koF and convert it to plasma with a non-consumable metal electrode.
in order to attack the welding region.

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Type of Working details Representative Figures Type of Working details Figure

Welding Welding
Electronic EBM, or electronic beam welding, is a method of joining
Flux Cored Shield metal arc welding is an alternative to this type of
Beam metals in which electron waves are discharged at high
Arc Welding welding. This flux-cored arc welding uses an electrode
Welding speeds to join one metal surface to another. When the
and a stable voltage power supply to generate a stable arc
electron wave hits its target, the afflicted area melts just
length. This approach protects against contagion by using
enough to merge the neighbouring component into place.
a shielding gas or the gas created by the flux.
This type of welding is particularly common in the
Electroslag This faster welding process was invented in the 1950s. industrial sector. The technology is especially beneficial
Welding This type of welding joins hefty metals for use in for aerospace and automotive firms, who utilise it to join
industrial equipment and machineries. It is derived from several metal elements within trucks, vehicles, planes, and
the copper water holders encased in the instrument used spacecraft. Because of the nature of vacuum-based
for electroslag welding, as the name implies. Throughout electronic beam welding, the approach is safe for crisis
a welding process, the water prevents liquid slag from work in vacant houses and buildings.
spreading into other areas. Atomic AHW, or atomic hydrogen welding, is an old technique
Arc Stud This technique of welding is incredibly dependable and Hydrogen for joining metals that has frequently given way to more
Welding can weld any size metal to a workpiece with the greatest Welding efficient processes such as gas metal arc welding.
weld penetration. This technique of welding may produce Tungsten welding is one application where automated
robust welds on a single side over base metals with a hydrogen welding is still used. Because tungsten is
thickness of 0.048-inch. A DC power supply, metal exceptionally heat resistant, this welding procedure is
fasteners, ferrules, and a stud welding gun can be used to safe.
create this arc. There are three typical welding processes Oxy-Fuel This type of welding employs oxygen and liquid fuel to
utilised in this welding: drawn arc, short arc stud, and gas Welding fuse metal into shape. The 20th century saw the invention
arc stud welding. During arcing, the flux is vaporised and of French engineers Charles Picard and Edmond Fouché.
responds to contaminating components in the The oxygen-generated temperature is utilised in metal
environment to keep the weld zone clean. The gas arc surface regions in this process. This welding takes
stud method uses static shielding gas rather of a ferrule performed in an enclosed environment.
or flux, making it easier to automate.
Cold Contact welding is another name for this type of welding.
Welding This technique of welding is used to join metal surfaces
3.6.3 Other types of arc welding without melting them by heat.

Most industries employ metal design, and the most often used welding has already been described.
However, various additional processes, such as the ones listed below, can also be used to join two
or more metals.

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3.6.4 Advantages of arc welding ii. For welding thin, ferrous, and non-ferrous metals

The advantages of Arc welding mainly include the following.

iii. Used to design pressure and pressure vessels

i. Arc welding offers a high welding efficiency and speed.

iv. Industrial piping developments

ii. It comes with a basic welding setup.

v. Used in the automobile and home furnishing industries

iii. It can simply be moved.

vi. Shipbuilding industries

iv. Arc welding creates a physically strong link between the welded metals.
vii. Aircraft and aerospace manufacturers

v. It ensures consistent welding quality.

viii. Auto body restorations Railroads

vi. Arc welding provides a superior welding environment.

ix. Construction, automotive, mechanical, and other industries

vii. This welding's power source is not expensive.

x. In the aerospace industry, gas tungsten arc welding is utilised to link several locations such
as sheet metals.
viii. This welding method is quick and consistent.

xi. These weldings are usually utilised for repairing dies, tools, and metals made of
ix. The welder can work with standard household current.
magnesium and aluminium.
3.6.5 Disadvantages of arc welding
xii. GTAW is widely used in the fabrication industry to weld thin workpieces, particularly
The disadvantages of Arc welding include the following.
nonferrous metals.

i. Arc welding necessitates the use of a highly skilled operator.

xiii. GTAW weldings are employed where extreme corrosion and cracking resistance
over a long length of time is required.
ii. As the electrode covering burns and decreases in thickness, the rate of deposition may be
insufficient.
xiv. It is utilised in the production of space vehicles.

iii. The electrode length is 35mm, and the electrode must be changed for the complete
xv. It is used to weld small-diameter parts and thin wall tubing, making it useful in the bicycle
production rate.
industry.

iv. These are not suitable for reactive metals like titanium and aluminium.
As a result, electric arc welding is the most adaptable welding technology. Because of advantages
such as convenience of use and high welding efficiency, electric arc welding applications are used
3.6.6 Applications of arc welding
in manufacturing industries all over the world to create strong joints. It is widely employed in a
Arc Welding applications include the following:
variety of industries for the protection of otherwise deteriorating works, including automotive,
construction, shipbuilding, and aerospace. Here's a question for you: what is the temperature range
i. Used in sheet metal welding
of arc welding?

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3.6.7 Equipments for electric arc welding Electric arc welding cables are constructed of 1000 to 2000 very small wires that are twisted
together to give the cables flexibility and mechanical strength. A rubber coating protects the cable
The various pieces of equipment necessary for electric arc welding (AC and DC) are seen in the
cables.
image (Fig. 3.8) and detailed further below. The welding machine used for electric arc welding
can either be a DC or AC welding machine.
Lugs or Cable Connectors:
The cable connections are used to connect machine switches to the welding electrode holder.
Mechanical connectors are commonly utilised because they are easily assembled and
disassembled. The cable connectors used in welding procedures are developed based on the
current rating of the cable.

3.7 Shielded metal arc welding

Figure 3.8: Requirements for electric arc welding Shielded metal arc welding (Fig. 3.9), also known as manual metal arc welding, flux shielded arc
welding, or stick welding informally, is a manual arc welding procedure that uses a consumable
AC Welding Machine:
electrode covered in flux to lay the weld. An electric current from a welding power supply, either
The step-down transformer on the AC arc welding machine reduces the input supply voltage from
alternating current or direct current, is utilised to generate an electric arc between the electrode
220 V to 80 V. The AC arc welding machine is powered by a 50 Hz or 60 Hz power supply. The
and the metals to be connected. The workpiece and electrode melt, creating a pool of molten metal
efficiency of the AC welding transformer ranges from 80% to 85%, with around 3 to 4 kWh spent
that cools to form a junction. As the weld is formed, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates,
per kg of deposit. Despite the fact that the AC welding equipment has a low power factor of 0.3
releasing vapours that act as a shielding gas and forming a layer of slag that protects the weld
to 0.4.
region from ambient contamination.
DC Welding Machine:
A motor-generator set is often used in DC arc welding machines. To provide drooping Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's first and most common welding procedures due

characteristics, the motor is a squirrel cage induction motor and the generator is a differential to its versatility and simplicity of equipment and operation. It dominates other welding methods

compound DC generator. An engine-driven generator or transformer-rectifier welding system can in the maintenance and repair business, and while flux-cored arc welding is gaining popularity,

also provide DC electricity. The energy spent per kg of deposit by a DC arc welding machine is SMAW is still widely utilised in the construction of big steel structures and industrial fabrication.

around 6 to 10 kWh, and the output voltage of the DC arc welding machine can be changed The process is typically used to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel), but it can also be

between 40 and 80 Volts and the current from 30 to 300 A. The DC arc welding motor has a used to weld aluminium, nickel, and copper alloys.

power factor of 0.6 to 0.7.

Electrode Holder:
The electrode holder is the piece of equipment used to keep the electrode at the proper angle. Arc
welding electrode holders range in size from 50 A to 500 A, depending on the current rating.

Leads or Cables:
The electric current is carried by the cables or leads from the welding machine to the work-piece.
The cables used in the welding process are flexible and constructed of copper or aluminium.
Figure 3.9: Shielded metal arc welding

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The procedure is adaptable and suited for field use, although it needs great skill. If the metal and Motion (c) Hesitant Motion (d) Weaving Motion and (e) Crescent motion). The type of oscillating
slag harden quickly enough, welding in all positions, including overhead welding, is achievable. motion and the pace of oscillations are determined by the following factors: the thickness of the
The method is almost entirely used for job-shop (non-production and general maintenance and work, the duration of the run, and the type of electrode and current level used. However, these are
repair) work, but it is also used in many high-volume operations, such as the manufacture of primarily determined by experience. Figure 4.11 shows multiple-pass welding. The brittle slag
machinery, transportation equipment, piping systems, and various structures (on-site erection) coating on the bead after the first pass (root pass) is chipped off and cleaned with a wire brush
such as buildings, trusses, machine bases, and so on. To avoid flux corrosion, the slag or molten before starting the second pass, and similarly for the subsequent passes.
flux must be removed after welding. As previously stated, coated stick electrodes are only
appropriate for manual arc welding. "Stick Welding" is another name for this technique. After
establishing the arc, the welder feeds the electrode uniformly to the job while preserving a short-
arc. To create a weld bead, the electrode is kept at an angle of 15° to 20° from the vertical on a
flat weld. The welder can control the depth to which the parent metal is melted and the rate at
which the welding pool cools by adjusting the angle of inclination of the electrode. Figure 3.11: Multipass arc welding

The electrode is moved three times during the welding operation. To maintain the arc length, the
The thermal action of the arc melts the end of the electrode and the edges of the work in metal arc
electrode is continuously fed downward along its axis. It is gradually fed along the weld, and
welding. It has been determined that molten metal drops travel through the arc at a rate of 40 m/s
finally, the electrode tip is oscillated across the weld. The electrode tip's sideways oscillating
and that the number of drops fluctuates between 10 and 30 per sec. The essential factor in high-
movement is used to: (i) obtain and maintain correct bead width. (ii) Float slag out. (iii) Ensure
quality hand arc welding is the selection of welding conditions, which are governed by the
enough penetration at the weld's margins and (iv) allow gases to escape, avoiding porosities.
electrode diameter, welding current, and voltage as (a) Electrode diameter. the diameter of the
Transverse oscillating movements of the electrode tip promote heating of the joint edges, delay
electrode will depend upon the thickness of the metal being welded and the type of the joint.
cooling of the molten pool of deposited metal, allow for a more homogenous, sound efficient, and
Electrode diameter, according to the thickness of the metal to be welded, is given below:
robust weld.

Metal thickness, mm: Upto 2 2 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 8 over 8

Electrode diameter, mm: 2 3 4 5 5-6

(b) Welding current. the amplitude of the welding current is determined by the following
factors: the thickness of the welded metal, the type of joint, the welding speed, the position of the
weld, the thickness and type of coating on the electrode, and the electrode's working length.
However, for practical reasons, the welding current is governed by the electrode diameter chosen,
as shown below:

Welding current, I = k. d, amperes; d is in mm,

where k = a constant = 45 to 60 for ordinary steel electrodes
Figure 3.10: Various oscillating motions of electrode tip
= 18 to 22 for graphic
The numerous oscillating motions of the electrode tip are depicted in Fig. 3.10. Various = 5 to 8 for carbon electrodes
Oscillating Motions of Electrode Tip could be (a) Width of Deposit Figure 8 Motion (b) Circular In general practice, welding is performed with currents over 50 A.

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(c) Voltage: The arc voltage depends only upon the arc length. where the feeds of both the electrode and granular flux are controlled, Fig. 3.12. The method is
It is given by the relation: V = k1 + k2 l, volts, also adaptable for semiautomatic equipment where the feed of the electrode and granular flux are
Where l is the arc length in mm and k1 and k2 are constants, controlled manually. This method is characterised by good appearing welds, high welding speeds
k1 = 10 to 12 and and high welding currents up to several thousand amperes. Because of the large diameter
k2 = 2 to 3 electrodes which can be used, rather large welds can be made in one single pass in plates over 25
The minimum Arc voltage is given by Vmin = (20 + 0.04 I), Volt mm thick. Deep penetration is also obtained.

(d) Arc length: It is the distance between the end of the electrode and the surface of the molten
metal on the work, as previously specified. A short arc length is required for good welding
because:

1. That permits the heat to be concentrated on the joint.

2. It is more stable due to the reduced arc blow effect.
3. The molten weld pool is protected from atmosphere due to the vapours surrounding the
electrode metal and molten weld pool.

A long arc, on the other hand, causes: (i) significant heat loss into the atmosphere, resulting in Figure 3.12: Submerged Arc Welding
poor penetration and fusion; (ii) an unstable arc due to the increasing effect of the magnetic arc
below; and (iii) the weld pool is not protected from the atmosphere. As a result of the absorption Since the granular flux must cover the joint to be welded, this method is restricted to making
of O2 and N2, the weld becomes polluted, and (iii) the weld has low strength (due to large straight welds in the flat position. Thus it is suitable for steel line pipes, boiler pressure vessels,
porosity), poorer ductility, poor fusion, and extensive spatter. railroad tank cars, structural shapes and cylinders etc. and also for circular welds if the workpiece
is rotated under the welding head. Double submerged arc welding (with one weld from the inside,
The arc length is determined by the following factors: I the type of electrode used, (ii) its coating, the other from the outside) is used in making spiral- welded pipelines. It can also be used with
(iii) its diameter, (iv) the current employed, and (v) the position of welding. Vertical, horizontal, welding robots, with the workpiece manipulated into appropriate positions. Submerged arc
and overhead welding often require shorter arc lengths than flat welding. As previously stated, an welding can be used to weld low C- steels, high strength low alloy steels, chromium steels, and
arc length of 0.6 to 0.8 times the electrode diameter can be used to provide the stable arc required austenitic chromium-nickel steels. With special methods, it is also possible to weld high-alloy air
for high quality welding. Except for pure copper, aluminium, and several low melting point and hardening steels.
reactive metals, SMAW is applicable to practically all metals and alloys.
Advantages: 1. Joints can be prepared with a shallow V-groove, resulting in lesser electrode
3.8 Submerged arc welding consumption. 2. Wire electrodes are inexpensive. 3. Weld spatters are eliminated. 4. Nearly 100%

In this, coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a bare wire electrode and the deposition efficiency is achieved.
work. The weld zone is shielded by a blanket of fusible granular flux material supplied directly
Limitations: 1. It cannot be used for plates less than 5 mm thick. 2. It cannot cut C.I. because of
on the weld seam ahead of the electrode to shield the arc. Pressure is not used and molten filler
high heat input. 3. Slag has to be removed continuously after it has melted in order to avoid
metal is obtained from the electrode. The flux also acts as a deoxidizer and scavenger and may
entrapment between passes.
contain powder metal alloying elements. The method can be used in fully automatic equipment

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3.9 TIG welding welding uses a normal filler wire. Hot wire welding heats up the wire beforehand by passing a
current through it. This can increase the amount of deposition per unit time. Since about three
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding (Fig. 3.13) uses an inert gas for welding where in arc does not
times the amount of filler material can be melted compared with cold wire welding, welding can
throw sparks and can be used to weld various metals, including stainless steel, aluminum, and
be completed more quickly. Hot wire welding makes up for the weakness of TIG welding where
iron. Non-consumable tungsten is used for the discharging electrode and an inert gas such as argon
it can provide high-quality welding but takes time to melt the necessary amount of filler material.
or helium is used as the shielding gas.
Shielding gas in TIG is selected according to the material being welded like:

 Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which can be used for welding a wide
range of materials including steels, stainless steel, aluminium and titanium.

 Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas slightly
reducing, assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without surface oxidation. As
the arc is hotter and more constricted, itpermits higher welding speeds. Disadvantages
include risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon steels and weld metal porosity in aluminium
alloys.
Figure 3.13: TIG Welding

 Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise the temperature of
The process strikes an arc in an inert gas and uses the arc heat to melt and weld the base material.
the arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and deeper weld penetration. Disadvantages
Although a filler material is used, spatter is rare because the weld area is covered with the inert
of using helium or a helium/argon mixtureis the high cost of gas and difficulty in starting
gas and the arc is stable. The unique aspects of TIG welding are the absence of physical contact
the arc.
between the electrode and the metal pieces and that the electrode is not consumed in the
process. As a result, the arc is stable and clean and produces aesthetically pleasing welds. A semi- TIG welding equipment is more expensive than MIG or stick welding gear. There are affordable
automatic TIG welding machine mainly consists of: Welding power supply, Welding torch and TIG welders on the market, but they don’t offer all of the previously discussed functions for arc
Gas cylinder and gas flow controller. Some other instruments are added when the torch is a water- control. Other necessary equipment for TIG welding includes as given below in Table 3.2:
cooled type or the filler material is a wire. The polarity of the electric current (positive or negative)
should be selected depending on the base material. Consequently, the welding power supply Table 3.2: Equipment for TIG welding
requires a controller for selecting the polarity according to the base material.
Equipment Usages
There are various types of TIG welding that can be classified according to the use of AC or DC TIG welder This is most expensive piece of the setup. The TIG welding machine must
power, the use of pulse or non-pulse current, and whether a filler wire is used or not. AC or DC support AC TIG output to weld aluminum.
is selected depending on the base material. A pulse or non-pulse current can be selected. The
Tungsten Lanthanum, cerium, thorium, and pure tungsten rods are most commonly
method using a pulse current is called pulse TIG welding. In pulse TIG welding, the welding
electrode used. Thoriated tungsten is radioactive, but lanthanum is an excellent, safe
current is changed alternately at a constant frequency between a pulse current and a base current.
substitute.
The base material melts while the pulse current flows, and cools while the base current flows.
Filler rods Use ER70S-6 for general mild steel, ER308 for standard 200 and 300-series
This creates weld spots periodically, resulting in a bead looks like a string of beads. There are two
stainless steels, and ER4043 for most aluminum applications.
types of TIG welding that use a filler wire: cold wire welding and hot wire welding. Cold wire

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Equipment Usages behaviour, careful attention must be paid to edge preparation (machined rather than hand-
Shielding gas Buy and refill, don’t rent. It’s cheaper that way. Read our guide on prepared), joint fit-up and control of welding parameters.
tank shielding gas tank sizes here, or just get an 80CF argon gas bottle that works
3.10 MIG welding
great for most jobs and workloads
Welding helmet The hood should be rated for low TIG amperage if welding thin materials MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding (Fig. 3.14) is another method of arc welding. As with TIG
that require a low amp start. welding, an inert gas is used for the shielding gas, but MIG welding is a consumable electrode

Gloves Don’t use heavy-duty gloves for MIG or stick welding. Use light, flexible type of welding that uses a discharge electrode that melts during welding. Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

goatskin gloves designed for TIG. welding was first patented in the USA in 1949 for welding aluminium. The arc and weld pool
formed using a bare wire electrode was protected by helium gas, readily available at that time.
Foot pedal It allows you to moderate the amperage output in real-time, but not all
From about 1952, the process became popular in the UK for welding aluminium using argon as
welding machines support foot pedal connection.
the shielding gas, and for carbon steels using CO2. CO2 and argon-CO2 mixtures are known as
3.9.1 Advantages of TIG welding metal active gas (MAG) processes. MIG is an attractive alternative to MMA, offering high
deposition rates and high productivity. The process is generally used for joining stainless steel or
Maximum joint quality, Welds almost all materials, Perfect for thin stock, Low chance of weld
aluminum alloy workpieces. For iron and steel, the shielding gas made of argon and a small
contamination, Weld with or without filler metal, No spatter or smoke, It doesn’t require flux or
amount of CO2 or oxygen is used.
slag, Allows welding in all positions, Maximum control over arc and heat input, Provides
excellent visibility of arc and weld pool and TIG makes the best-looking welds.

3.9.2 Disadvantages of TIG welding:

It’s a challenging process to learn, TIG welding is a slow process, which reduces productivity,
Small mistakes in travel speed, amperage output, pulse settings, or tungsten preparation can
significantly impair weld quality, Welding outdoors blows away the shielding gas and Expensive
equipment.

3.9.3 Applications of TIG welding (a) (b)

TIG welding is applied in all industrial sectors but is especially suitable for high quality welding. Figure 3.14: MIG welding.
In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material or controlled penetration
An appropriate type of shielding gas must be used depending on the metal to be welded. A coiled
(in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate can be quite low (using a separate filler
welding wire is used for the electrode. The coiled wire is attached to the wire feed unit and is sent
rod) MMA or MIG may be preferable for thicker material and for fill passes in thick-wall pipe
automatically to the torch tip by a feed roller that is driven by an electric motor. The wire is
welds.
energized when it passes through the contact tip. An arc is struck between the wire and base
material, which melts the wire and base material simultaneously to weld them. During the process,
TIG welding is also widely applied in mechanised systems either autogenously or with filler wire.
However, several 'off the shelf' systems are available for orbital welding of pipes, used in the
the shielding gas is supplied through a nozzle into the weld area and its surroundings to shield the
arc and weld pool from the atmosphere. A semi-automatic MIG welding machine mainly consists
manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The systems require no manipulative skill, but the
of: Welding power supply, Wire feed unit, Welding torch and Gas cylinder.
operator must be well trained. Because the welder has less control over arc and weldpool

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Since MIG welding is often used for welding aluminum, the wire feed unit has to be improved to fusion or other welding defects may result. To prevent this problem, the arc voltage must be
allow stable feeding of soft aluminum wire (four-roll system). decreased a little to allow welding in small spray transfer mode. Spray MIG welding is no longer
commonly used because pulse MIG welding that can handle workpieces with low to medium
thickness has become common.

Large-current MIG welding uses welding wires with thick diameters (approx. 3.2 to 5.6 mm 0.13"
to 0.22"). The welding system includes a welding torch with double-shielded gas nozzle and a
constant-current characteristic power supply with a rated output current of about 1,000 A.

MIG welding using DC and pulse current is also called conventional pulse MIG welding. The
basic principle is the same as that of pulse MAG welding. This welding method passes a small

Figure 3. 15: MIG setup base current to maintain an arc and a pulse current exceeding the critical current alternately to
allow spray droplets to transfer from the wire even when the average current drops below the

MIG welding can be classified according to its use of AC or DC, or a pulse or non-pulse current critical current. They ensure effective and high quality welding of thin to thick plates.

as described below:
Low-frequency superimposed pulse MIG welding is a method developed based on pulse MIG
welding to achieve high-value added welding of aluminum workpieces. Since the process can
create beautiful scale-like beads, it is used to weld thin aluminum plates for automobiles or
motorbikes.

3.10.1 Application of MIG welding

Used for most types of sheet metal welding, Fabrication of pressure vessels and steel structures
and Automotive industry and home improvement industry.

3.10.2 Advantages of MIG welding

Creates high-quality welds, Minor weld splatter, can be used to join dissimilar metals, and can be
fully or semi-automatic and good weld speed.

3.10.3 Disadvantages of MIG welding

Short-arc MIG welding is a welding method that uses the short-circuit transfer (short arc)
phenomenon. It is often used in semi-automatic systems intended for thin plates due to the low Unsuitable for outside welding, Unsuitable for thick metals and Needs metal preparation.

heat input to the base material. In case of MIG welding, such workpieces are often welded with 3.10.4 Similarity of principle with MIG and TIG welding
pulse MIG welding.
MIG and TIG welding operate under a similar principle; heat generated by an electrical current
Spray MIG welding is a process that sets the welding current higher than the critical current to set melt the base materials and/or bonding materials, which, when cooled, form a solid joint. Despite
a higher arc voltage. It uses the spray transfer phenomenon where the molten filler material similarities between the two processes, they remain distinct in their benefits and best use cases.
vaporizes. When an aluminum workpiece is welded such that no spatter is generated, lack of Both MIG and TIG welding can be used on a wide range of metals, with MIG welding more

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suitable for thick materials and TIG more appropriate for thin materials. Typical weld materials heat.
include aluminum, carbon steel, and stainless steel.
A special feature of resistance welding is the rapid heating of the surface being welded (in
3.11 Resistance welding hundredths of a second) due to the application of currents of high amperage. The advantages of
the resistance welding are: The heat is localised, action is rapid, no filler metal is needed, the
Resistance welding is the joining of metals by applying pressure and passing current for a length
operation requires little skill and can be easily mechanised and automated, suitable for large
of time through the metal area which is to be joined. The key advantage of resistance welding is
quantity production, all the common metal and dissimilar metals can be resistance welded, the
that no other materials are needed to create the bond, which makes this process extremely cost
parent metal is normally not harmed and none is lost, many difficult shapes and sections can be
effective.
processed, and a high degree of reliability and reproductibility can be achieved.

The main disadvantage is high cost of equipment, and there are limitations to the types of joints
made. The resistance welding process finds extensive application in construction and the
engineering industries. There are six types of resistance welding processes: (1) resistance spot
welding (2) resistance seam welding (3) projection welding (4) flash welding (5) upset welding,
and (6) percussion welding, which differ primarily by the types and shapes of weld electrodes that
are used to apply the pressure and conduct the current. The electrodes, typically manufactured
from copper based alloys due to superior conductive properties, are cooled by water flowing
through cavities inside the electrode and the other conductive tooling of the resistance welding
machine.

Resistance welding machines are designed and built for a wide range of automotive, aerospace
Figure 3.16: Resistance Welding and industrial applications. Through automation, the action of these machines is highly controlled
and repeatable allowing manufacturers to staff production readily.
The amount of heat generated at the contacting area of the elements to be welded, is determined
from Joule’s law: 3.11.1 Resistance spot welding (RSW)
Q = I2 .R. t.k joules,
In resistance spot welding (Fig. 3.17), the overlapping metal parts are held between two bar type

Where I = current in amperes, R = resistance of the circuit at the contacting area of the elements metal electrodes which apply pressure, while an electric current is passed through them, Fig. 3.17

in ohms, t = time during which the current flows, in seconds, k = a constant to account for losses When the current is switched on and applied for a predetermined number of cycles (in the

due to radiation and conduction. k is usually < 1. automotive industry 20 - 30 cycles), the lapped pieces of metal are heated in a restricted area.

The voltage can be low, typically 0.5 to 10V, but currents are very high (thousands of amperes).
Metals can be joined by this process using both alternating and direct current. However, heavy
currents (upto 10k A) can be easier and more efficiently applied through transformers, and
therefore, in practice only alternating current is used in resistance welding. Materials of high heat
conductivity and specific heat (Al and Cu) call for very high currents to prevent dissipation of

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as in railway car building and the instrument industry and for making reinforcement in concrete
construction etc.

Spot welding is primarily restricted to thin metals (for example 0.025 to 3.2 mm thick for steel
and magnesium and 4 mm thick for aluminium), namely steels, stainless steels, aluminium,
magnesium, nickel, nickel alloys, bronze and brass. Some dissimilar metals can be spot welded,
but with difficulty.

The method is also difficult to use for highly conducting materials like Al and Mg. (a) The
diameter of spot welds, d = 1.4 t + 4 mm, for t < 3 mm = 1.5 t + 5 mm, for t > 3 mm where t =
Figure 3.17: Resistance spot welding
Thickness of parts being welded. (b) Spacing of spot welds = 3d.
The generated heat melts the surface layer of the metal in the central, more highly heated, area of
[Link] Resistance Spot welding machines.
contact with the electrodes, and the adjacent layers of metal are softened to a plastic state. Then
the current is switched off and the electrodes are pressed and the pressure is released only after There are three types of spot welding machines which are in use:
the weld stop (nugget) has solidified. The spot weld (nugget) is approximately the same size as
I. Standard machines.
the electrode tip, usually between 3 or 6 mm in diameter. Electrode tip diameter Thickness of
II. Special multiple-electrode machines
plate to be welded. Distance between the nearest edge of the plate and centre of weld = 1.5 ×
III. Portable welders
electrode tip diameter. The sheet surface shows a slight depression and decolouration. The
welding cycle to produce one spot can be written as:
I. Standard Machines. These machines have an upper and lower horn (arm) carrying the
(i) Position the workpieces and squeeze between the electrodes. electrodes and extending from an upright frame. The upper horn is movable (up and down) while
(ii) Apply a low voltage current to the electrodes. the lower horn is fixed. There are two designs of standard machines: (i) Rocker arm type (ii) Press
(iii) Hold until the proper temperature is attained. type spot or projection welders.
(iv) Release current, continue pressure.
(v) Release pressure and remove work. (i) Rocker Arm Type Machine. In this machine (Fig. 3.18), the movable horn is mounted on a
rocker arm which is pivoted in the frame. It is tilted upward to open the gap and downward to
The electrode pressure can be in the range of upto 2 kN The electrodes used must possess high
apply the pressure, by the rocking action of the upper arm (the lower electrode arm being
electrical and thermal conductivity and retain the required strength at temperatures upto 400°C.
stationary). This design is adaptable to a wide range of work, usually for light production work
Electrodes are made of cold-rolled electrolytic copper with some Cd, Cr, or Be additions, or
with lighter gauges. The throat depth (distance from the face of the upright frame to the end of
copper - tungsten or molybdenum alloys. Electrodes are usually of hollow construction and are
the horn) is about 1.2 m for these machines. These machines are of two types :
cooled with water during operation to prevent their overheating.

Because of the widespread application of sheet metal parts, resistance spot welding finds
extensive application in the aircraft and automobile industries for manufacturing air frames and
bodies (there are some 8000 to 10,000 spot welds per car), attaching handles of cookware, as well

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II. Special Multiple Electrode Machines. These machines are employed for high-production
jobs. (i) In one system, there is one common welding transformer and a hydraulic cylinder for
each electrode pair. The electrodes are brought in contact with the work one pair at a time. (ii) In
another system, all electrode pairs are pressed together against the work at one time, and the
current from the transformer secondary is commutated to one electrode pair at a time. Some
machines have a separate transfer and controls for each electrode pair.

III. Portable Spot Welding Guns. These welders are used when the work is too large to be
Figure 3.18: Rocker-arm spot welding machine moved to a welding machine, for example, trucks and railroad cars. The gun consists of a
transformer and controls in a case, usually hung from the ceiling, with leads and an air line to a
(a) Foot Type. When the foot treadle is pressed down, the two electrodes are brought together. pair of jaws. This permits bringing the welding unit and the operator to work. The jaws carry the
The welding pressure is then transmitted to the work through a compression spring on the rear rod electrodes and can be moved about in the work area. The jaws are closed by an air cylinder and
(see Fig. 3.18, where an air cylinder is shown in place of a rod, the other construction of the the electrodes bite like teeth on the work and pass current to make the weld. These guns ca make
machine is same). After a suitable amount of compression is obtained, the welding circuit is closed 200 spots/minute.
by means of a mechanical switch. As the compression movement of the rear rod follows through,
the switch trip opens and welding current ceases to flow. Releasing the pressure on the foot treadle 3.11.2 Resistance seam welding (RSW)
opens the electrodes and resets the trip switch. To obtain a series of spot welds along a line by the RSW method, an interrupted work movement
will be necessary. The same result can be achieved much more conveniently and rapidly in the
(b) Air Operated Machines. In this design, a double acting air cylinder replaces the rear rod and
resistance seam welding where the electrodes are in the form of rotating disc electrodes, with the
compression spring, (Fig. 3.18).
working being welded moving continuously by the electrodes, (Fig. 3.20).

Press Type Machine. The name comes from straight line vertical stroke of the upper welding
head. The straight line motion is provided by an air or hydraulic cylinder, (Fig. 3.19). These
machines are used for mass production. The throat depth for these machines is about 1.5m.

Figure 3.20: Resistance seam welding

Seam welding may be either intermittent (stitch seam or spaced spots) or continuous seam (over

Figure 3.19: Press type spot welding machine lapping seam). In the former case, a current interrupter is employed. When the a.c. is left on, a

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spot weld is made every time the current reaches its peak, and the welds are spaced close enough steel plates in car bodies. Because of their higher thermal conductivity, the method is especially
to give a gas and liquid- tight joint. The rollers are made of the same materials as the electrodes suitable for copper, aluminium, brass etc.
for sport welding.
Projections at the point of contact should be approximately = 10 to 80% of the sheet thickness. If
Rollers may vary in diameter from 40 to 350 mm. Welding currents range from 2000 to 5000A pieces of unequal thickness are to be welded, jobs of bigger thickness should have the projections
while the force applied to the rollers may be as high as 5 to 6 kN. Welding speeds range is to develop uniform heating of the two pieces.
commonly from 0.5 to 3.5 m/min. In most cases of seam welding, a stream of water is directed
3.12 Welding defects
over the disc electrodes and the area of the work pieces being welded to keep everything cool
except the joint interface. When a weld is completed, the parent (base) metal is hottest at the point of fusion. The temperature
of the base metal progressively decreases further away from the center of fusion zone. Due to this
Seam welding is used in the manufacture of tanks, tubes and other articles of steel and nonferrous
temperature gradient, a fusion weld and the metal adjacent to it contain various zones having
metals which must have airtight joints. Seam welding is primarily used for quantity production
distinctly different grain structures and hence different properties. Various zones of a typical weld
but is restricted to joining metal gauges that are thinner than those which can be joined by spot
are shown in Fig. 3.22. These are:
welding. The normal range of thickness compatible with seam welding is 0.25 to 3.2 mm.
(i) Fusion Zone. It is the portion of weld in which the base (parent) metal has been fused
3.11.3 Resistance projection welding (RPW)
(melted).
The projection welding process is similar to spot welding except that the current is concentrated (ii) Heat Affectel Zone (HAZ). This is the zone wherein the base metal is metallurgically
at the spots to be welded, when small dimples or projections are embossed or coined on one of affected by the heat of welding, but is not melted.
the sheets, (Fig. 3.21). When the current is applied, the projections soften and are pushed back in (iii)Weld Metal Zone (WMZ). This is the portion of the weld which consists of weld metal.
place by the electrode pressure as the weld nuggets form. Electrodes are relatively large and This zone includes any base metal which is melted and re-solidified, as well as any filler
several welds can be made simultaneously with a single electrode, resulting in a lower cost of metal which did likewise.
operation. Also, because larger diameter electrodes can be used with a greater heat capacity, the (iv) Weld Zone. Weld Zone = WMZ + HAZ
need for water cooling is often eliminated. The projections tend to localize the heat, permitting
thicker materials to be welded resulting in a stronger weld structure than that obtained with spot
welding. Unlike spot welding, the method leaves no depression on the free surface.

Figure 3.22: Welding zones

Figure 3.21: Resistance projection welding The welded joint should be free from any defect that would make it unsuitable for its intended

Projection welding is used extensively by Automobile industry for joining nuts, bolts and studs to purpose. The principal defects to be found in welded joints are shown in Fig. 3.23.

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With thick parts, the weld zone is normally a small spot within a large mass of cooler metal. Heat
1. Cracks. Cracks that occur in or near a weld act as stress raisers which make the service life of
flows off rapidly into the surrounding metal. When the welding is completed, what is called a
the weldment very unreliable. Welding cracks are of the following types: (a) Micro-cracks. They
‘‘mass quench’’ results. This causes hard martensite to form in hardenable steel in part or all of
are very small and are revealed only under a microscope. (b) Macro-cracks. These cracks can be
the zone heated above the critical temperature. The martensite is brittle and does not yield but
seen by the unaided eye or by the use of a low power (5 to 10 X) magnifier. (c) Fissures. These
breaks when the stresses in the weld becomes high enough. Formation of martensite must be
are wide cracks which emerge to the surface of the metal.
avoided. The more hardenable the steel, the slower must be the rate of cooling. The parts should
also be preheated to retard the cooling rate.

Heating and cooling cause expansion and contraction in the weld. The metal in the joint is hotter
and tends to shrink more on cooling than the bulk of the metal on either side. If the members being
welded are restrained in a fixture or by a structure to which they are attached, high stresses are
induced across the weld and thus cause cracking. Even if cracking does not occur, residual
welding zones. The stresses may impair fatigue strength and cause warpage or distortion when
they are unbalanced by later machining. These can be prevented by: using as thin material and as
little filler metal as possible, preheating to minimize temperature difference between the weld and
the base metal, and welding from the inside or confined portion of a structure to the outside or
Figure 3.23: Welding defects
points of most freedom, a minimum number of welds and the maximum use of intermittent welds.
Cracks may occur at the following locations: (i) In the weld (Fuse) Metal Zone (ii) In the Base
metal zone and (iii) Sometimes, the cracks originate in one Zone and then spread to the other Gases such as O2, N2 and H2 are readily absorbed by the molten weld metal. As the molten metal

Zone. cools, its solubility for these gases diminishes and the gases try to escape. If they are not able to

Cracks in the base metal usually occur at low temperatures (around 200°C) and are known as Cold escape and remain within the weld, they will cause porosity and gas pockets in the weld. If they

cracks, On the other hand, the cracks in the weld metal zone occur while the metal is still very are able to reach just under the outer surface and are not able to escape (if the metal has cooled),

hot. Such cracks are called hot cracks. Cracks in the weld may be due to structural stresses in the they exert pressure and crack the metal. H2 is a major cause of cracking in steel. Cracking due to

metal (for example, the formation of martensite), heavy shrinkage, extra high amount of sulphur, gases can be avoided by preventing the evolution of these gases during welding (by thoroughly

phosphorous or carbon in the metal, excessively rigid clamping of the parts being welded or the cleaning the joint from moisture, oil, grease, paint etc.) and absorbing of these gases from the

presence of gases in the weld metal. atmosphere (by proper shielding). Slow cooling also eliminates cracking as the gases are able to
escape.
Cold cracking can occur due any to the following several factors: improper welding conditions,
the presence of gas and other impurities in the weld, wrong choice of filler rod and metallurgical 2. Undercut. An undercut is a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe of the weld,

factors such as excessive cooling rate resulting in the formation of martensite and formation of Fig. 3.24. The reasons for this can be: non-uniform feed of the filler rod, improper position of the

brittle phases in the weld when cold or the formation of phases which are brittle at high electrode or torch tip or excessive heating. Undercutting can sometimes be corrected by adding

temperatures [Allotropic transformations]. Cracks in the base metal can occur due to the additional metal to fill the groove.

following reasons: Corrosion, Base metal defects, Base metal composition variations, hydrogen
3. Porosity or voids. Blowholes and gas pockets weaken welds appreciably and act as stress
embrittlement and internal stresses set up due to restrained shrinking after welding.
raisers from which cracks spread. The causes of these defects and the remedies have already been

The phenomenon of cracks can be explained as below: discussed above under cracking defect.

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Figure 3.25: Brazing / soldering

Figure 3.24: Undercut
The brazing process is described as the joining of two metal components heated to acceptable
4. Inclusions. Inclusions usually refer to slag but may be scale or dirt entrapped in the weld temperatures using a filler metal with a liquidus greater than 427°C and less than the solidus of
deposit during welding. The inclusions are due to the contamination of the base metal and the the base metals. Capillary attraction distributes the filler metal between the closely fitting surfaces
deposited metal by oxides, non-uniform melting of the electrode coating, high melting point and of the joint.
high viscosity of the slag or insufficient deoxidising of the metal in the weld.

5. Lack of fusion. It is the lack of coalescence between the deposited and the base metal or
incomplete penetration of the weld metal into the base metal. The usual cause is in ability to raise
the temperature of the base metal to its melting point, and faulty welding conditions and/or
techniques.

6. Burning. It is oxidation of the metal in the weld and adjacent base metal. It is caused by a Figure 3.26: Brazing joints
strong oxidising medium, an arc of excessive length or excessively high welding current.
The base metal of the two components to be connected is not melted during brazing. Even though
7. Internal residual stresses and distortion. Internal residual stresses and distortion or warping the base metal does not reach its solidus temperature, some diffusion or alloying of the filler metal
have already been discussed under ‘cracking’ with it occurs. The stronger the mechanical strength of the joint, the greater the degree of adhesion
and inter-diffusion between the molten filler metal and the base metals. The primary prerequisite
3.13 Brazing and soldering for achieving this and obtaining a strong bond is that the filler metal thoroughly wet the base metal

Brazing/ soldering (Fig. 3.25) is a method of connecting that does not involve the melting of the surfaces. As a result, the surfaces must be clean and devoid of impurities that would interfere with

base materials. It instead employs a filler substance (brazing paste or soft filler material, such as adhesion.

solder) that melts at a lower temperature than the base materials. Flux is used in filler materials to
Thus, scale is removed mechanically (with a steel wire brush or emery cloth) or chemically (by
facilitate appropriate connecting with the base material. Pipes, connectors, and valves requiring
pickling in acids), while heavy oily residues (oil, grease, paint, and so on) are removed by
leak tightness; pressure vessels requiring pressure resistance and leak tightness; and car parts
degreasing with hot alkaline solutions or organic solvents. Again, when the assembly is heated to
requiring corrosion and heat resistance are all applications for brazing/soldering. Electronic
melt the filler metal, oxides may develop, preventing the molten filler metal from contacting the
circuits, electrical connectors, and precision electronic components are all commonly soldered
surfaces. This can be overcome by I performing brazing in a vacuum or an appropriate (neutral or
using a soft filler material (solder).
reducing) environment, and (ii) applying fluxes to assure wetting of the surfaces.

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3.13.1 Steps in Brazing slurry. Borax is utilised as fused borax because water in it causes bubbling during heating. A paste
can be made by combining alcohol and fused borax. Most fluxes are corrosive, therefore the
(i) The surfaces to be joined are cleaned (and subsequently rinsed and dried) and fitted closely
residue should be removed from the work when the brazing is finished.
together. (ii) A flux is applied to all surfaces where the filler metal is to flow. (iii) After that, the
joint is heated to the proper brazing temperature.
3.13.3 Filler materials

Solid filler metal may be preplaced on the metal pieces and thus melted as the metal pieces are The filler metal or the braze metal must:
heated, or it may be applied to the metal pieces after the brazing temperature is reached. Only a i. wet the base metal surfaces at the junction.
small amount of filler metal is needed to fill the joint completely, (Fig. 3.26), which shows the ii. be fluid enough to penetrate crevices. Capillary attraction requires a very small clearance
various ways of placing the filler metal at the joint. Some other commonly used joints in brazing between the parts being joined (0.03 to 0.05 mm), else the filler metal will run out of the joint.
are shown in Fig. 3.27. A joint's strength decreases as its clearance increases.
iii. have a restricted melting range.
iv. do not cause galvanic corrosion during service.

The filler metal is added to the joint region in the form of wire, strip, preforms, powder, or paste,
as described above in step (iii) under "steps in brazing." Alternatively, the filler metal is pre-
applied as a coating or cladding to the surface of one of the contacting parts, often by rolling,
electrolytic deposition, or hot dipping. Table 4.3 lists typical filler metals for various base metal
classes. Because the base metals are not melted, the composition of the brazing metal is always
different from that of the base metals. Higher melting point brazing metals will generally provide
Figure 3.27: Brazing Joints Types greater strength, however this may have an effect on the strength of the base metals. These brazing

3.13.2 Fluxes metals, sometimes known as 'hard solders,' are based on Ag, Cu, and Ni.

Fluxes are used to keep the base metal and filler metal from oxidising during brazing, to generate Table 3.3: Brazing materials
a fusible slag of any oxides that may be present or formed, and to encourage the free flow of the
filler metal by capillary attraction. The following are the prerequisites for a good flux:
a) It melts at a low enough temperature to keep the base metals and filler components from
oxidising.
b)Because of its low viscosity, it is replaced by the molten filler metal.
c) It may react with surfaces to make wetting easier.
d)It protects the joint while the filler is still wet.
e) It is reasonably simple to remove after the filler has solidified.
f) It reduces the surface tension of the molten filler metal, allowing it to flow into the joint.

Common fluxes are compounds of borates, fluorides, chlorides, borax, and boric acid in varied
amounts based on specific requirements Fluxes are employed in the form of powder, paste, or

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3.13.4 Brazing methods 3.13.5 Braze welding

The numerous brazing procedures are listed below, depending on the heat source used to melt the It differs from traditional brazing in that a significantly larger gap is filled with brazing brass using
brazing metal. a torch. Capillary motion has no role in the formation of the joint here. The method is also used
a) Torch Brazing. A joining method that uses acetylene, natural gas, butane, or propane in to repair iron and steel castings. Bronze rods can also be used to fill grooves and fillets, and the
combination with air or oxygen to provide the heat needed to melt the filler rod and diffuse procedure is known as "Bronze welding." The technique is very beneficial for mending cast iron
it into the base metal's surface. This method is not often employed in continuous mass castings. Straight welding needs complete preheating of the casting, which is not always desirable
production. The flux used is either a paste or a powder. or practicable. Brasses and bronzes are stronger and more ductile than cast iron, and they form a
b) Furnace Brazing. This is a high-volume manufacturing technique in which heat is supplied strong and satisfying bond with the base metal. Because the base metal is neither fused nor
by gas or electric heating coils. The furnaces are either box (batch) or continuous. The latter strongly heated, internal tensions are maintained to a minimum, and cooling cracking is unlikely.
uses a wire mesh belt to convey the brazed components. Prior to entering the furnace, Silver Brazing. When silver alloys are used for brazing, the process is known as "Silver brazing,"
prefabricated shapes of filler metal are placed on the components to be connected. The which is also known as "Silver Soldering" or "Hard soldering." Because the filler metal is more
method lends itself well to large output. If an inert environment is maintained in the furnace, expensive, the process is more expensive than plain brazing. The approach is preferred when a
the need of flux can be avoided. The flux is applied as a paste. superior joint is desired and a modest amount of filler metal is required. It is commonly employed
c) Induction Brazing. The filler metal is likewise employed in the premade shape here. Heat is in the electrical and refrigeration industries and is particularly popular in small area repair work.
applied to the parts by placing them in the field of a high frequency induction coil. Because
3.13.6 Advantages of brazing
the pieces to be linked give electric-magnetic resistance to the changing induction field, eddy
currents are used to heat them. Heating is very fast, and heat can be applied in the local area 1. Brazing involves lower temperatures than fusion welding. This reduces distortion and enables
of the brazed joint by properly structuring the induction coils. The procedure can be for joining at lower preheat temperatures than fusion welding. As a result, medium and high
automated. The flux is applied as a paste. carbon steels and C.I. that harden in the heat affected zone and may break can be brazed or
d) Dip Brazing. dip brazing is of two kinds : (i) In chemical dip brazing, pieces containing braze welded with little or no significant hardening.
prepared filler metal are immersed in a molten flux bath. (ii) The completed pieces are 2. Almost all typical engineering materials can be brazed or braze welded successfully.
prefluxed before being immersed in a molten bath of filler metal in the molten metal bath 3. Brazing can generate inaccessible joint locations that could not be formed by MIG or TIG
process. The first method is more suited for combining large pieces, whilst the latter is limited techniques, as well as spot or seam welding.
to small parts. 4. Brazing can be used to join thin-walled tubes and light-gauge sheet metal components that
e) Resistance Brazing. These costly processes are only justified for precise work on high-value, cannot be bonded by welding.
high-temperature materials. In industry, only the first four brazing procedures are used. 5. Brazing can be used to unite different metals such as brass to stainless steels and carbon steels
Traditional brazing and soldering techniques can be performed in an inert gas (such as Ar) to stainless steels.
atmosphere or in a vacuum to avoid the need of flux (As in EB brazing). 6. As in furnace brazing, several joints can be created at the same time.
f) Laser Brazing and Electron Beam Brazing. These expensive procedures are only warranted 7. Can be used for joints that will need to be disassembled later.
for precise work on high-value, rather high-temperature materials. Only the first four brazing 8. A neat-looking joint that requires little cleaning.
processes are used in industry. The use of flux in traditional brazing and soldering processes 9. The procedure can be completed more swiftly and cheaply.
can be avoided by performing the process in an inert gas (such as Ar) atmosphere or in a 10. Many brazing operations can be automated.
vacuum (As in EB brazing). 11. Metallurgical damage to the base metal may be avoided due to the lower temperatures
involved when compared to fusion welding.

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3.13.7 Limitations of brazing is most suitable for electrical connections.

II. 70/30 Tin lead : Good pretinning alloy
a) Parts are of limited size. Due to the cost and availability of large equipment such as brazing
III. 60/40 Tin lead : Good electric grade solder
furnaces, very large assemblies, while brazable, can be fabricated more affordably via
IV. 50/50 Tin lead : General purpose solder
welding.
V. 32/68 Tin lead: Plumber's solder.
b) It is expensive to machine the joint edges to get the necessary fit.
VI. Tin-lead-silver solder: High temperature electrical solder for instruments.
c) A high level of skill is necessary to accomplish the brazing operations.
VII. 96.5/3.5 Tin-silver: High temperature electrical instrument solder.
3.13.8 Uses of brazing VIII. A low (<5%) tin content gives higher strength and is suitable for automotive radiators and
lock seam cans, and tubes made of tin plate.
For pipe fitting assembly, carbide tip tooling, radiators, heat exchangers, electrical parts, and
IX. 35/65 Tin Lead: Its wide freezing range makes it ideal as a wiping solder for the joining of
casting repair Brazing is a simple way to link leak-tight joints in pressured and vacuum systems.
copper tubes.
High-temperature service is provided by copper-brazed steel joints and nickel-alloy-brazed
X. Lead silver solders are used for higher temperature service. Ag: 1.5 to 3.5%. Certain other
stainless steel joints. Corrosion resistance can be offered for food-service equipment that uses
metals such as cadmium, bismuth and indium may be added for some specific purposes.
silver-brazing alloys to link stainless steels. Nickel alloy brazing is used in the chemical sector to
join corrosive stainless steels.
Because lead is poisonous, it has a negative impact on the environment. As a result, lead-free
solders are being developed and are becoming more widely used. They are employed in the
3.14 Soldering
delivery of drinking water as well as other purposes. Typical examples of it are:
Soldering is the joining of two pieces with the use of a molten filler metal whose melting point is
lower than the solidus (melting point of the base metals) and, in all situations, lower than 427°C. a) Tin-silver (given above) for electronics.
Brazed joints are stronger than soldered connections. Because of the lower working temperatures, b) Tin-Bismuth (42%, 58%) : for electronics.
wetting is more important than brazing. The soldering procedure follows the same phases as the c) Tin-zinc alloys with 9 to 100%. Zinc for soldering of aluminium in conjunction with special
brazing procedure, namely, (i) Surface preparation which involves fitting the surfaces to each fluxes.
other, cleaning them mechanically and chemically and covering the cleaned surfaces with a flux. d) Zinc-aluminium: for corrosion resistance, soldering of aluminium.
The clearance in a joint is about 0.05 to 0.20 mm (for steel) and (ii) After this, soldering proper is e) Cadmium-silver: for strength at high temperatures.
done.
3.14.1 Soldering techniques
Commonly used soldering joints are: Lap, butt, seam and pipe joints. There are two types of flux The various brazing procedures can also be utilised for soldering (flame, hot dip, resistance,
used in soldering as corrosive and non-corrosive. Zinc chloride and combinations of zinc chloride induction). Fluxless soldering of aluminium and various nonferrous metals such as silicon and
and ammonium chloride are common corrosive fluxes. To prevent corrosion, the flux must be germanium is accomplished using ultrasonic soldering (similar to ultrasonic welding).
removed after soldering. Rosin and rosin with alcohol are two common non-corrosive fluxes.
These are required for electrical connections where corrosion might result in localised high In 'Radiant heating (infrared heating),' special quartz-iodine incandescent tubular lamps that can

resistance and even loss of conduction. Tin and lead alloys in varying amounts are the most often be easily focussed to concentrate the heat at the region to be soldered are utilised. Radiant heating

used solders. Other metals in trace amounts may be added. These soldering filler metals are known can also be utilised for brazing. In "wave soldering," new, hot solder is pushed to the connections

as "Soft solders." by one or more standing waves of molten solder. The wave is created by constantly pushing solder
through a tiny hole to the surface. As the assembly goes over the waves, all of the joints are
I. 63/37 Tin-lead solder has the lowest melting point and solidifies at a constant temperature. It

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produced. The operation is continuous and only restricted in speed by time and heat needs. This 3.15.2 Face milling or vertical milling
approach is appropriate for items such as transformer terminals and container lips. The technology
The final surface in face milling is at right angles to the cutter axis and is obtained by the teeth on
is extremely useful in the assembly of printed-circuit boards.
the cutter's periphery and the flat end as shown in Fig. 3.28 (b). Methods for Creating Surfaces

Because the temperatures involved are lower, a hand-type heated copper or iron-plated copper bit Depending on the relative direction of feed of the worktable and the rotation of the cutter, there

(soldering iron) is commonly utilised. Before applying the iron to the job, the tip is tinned. The are two ways for milling flat surfaces with plain milling cutters (these cutters have teeth just on

most popular type of iron is electric, and it is utilised in numerous industries such as radio and the cutter's periphery).

electronics. To solder, the iron is heated to 250 - 300°C, the tip is soaked in flux, tinned with
[Link] Conventional (up) milling
solder, and then applied to the soldered pieces to heat them at the junction. Simultaneously, solder
is applied to the junction, where it is melted by the iron as it travels along the joint and enters the Here, the direction of feed of the worktable is opposite to the direction of rotation of the cutter as

clearing. The solder cools and produces the seam here. shown in Fig. 3.29 (a).

3.15 Introduction to milling

Milling is a machining operation that uses a revolving cutting tool to remove superfluous material
from a work item. The revolving cutting tool known as a "Milling cutter" is a multiple-point tool
with the shape of a solid of revolution with cutting teeth organised (equally spaced) on the
periphery, end face, or both. The work could be held in a vice, a three-jaw chuck, an index head,
a rotary table, between centres, in a customised fixture, or attached to the machine table. Milling
is a process that includes simultaneous rotating cutter and linear (occasionally rotary) work Figure 3.29: Up and down milling
motion, with the work fed against the cutter. The milling process is used to create flat, curved, or
helical surfaces, threads, toothed gears, and helical grooves. In general, all milling processes can [Link] Climb (down) milling

be classified into two types: The rotation of the cutter and the direction of the worktable feed are the same in this case, as
shown in Fig. 3.28 (b). In either instance, the individual milling chips have a varied thickness and
3.15.1 Peripheral milling or horizontal milling
a cross section resembling a comma. The thickness progressively grows during the cut in
Here, the finished surface is parallel to the axis of the cutter and is machined by cutter teeth located traditional milling; in climb milling, the cutter tooth takes a chip of maximum thickness at the
on the periphery of the cutter as shown in Fig. 3.28 (a). start of the cut and zero thickness at the finish. The advantages of conventional milling are that
the pressure on each cutter tooth is gradually increased and the teeth begin cutting beneath the
workpiece's metal skin. The initial tooth contact is normally in clean metal and concludes with
the rough surface scale being lifted or peeled off. As a result, this kind of milling is suited for
machining sand castings, forgings, and metals with a rough or hard abrasive surface scale.

The downsides are that the cutter tends to lift the workpiece from the worktable, and because the
teeth tend to dull, each tooth glides across the workpiece surface a minute distance before

Figure 3.28: Types of Milling Operations beginning to cut, resulting in a distinctive wavy surface. There is a propensity to lift the work
table as well as the job off the table or fixture (since the cutting forces are directed upwards). This

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increases the amount of space between the table and the bed or saddle ways. When making large 3.16.1 General purpose milling machines
cuts, such clearances cause vibrations that degrade the job's surface polish. Chips build again
The most common kinds of milling machines in this category are the column and knee type models
ahead of the cutting zone, where they can be picked up by the teeth and moved around, causing
which are all single spindle machines. The various models under this category are:
the finish to deteriorate. Furthermore, where clamping is insufficient, it is difficult to process thin
sheets and workpieces. Because the table must be fed against the cutting force, the feed motor and (a) Plain (Horizontal spindle)
main motor power consumption are higher. (b) Universal (Horizontal spindle with swivel table)
(c) Omniversal (Horizontal spindle with swivel table and swivel knee).
The work must be rigidly held to offset the tendency of the cutting forces to raise or drag the piece
(d) Vertical spindle.
out of the vise or fixture, which is advantageous for conventional milling. The advantages of climb
milling are as follows: the task is driven against the table, and the table is forced against the ways. [Link] Plain column and knee type milling machines
Excess clearance in jointing surfaces and the resulting vibrations are eliminated. Furthermore, the
This machine is called by this name because the spindle (the part that rotates) is fixed in the
chips are deposited behind the cutter, out of the way. These characteristics result in a superior
column. A block diagram of the machine is shown in Fig. 3.30 (a). The structure of the machine
surface polish than traditional milling. Again, less power is required in climb milling because the
is mounted on the base or bed of the machine
feed action consumes less power. Cutting speeds and feed rates can be increased. Thin sheets can
also be easily machined. The following criteria are favourable for climb milling: the workpiece
has no hard skin, the milling machine is in good working order, and there is no excessive backlash
in the table screw and nut, as any looseness will allow the cutter to draw the workpiece ahead and
take too large bites. The technique is typically utilised for milling operations on thin and
complicated objects.

3.16 Types of milling machines

Milling machines were basically develop-ed to machine flat surfaces. But, the present milling
machines can machine flat, contoured and helical surfaces, cut gears and do various other jobs.
.
Due to all this, a milling machine is one of the most useful and necessary machine tools found in
the shop and it ranks next to the lathe in importance. Figure 3.30: Plain column and knee type milling machine

Milling machines are designed to hold and rotate milling cutter or cutters, hold the workpiece and It provides rigidity and strength to the machine. It may also serve as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
feed the workpiece to the milling cutter in one of several directions. Milling machines can be The column is the main supporting frame. It is a heavy box like structure. Inside this is space for
classified in different ways: motor and much of the driving mechanism. The face of the column is a very accurate slide. The
“knee” slides vertically (up and down) on the column face. A feed, or elevating screw extends
(a) According to the axis of the spindle of the machine, we have: Horizontal milling machines
from the base to the knee. On top of the knee is a “saddle”. The saddle can move transversely
with horizontal spindle.
(cross Machine Tools 511 movement toward and away from the column). On top of the saddle is
(b) Vertical milling machines with vertical spindle. According to their purpose, the milling the “table”. The table moves longitudinally (back and forth) in front of the column. The surface
machines may be classified as: (i) General purpose milling machines (ii) Production milling of the table is cut with T slots to which work holding devices such as the vise can be clamped.
machines and (iii) Special purpose milling machines. The machine provides for three movements of the workpiece: (i) Vertical (up and down)

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movement of the knee (ii) Transverse or cross (in-and-out) movement of the saddle (iii)
Longitudinal movement (back-and-forth) movement of the table. Along any one of these
coordinate directions, feeding may be accomplished. Movements along the other two coordinate
directions are then used for locating the cut, which includes obtaining the depth of cut. The driving
power for all the cutting tools comes from the rotation of the spindle. This is a hollow shaft that
rotates in bearings. The front (end near the table) has a tapered hole. The arbor is an accurately
machined shaft for holding and driving the arbor-type cutter (Fig. 4.30 (b)). It is tapered at one
end to fit the spindle nose and also has two slots to fit the nose keys for locating and driving it.
When it is in place, a draw in- bar goes through the spindle and is threaded on one end to screw
into the threaded taper end of the arbor, holding the arbor tightly in place. The outer end of the
arbor is supported by an overarm support in a proper bearing. The overarm extends out from the
top of the column above the spindle. It can be moved in or out and clamped at different distances
from the column.

Figure 3.31: Vertical milling machine [6]

(a) Universal milling machine. The universal horizontal milling machine varies from the plain
horizontal milling machine in that its table may be swivelled through a 45-degree angle in the 3.16.2 Size of milling machines
horizontal plane to mill helical grooves (e.g. the helical flutes of twist drills or the teeth of helical
The sizes of column-and-knee milling machines are given in terms of the following parameters:
gears). The saddle is divided into two pieces so that the table can be rotated horizontally.
(a) Table Travel. This indicates the distance the table will move longitudinally. It can be up to the
(b) Omniversal milling machine. When compared to a universal milling machine, an omniversal range of 1.5 m. (b) In terms of the power of the machine. (c) In terms of the type of the machine:
milling machine features an additional movement. On an axis perpendicular to the column face, plain, universal, omniversal, vertical etc.
the knee can be rotated. This allows for the creation of tapered spiral grooves in reamers, teeth on
[Link] Production milling machines
bevel gears, and angular holes, among other things.
Production or Manufacturing milling machines are designed to remove metal rapidly and to
(c) Vertical milling machines. The vertical milling machine is very similar to the plain horizontal require a minimum amount of attention from the operator. The various models in this category
milling machine except that the spindle is held in a vertical position instead of horizontal. Vertical are discussed below:
milling machines are of two types: Fixed bed type, and column - and - knee type, (Fig. 3.31).
(i) Planer Type Milling Machines. A planer milling machine resembles a double column planer,
The column-and-knee type vertical machine has a vertical head and spindle, but the same feeds but it has milling heads mounted in different planes, such as vertical milling heads on the cross
and adjustments as the plain horizontal machine. The overarm provides a strong support to the rail and horizontal heads on the sides (on columns). This enables it to mill a workpiece on many
spindle. On some models, the head can be moved up and down to perform operations like sides at the same time. Planer milling machines are designed primarily for generating lengthy
grooving, slotting, die forming, facing, drilling and boring of accurate holes, with their exact straight surfaces on massive and heavy machine parts.
locations. The machine can be with a fixed head and of swiveling head type with the head
(ii) Bed Type Milling Machines. Simplex and Duplex fixed bed milling machines are smaller
swiveling around a horizontal axis.
variants of planer type milling machines with one horizontal spindle on one side or two spindles,
one on each side as shown in Fig. 3.32. These machines are larger, heavier, and stiffer than

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column-and-knee machines, and they are not suitable for tool room operations. Because the (iv) Hand Operated Millers. These machines are typically column-and-knee in design and are
spindle is fixed in a quill, the cutter can be adjusted in and out. The fixed bed only allows for common among smaller production equipment. Hand wheels or levers control table movements
regulated longitudinal travel. (which rotate a pinion that engages a rack on the underside of the table), offering high sensitivity
and making them excellent for delicate operations (light cuts) on small parts, such as slotting
screw heads. A motor powers the cutter.

(v) Continuous or Rotary Millers. These machines are usually of the vertical spindle type and
have a rotary table for feeding jobs under the cutter continuously and are normally used for facing
operations. It is used for facing automobile cylinder heads and crank pins etc. An unusual
departure from the conventional rotary machines is the rotary-head machine. Suited primarily for
tool, die, and small- quantity production, this miller adds a bit to the versatility of the rotary-table
machine but is designed for much smaller work. Intricate radial cam work can be produced readily
Figure 3.32: Duplex bed type milling machine from drawings without the use of templates or patterns.

(vi) Tracer Controlled Production Milling Machines. The vertical spindle rotary-head machine
discussed above eliminates the need for templates or patterns in the production of small quantities
of complicated forms, cams etc. However, when mass production is required an automatic tracer
controlled miller is indicated. A variety of vertical and horizontal tracers are available and
represent the ideal machine for the production milling of odd shaped parts such as connecting
rods, complicated gear housings, and extremely large or small cam tracks of intricate shape.
Intricate machine parts can be profiled in stacks or groups where high accuracy for
interchangeability is necessary but quantity does not warrant expensive tooling. A roller on a
tracer control valve rides on a template bolted to the rear of the table and causes the cutter to cut
Figure 3.33: Drum type milling machine in a path corresponding to that of the template.

(iii) Drum Type Milling Machines. These continuous-operation machines are commonly found in [Link] Special purpose milling machines
large-lot and mass production plants for the manufacture of big parts such as motor blocks, gear
The number and design of special purpose millers is probably unlimited as the design of machine
boxes, and clutch housings. Figure 3.33 depicts a drum milling machine. A square drum (or a
parts themselves. Where quantity is sufficiently large, a special machine can offset its cost by
regular pentagon or hexagon) is fixed on a shaft that runs through the frame. Parts are stored in
virtue of increased output and automaticity. Thus one has: die sinking machines, cam millers,
fixtures that are installed on the drum faces. The drum continuously rotates, transporting the
thread millers and keyway millers etc. Die-sinking machines are duplicating machines used to
pieces between face mills. The milling heads can be changed and clamped along the housing as
make forging dies, molds, forming dies etc. “Profilers” are capable of reproducing external and
needed for the setup. The milling spindles have axial adjustment in addition to rotation to tune the
internal profiles from templates in two dimensions, “Duplicators” do the job in three dimensions.
cutters to the depth of cut. The output of such machines is determined by the quantity of
Some machines are hand operated, others are power fed. “Cam millers” produce disk cams. The
components being machined at the same time as well as the speed at which the drum rotates (rate
profile of the cam is cut on a slowly revolving workpiece by an end mill positioned by a master
of feed).
cam revolving in unison with the workpiece.

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3.17 Constructional details of milling cutters

As already written, the milling cutters can be solid, carbide-tipped solid cutters and inserted blade
cutters with H.S.S. or carbide tipped blades, the body being of constructional steel. The
advantages of carbide-tipped cutters (either solid or inserted-blade type) are:

(i) Their high production capacity.

(ii) The high quality of the surfaces they produce.
(iii)Elimination of grinding operation in some cases, the possibility of machining hardened
steels and the reduction in machining costs that their use leads to.

Due to these advantages, they have been successfully applied in metal cutting industry where they
have replaced many solid cutters of tool steels. Along with the especially popular carbide tipped Figure 3.34: Plain milling cutters [6]
face milling cutters, carbide-tipped side and form milling cutters and various end mills are used
in industry

3.17.1 Specifications of a milling cutter

Milling cutter specifications are required to evaluate the machine's details, such as the number of
working surfaces, the width and pitch of T-slots used, the maximum distance from the spindle
centre to the underside of the over support, movements (longitudinal movement of the table by
lower/screw, cross movement of the table by screw, vertical movement of the table by screw),
spindle (bore, inside taper, arbour), motor type and capacity used, front space, height, weight, and
coolant tank capacity.

3.18 Milling operations

Milling machines can be employed to produce a large variety of surfaces.

3.18.1 Milling flat surfaces

Horizontal Flat surfaces may be milled on: (i) Plain horizontal and Universal horizontal machines
with plain milling cutters as shown in Fig. 3.34 (c). (ii) Vertical-spindle milling machines with
face milling cutters, as shown in Fig. 3.35 (a). Figure 3.35: Milling cutters [6]

Vertical flat surface are milled on: (i) Plain horizontal and Universal horizontal machines by using
side milling cutters. (ii) Vertical-spindle milling machines using end mills. (iii) Vertical flat
surfaces may also be milled on planer-type machines with face milling cutters, (Fig. 3.36 (a))

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complex shape are milled by a gang of simple cutters, (Fig. 3.36 (c)). The operation is called as
“Gang milling”. Complex shaped surfaces can also be milled using a template on a tracer-
controlled machine. Three dimensional contoured surfaces (for example on dies etc.) are milled
on tracer-controlled contouring machines.

3.18.4 Cutting toothed gears and helical grooves

Spur and helical gears are cut by form milling cutters on plain milling machines or by end-mill
type cutters on vertical-spindle machines, (Fig. 3.36 (d)). The cutter profile must exactly coincide
with the tooth space of the gear. Dividing head is used to index the gear blank through the required
angle from one tooth space to the next. Helical groves are milled on a universal milling machine.
Here, the table is swivelled to the helix and the work is rotated by the dividing head which is
Figure 3.36: Milling operations [6] linked by gearing to the lead screw of the table.

3.18.5 Gang milling, Straddle Milling, String Milling

Inclined flat surfaces are milled on: (i) Plain milling machines with single angle cutters (See Fig.
3.35 (a)) (ii) On vertical spindle machines with the spindle swiveled to the required angle as shown When two or more milling cutters are mounted on an arbor so that each cutter will produce its
in Fig. 3.36 (b). own distinctive surface as the workpiece is fed to it, the operation is called “Gang milling”, (Fig.
3.36 (c)). “Straddle milling” is a special form of gang milling in which side milling cutters are
This arrangement is possible only on swivel-head vertical spindle milling machine in which the used to machine both sides of a workpiece simultaneously (see Fig. 3.35 (e)). In “String milling”,
head can be swiveled in a vertical plane parallel to the column face. “Recesses” are milled on two or more workpieces are mounted on the milling machine table in a line, so that they are
vertical spindle machines with end mills (See Fig. 3.35 (c)). In this case, the two perpendicular successively fed to one or more milling cutters. String milling results in a substantial reduction in
surfaces are machined simultaneously. handling time, as it is overlapped by the machining time. Depending upon the job set-up and tool
set-up, the other milling methods are given below:
3.18.2 Milling slots, grooves and splines
[Link] Abreast Milling
Rectangular, T-and dovetail slots are milled, as a rule, on vertical-spindle machines by means of
suitable shank-type milling cutters, (see Fig. 3.35 (h)). Rectangular slots can also be machined on This is the simultaneous milling of several workpieces, placed in a row, parallel to cutter axis or
plain horizontal spindle milling machines with side milling cutters. Key ways of rectangular cross of several surfaces of the same workpiece. It can be accomplished by (i) Mounting the required
section are milled on vertical- spindle machines or on key way milling machines by using end number of plain, side and form cutters on an arbor, or (ii) Mounting the required number of face
mills and special cutters. Keyways can also be milled on horizontal spindle machines by using milling cutters on different spindles (iii) Using a face milling cutter of sufficiently large diameter,
side milling cutters. Splines may be milled on horizontal spindle machines by using single-and or (iv) Using a plain milling cutter of sufficient length. Abreast milling leads to a sharp reduction
double-angle cutters. in labour input, as a result of combination of several operation elements and less handling time.
Same or different operations can be performed on each piece.
3.18.3 Milling contoured surfaces
[Link] Combined abreast-and-string milling
Contoured surfaces of relatively small width are milled on plain milling machines, using formed
milling cutters. The profile of the cutter coincides with that of the workpiece. Surfaces of more The simultaneous milling of several workpieces (or several surfaces of a single workpiece), placed

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in a single or several rows on the machine table, is combined with consecutive milling. This 3.19 Dividing heads
method, in addition to the reduction in labour input, enables the machine time to be considerably
The general design and operation of a dividing head have already been discussed under work
reduced, due to, the reduction in handling time.
holding devices. Milling machines are used to cut slots, grooves, and other patterns that must be
evenly spaced around the perimeter of a blank, such as gear cutting, ratchet wheels, milling cutter
[Link] Transfer-base milling
blanks, reamers, and so on. This requires holding the blank (workpiece) and rotating it precisely
Here, two fixtures are mounted on opposite ends of a two-station index base, which is secured at
for each groove or slot to be cut. This is referred to as "Indexing." The instrument used for this is
one end of the machine table. After one workpiece has been milled, the table is returned to the
the dividing head. It is aligned and attached to the machine table so that the axis passing between
initial position, the second fixture is indexed through and the second work-piece is milled, while
the head stock centre and tail stock centre is perpendicular to the machine's spindle axis.
the first fixture is being unloaded and loaded. Economy is due to the combining of machine and
handling times. The dividing head's head stock is essentially a spindle to which a 40-tooth worm wheel is keyed.
This wheel is meshing with a single threaded worm. The worm spindle protrudes from the front
[Link] Index milling of the head and is equipped with a crank and handle. The head spindle has a taper hole punched
Here identical multiple operations are done on one or more pieces, which are indexed (rotated into it and is also screwed on one end. The workpiece is held between two centres, one of which
through required angle) each time to present a new position and repeating the same operation, for is placed into the splitting head spindle and the other into the head's tailstock. Between these
example, milling of splines on a shaft or cutting gear teeth. centres, the workpiece can alternatively be mounted on a mandrel.

[Link] Reciprocal milling For holding short work parts with no centre holes, a chuck can be installed on the spindle nose.
By twisting the index crank with the handle, the workpiece is turned. Because the worm and worm
Fixtures are mounted on the left and right-hand ends of the machine table. While milling the
wheel gear ratio is 40:1, it takes 40 crank turns to rotate the spindle and hence the workpiece
workpiece in one fixture, the other fixture is being unloaded and loaded. Thus, the machine is
through one complete revolution. Thus, one crank turn spins the work 1/40th of a turn. "Index
performing the productive work during the handling time.
plates" are used when divisions other than factors of 40 are necessary. An index plate is fixed on

[Link] Progressive milling the worm shaft and has many circles of holes (each circle with a different number of holes) as
shown in Fig. 3.38. The radius of a pin on the crank can be modified to fit in any desired circle of
Here, two or more similar or different operations are performed either simultaneously/
holes. Any fractional part of a turn of the index crank can be obtained by employing different
successively, on separate workpieces on the same machine and are progressively moved from one
circles of holes and index plates. The angle through which the index crank is cranked for indexing
fixture station to the next, until all the desired operations are performed [Fig. 3.37].
is determined by the two sector arms visible on the front of the plate.

Figure 3.37: Progressive milling [6]

Figure 3.38: Indexing mechanism of dividing head [6]

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3.19.1 Types of dividing heads

To index, remove the index pin out of a hole, spin the work and index plate the necessary number
There are various dividing heads used with milling machines.
of holes, and engage the pin. This method works with both plain and universal heads. Direct
[Link] Plain indexing is the quickest technique of indexing, although fractions of a full spindle turn are limited
to those available with the index plate. All factors of 24 can be indexed using a conventional
A plain dividing head has a fixed spindle axis and the spindle rotates only about a horizontal axis.
indexing plate with 24 holes, i.e. the job can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, and 24 pieces.
[Link] Universal
3.20.2 Simple indexing
The spindle in these types can be rotated at various angles in the vertical plane from horizontal to
In simple or plain indexing (Fig.3.38), an index plate tailored to the application is inserted to the
vertical. A universal division head indexes the workpiece, imparts a continuous rotational motion
worm shaft and secured with a locking pin. The index crank pin is removed from a hole in the
to the workpiece for milling helical grooves (flutes of drills, reamers, milling cutters, and so on),
index plate to index the work through any desired angle. By rotating the index crank through a
and sets the workpiece in a given inclined position in reference to the table.
calculated number of entire rotations and holes on one of the hole circles, the spindle and therefore
[Link] Optical the work are indexed through the needed angle, and the index pin is repositioned in the required
hole. If the number of divisions on the task circumference required is z, then the number of turns
These models are utilised for highly accurate angular positioning of the work piece with regard to
the crank to be rotated for each indexing may be calculated using the formula n = 40/ z. Dividing
the cutter. An optical system is placed within the dividing head to read the angles.
heads are typically equipped with three index plates that have six concentric hole circles with
varying numbers of equally spaced holes on each hole circle. A typical set has the following hole
3.20 Methods of indexing count:
The various methods of indexing are discussed as given below.
I- 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20

3.20.1 Direct indexing II - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33

III - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49
In direct indexing (Fig. 3.39), the index plate is directly mounted on the dividing head spindle.
The intermediate use of worm and worm wheel is avoided. Example. Let z = 16, i.e., n = =2 ; That is, for each indexing we need two complete rotations

of the crank plus 8 more holes on the 16 hole circle of plate I.

Example. Let z = 45, n = = = x =

We will employ index plate I and use hole circle with 18 holes. For each indexing, the crank will
rotate through 16 holes.

3.20.3 Compound indexing

When none of the index plates has a hole circle which would enable the work to be divided by
simple indexing method, more involved methods are employed. One method is “compound
indexing”. The compound indexing is achieved in two stages, by using two different hole circles
of one index plate : (i) By a movement of the crank in the usual way as in simple indexing, say,
Figure 3.39: Direct indexing

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n1 holes in hole circle N1, with the lock pin engaged in circle N2 of the index plate. (ii) By adding 33 = 11 × 3
or subtracting a further movement by rotating the crank and the index plate together forward or Since all the factors above the line get cancelled out, therefore, selection of N1 and N2 is
back ward, through n2 spaces in the N2 circle. (by disengaging the locking pin of the index plate correct.
so that it is free to turn). The procedure is explained below: (iii) Now, indexing equation is :
1
± = or 33 n1 ± 29 n2 = 440
Let z = number of divisions needed on the work.
Since Crank rotations for each indexing = 40/z
By trial and error n1 = 23 and n2 = 11 with minus sign.
Since this cannot be obtained by simple indexing, it is achieved by compound indexing. Therefore, That is, 33 × 23 – 29 × 11 = 440
addition or subtraction of the two movements given above should be equal to 40/z. This is done
as explained below: ∴ Indexing equation will be: 23/29 - 11/33 = 40/ 87
That is, mmovement of crank by 23 holes in 29 hole circle forwards and movement of crank and
(i) Write z above and 40 below a straight line and factorise them.
index plate both by 11 holes in 33 hole circle backwards.
(ii) Select two numbers representing two hole circles in the same plate.
(iii) Write these numbers below 40 and factorise them.
Note. The method of compound indexing is little used to-day, as it has been replaced by
(iv) Write their difference above z and factorise it. These hole numbers are to be chosen in such a
differential indexing.
manner that all the factors above the line get cancelled out with factors below the line. Let
these hole numbers be N1 and N2. 3.20.4 Differential indexing
(v) Let n1 be the number of holes to be indexed in N1 hole circle and n2 the number of holes to be
Differential indexing in reality is an automatic method of doing compound indexing. It is achieved
indexed in N2 hole circle.
in a single step as compared to two stages needed in compound indexing. In differential indexing,
the index plate is connected to the head stock spindle by means of a gear train. Fig. 4.40 shows
Then, ± =
one such design where z1, z2, z3 and z4 are interchangeable gears. During indexing, the index plate
rotates in relation to the crank movement. For this, the locking pin which kept the index plate
From here, n1 and n2 are found out by trial and error. Then the total indexing will be, holes in N1
locked while doing simple indexing, is disengaged. As the index crank is turned for indexing,
hole circle by rotation of the crank ±n2 holes in N2 hole circle by rotating the crank and index
rotating the spindle through worm and worm gear, the index plate will receive power through the
plate together.
change gears, equal bevel gear and the sleeve, and will rotate slowly. The index plate can be made
to rotate either in the same direction or in the opposite direction to the index crank (by gear train
Example.
design).
Let z = 87

Steps. (i) Indexing is performed in the same manner as that for simple indexing except that the location of
the hole from which the index pin is turned will move slightly during indexing. The required
(ii) Let N1 = 29 and N2 = 33
movement of the index plate is calculated and taken care of by the gear train.
∴4=2×2
87 = 29 × 3 Differential indexing is thus more straight forward and so has wider applications as compared to
40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 compound indexing.
29 = 29 × 1

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Procedure Example. Do differential indexing for 93 divisions.

Let z = number of divisions required to be indexed for one complete revolution of the spindle and
Solution. z = 93,
hence the work-piece

∴ Simple indexing = 40 / 93
It is clear from the available index plates, that 93 cannot be simple indexed.
So, let k = 90, which can be simple indexed each indexing = = = , that is, 8 holes in an 18

hole circle. ∴ for 93, indexings, N = x 93 = 41 turns of the crank

Since N > 40, the index plate must rotate 4/ 3 turns backwards, that is, in the opposite direction.
i= x (k - z) = x3=

In the Brown and Sharpe dividing head, the gears supplied are: 24 (2), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56,
64, 72, 86 and 100 teeth.

∴i= = =

It is a simple gear train.

Example. z = 127
Figure 3.40: Differential indexing Let k = 128

Simple indexing = =
k = A number very nearly equal to z and which can be used in simple indexing method.
∴ 𝑁= x 127 = 39 turns of the crank.
∴ Number of crank turns for each simple indexing, n = 40 / k
∴ Number of crank turns needed for z indexings, Since N is < 40, therefore, the index plate must rotate (40 - 36 ), that is, 5/16 turns in the

N= xz same direction as the crank, as the spindle completes one turn.

But, we know that the crank must make only 40 turns for the spindle (and hence the work) to turn i= x (k - z) = x1= = = x =
through one complete circle. So, It is a compound gear train.
(i) If N > 40, then (N – 40) turns have to be subtracted. This is achieved through the change In Fig. 4.40, gears Z1 and Z3 drivers and gears Z2 and Z4 are driven gears.
gears so that while the spindle makes one turn, the index plate makes (N - 40) turns in the opposite ∴ With this gear train and an indexing of 5 holes in a 16 hole circle, the 127 divisions would
direction to that of the crank. be obtained.
(ii) (ii) If N < 40, then the index plate should rotate (40 - N) turns in the same direction as
that of the crank. The gear ratio will be : Rule of Thumbs:
(i) If (k - z) is positive, the index plate must rotate in the same direction as that of the crank.
(iii) I = x (k - z)
(ii) If (k - z) is negative, the rotation of the index plate is in opposite direction to that of the
Thus, the movement of the index handle (crank) operates according to the principle of simple crank.
indexing and the gear ratio makes it possible to find gears which take care of residual divisions.

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3.20.5 Angular indexing The role of different parameters of a milling cutter is defined as given below in Table 3.4.

Angular indexing is used when it is necessary to cut grooves or slots subtending a given angle at
Table 3.4: Parameters of a milling cutter and their role
the centre of the circle upon which they are spaced. We know that 40 turns of the index crank will
rotate the head spindle and hence the workpiece through one revolution, that is, 360°.
Parameters Roles
∴1 turn of the crank = 9° of the spindle
Outside diameter The diameter of a circle passing through the peripheral cutting edges. It is the
∴Turns of crank to give any angle =
dimension used in conjunction with the spindle speed to find the cutting speed

Example. Do angular indexing for 38°. (SFPM).

Indexing = =4 =4 Root diameter This diameter is measured on a circle passing through the bottom of the fillets of the
That is, four complete turns of the crank and 4 holes in a 18 hole circle. teeth.

3.21 Milling cutters

Tooth The tooth is the part of the cutter starting at the body and ending with the peripheral
A milling cutter is a multiple-edged rotary cutting tool that has the shape of a solid of rotation
cutting edge. Replaceable teeth are called inserts.
with cutting teeth positioned on the perimeter, end face, or both. During the machining procedure,
the cutter is usually kept in a fixed (though rotating) location, while the workpiece passes past the Tooth face The tooth face is the surface between the fillet and the cutting edge, where the chip
cutter.
slides during its formation.

3.21.1 Tool signature of milling cutter

Land The area behind the cutting edge on the tooth that is relieved to avoid interference is
Tool signature or tool nomenclature is a numerical means of identifying a tool and specifying tool
called the land.
angles by using a defined abbreviated system. It denotes the angles used by a tool during a cut.
The features of tool signature for a plain milling cutter are given in Fig. 3.41. Tool signature order Flute The flute is the space provided for chip flow between the teeth.
varies amongst milling cutters.

Gash angle The gash angle is measured between the tooth face and the back of the tooth

immediately ahead.

Fillet The fillet is the radius at the bottom of the flute, provided to allow chip flow and chip

curling. The terms defined above apply primarily to milling cutters, particularly to

plain milling cutters. In defining the configuration of the teeth on the cutter, the

following terms are important.

Figure 3.41: Tool signature of a plain milling cutter

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Parameters Roles retained blades that are typically adjustable. Cutters with a diameter more than 75 mm are often
built with an inset blade to preserve tool steel. Depending on how the teeth are sharpened, milling
Peripheral cutting The cutting edge aligned principally in the direction of the cutter axis is called the
cutters are classed as "profile sharpened" or "form relieved." Sharpening most cutters (former)
edge peripheral cutting edge. In peripheral milling, it is this edge that removes the metal. involves polishing a narrow region behind the cutting edges; sharpening form relieved cutters
involves grinding only the face of each tooth without changing the shape. As a result, the profile
Face cutting edge The face cutting edge is the metal removing edge aligned primarily in a radial of form-relieved cutters is preserved after re-sharpening for the life of the cutter. This is
direction. In side milling and face milling, this edge actually forms the new surface, particularly critical for form cutters.

although the peripheral cutting edge may still be removing most of the metal. It
[Link] Plain milling cutters
corresponds to the end cutting edge on single point tools.
These cutters have cutting teeth just on the periphery (around the exterior) and are cylindrical in
shape. They are used to grind flat or plain surfaces. Straight (Fig. 3.34 (a)) or helical (Fig. 3.34
Relief angle This angle is measured between the land and a tangent to the cutting edge at the
(b)) teeth can be found on a simple milling cutter. When a cutter with straight teeth is used, each
periphery.
tooth enters the cut simultaneously along its entire length. This causes intermittent loads to act on
the machine, lowering the quality of the surface produced. Cutters with helical teeth run more
Clearance angle Is provided to make room for chips, thus forming the flute.
smoothly because the teeth enter the cut gradually and the machine load is more homogeneous.
When the breadth of the cutter exceeds the width of the workpiece, it is referred to as a "slab
Radial rake angle The angle between the tooth face and a cutter radius, measured in a plane normal to
cutter" (Fig. 3.34 (c)). When two plain cutters are used side by side to mill a large surface, one
the cutter axis.
has right-hand helix and the other has left-hand helical flutes to offset the axial stresses.

Axial rake angle Measured between the peripheral cutting edge and the axis of the cutter, when looking
[Link] Face milling cutters
radially at the point of intersection.
For machining large, flat surfaces, face milling cutters with teeth on the end face are utilized as
shown in Fig. 3.35 (a). The cutter can be positioned on an arbour or tightly fastened to the machine
Blade setting When a slot is provided in the cutter body for a blade, the angle between the base of
spindle's snout. Face milling cutters are similar to end mills but much larger in diameter. They are
angle the slot and the cutter axis is called the blade setting angle.
intended to machine flat surfaces perpendicular to the spindle's rotational axis. These cutters are
used on vertical milling machines, planer milling machines, and bed milling machines. Facing
milling is more of a production activity that uses cutters ranging in diameter from 140 mm to 380
3.21.2 Milling cutter materials:
mm.
Milling cutters are manufactured of High Speed Steel (HSS), carbide tipped, and many have
replaceable or indexable inserts. Arbor-mounted peripheral milling cutters are commonly used to [Link] Profile milling cutters
execute a variety of activities. Profile or form milling cutters are cutters with a curved tooth outline that is the same shape as the
profile of the workpiece as shown in Fig. 3.35 (b). Concave, convex, and corner rounding cutters
3.21.3 Types of milling cutters
are among of the most popular shapes. Gear milling cutters are form milling cutters used to
Milling cutters come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Depending on the design, milling cutters machine any conventional gear tooth.
might have solid or embedded blades. The latter are equipped with interchangeable, mechanically

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[Link] End mills freely in the tooth space, making removal easier.

End mills have cutting teeth on both the end and the perimeter. End mills can be built as solid
[Link] According to the method of mounting the cutters
cutters, with the cutter body becoming part of the shank (Fig. 3.35 (c)). They can also be produced
These are of two types as:
as "Shell end mills," with the cutters having a centre hole for mounting on a short arbour. End
mills are utilised in tracer-controlled profile milling operations. They are used to create deep
(a) Arbor type milling cutters. These are designed to be installed on a machine arbour. They have
grooves in base parts, profile recesses, steps, perpendicular planes, and so on. End mills can be
a precisely ground centre hole for this. The arbour comes with a choice of collars or spacers that
used on horizontal milling machines, although they work best on vertical milling machines. Their
allow for precise placement of cutters on the arbour. To place the cutters as precisely as possible,
sizes range from roughly 3 mm to 50 mm. Shell end mills range in diameter from 30 mm to 150
very tiny shims might be employed. Arbor cutters are used in horizontal milling machines, both
mm.
plain and universal. A "stub arbour" is a short arbour with the cutter fixed on one end and secured
with a nut. The stub arbour is designed for facing work and has no exterior support.
[Link] Side milling cutters

These cutters have teeth on the outside and on one or both sides. Straight teeth surround the outside (b) Shank type cutters. These cutters are held and located by shanks (similar to drills and reamers).
of plain side milling cutters, which have side teeth on both sides (Fig. 3.35 (d)). These cutters are The shank can be either straight or tapered. The taper shanks are put into the spindle's taper hole
available in widths ranging from roughly 5 mm to 25 mm and diameters ranging from 50 to 200 and clamped by a draw bolt that passes through the hollow spindle. A key prevents the cutter from
mm. "Half-side milling cutters" have teeth just on one side and all the way around the diameter. rotating and a screw holds it in place. Adapters are provided for cutters with shanks that do not fit
They are available in both right and left-handed versions as shown in Fig. 3.35 (e). the spindle nose. Larger shank mounted cutters with replaceable shanks are referred to as "Shell-
type cutters." These shanks do not have to be made of pricey tool material. Straight shank cutters
[Link] Angular milling cutters are clamped with collect holders. Horizontal and vertical spindle milling machines use shank
These cutters are available in single-angle (Fig. 3.35(f)) or double-angle (Fig. 3.35(g)) mounted cutters.
configurations and are used to machine angles other than 90°. The 45° and 60° single angle cutters,
(c) Facing type cutters. When the diameter of a milling cutter, comparable to an end mill, is large
as well as the 45°, 60°, and 90° double-angle cutters, are popular. They are most commonly used
enough, arrangements are provided to place such cutters directly on the milling machine spindle
in tool production for milling chip flutes on various cutting instruments.
nose with bolts; otherwise they may be mounted at the end of a stub arbour or utilised with an

[Link] According to the purpose of the cutters adaptor.

For milling dovetail guides, T-slot milling cutters, Woodruff key slot milling cutters, and dove [Link] Hand of milling cutters
tail cutters are available, as shown in Fig. 3.35 (h). These may be chosen based on their use.
Looking at the cutter end of the spindle will reveal the hand of any cutter (that is viewing from

[Link] Metal slitting saws the front end as mounted on the spindle). The cutter is right-handed if it revolves
counterclockwise; left-handed if it rotates clockwise. Only face mills and end mills can be classed
Metal slitting saws, as shown in Fig. 3.35 (i), are used to cut splines and narrow grooves on
by rotational direction. Other cutters are switched from one hand to the other by flipping their
workpieces as well as to cut materials. Slitting mills with large diameters (above 120 mm) are
arbour mounting.
commonly referred to as disc saws. These mills can be solid or have inserted teeth composed of
H.S.S. or hard metal. The end faces of these mills are alternatively chamfered at a 45° angle to 3.22 Work holding devices
encourage uniform work. Chamfers typically cut 1/5 - 1/3 the length of the cutting edge, so each
There are numerous mechanisms available for holding the workpiece to be machined:
tooth creates chips that are narrower than the width of the groove. This permits the chips to move

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i. The work may be clamped on the table by means of T-bolts, strap clamps and pads. UNIT SUMMARY

Welding and milling techniques have been examined in this unit. Welding categories such as, gas
ii. Plain vise. On a milling machine, this is the most typical work holding device. T- bolts
welding, and welding flames are discussed. Other welding procedures, such as arc welding, are
can be used to secure it to the table, with the jaws parallel or at right angles to the T- slots.
discussed, as well as the equipment. Shielded metal arc welding applications such as submerged
iii. Swivel vise. The vise is made in two parts. The top part can be turned in a complete circle. arc welding, TIG/MIG welding, resistance welding, spot welding, seam welding, and projection
The base is divided into 360°. The jaws can be set to any angle. welding are thoroughly explored. Diagrams are used to explain the most frequent welding flaws,
including brazing and soldering processes, as well as their applications. Milling is a critical
iv. Universal Vise. If the vise, apart from being swivelled in the horizontal plane, can also be
machining technique. Figures describe the details of milling machine types, including
tilted in the vertical plane, it is called as “Universal Vise”. It is used for milling compound
constructional features and specs. Examples are provided to explain various milling operations
angles.
and differential indexing approaches. Different Milling cutters & their types and Nomenclature
of teeth are also explained. Milling cutter Teeth materials, Tool signature of milling cutter and
v. Universal chuck. It is used to hold round workpieces and is used mostly on the dividing
Tool & work holding devices used for milling are presented.
head (discussed ahead).

vi. Rotary table. The rotary table is constructed of two pieces and is attached to the machine
EXERCISES
table via T-bolts. The base is divided into sections that allow the workpiece to rotate in a
complete circle. It's used to hold workpieces for precise spacing, splitting, and radius Multiple Choice Questions:

milling.
Questions for self-assessment

vii. Dividing head. The dividing head is a device that holds and turns the workpiece in order
1. Projection welding is.......
to make a series of evenly spaced divisions or cuts around it. It is made up of a head stock
and a tail stock. The work can be kept between centres or in a chuck positioned on the a) Multi-spot welding process
b) Continuous spot welding process
head stock spindle.
c) Used to form mesh
d) Used to make cantilevers
viii. Work may also be held in various types of milling fixtures.
2. Seam-welding is.........

a) Multi-spot welding process

b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form mesh
d) Used for welding cylindrical objects

3. Cross-wire welding is.......

a) Multi-spot welding process

b) Continuous spot welding process
c) Used to form mesh
d) Used where additional strength is desired

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5. Study the various tool signatures used in a milling cutter. [Link]

[Link]
KNOW MORE

Explore the historical welding work for joining objects like in aluminum, copper, and steel using Brazing-soldering
similar welding/brazing/soldering processes. See milling process as old practices of lassi making [Link]
by milling like operation. Identify similar milling machines and processes around your locality [Link]
and try to find how it is evolved with time as one could see the modern welding and milling
machines and the operations today. One can observe it carefully. Milling machines

SUGGESTED RESOURCES FOR FURTHER READING/ LEARNING [Link]

[Link]
Reference books & websites referred
1. Manufacturing technology – P N Rao, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications

2. Elements of workshop Technology (Volume I & II) – S. K. Hajra Chaudary, Bose & Roy,
Media Promoters and Publishers Limited.

3. Production Technology (Volume I & II) – O. P. Khanna & Lal, Dhanpat Rai Publications.

4. Fundamental of metal cutting and machine tools– B. L. Juneja, New age international
limited.

5. Manufacturing Technology, Metal Cutting & Machine tools– P. N. Rao, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publications

6. A Text book of Production Technology: Manufacturing processes –P.C. Sharma, S. Chand

& Com. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi

7. Production Technology – R.B. Gupta, Satya Prakashan, New Delhi

8. Fundamentals of Design & Manufacturing- G K Lal, Vijay Gupta, N. V. Readdy,

NarosaPub. House, ND

VIDEOS

Welding

[Link]
[Link]

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Stamping, Coining, Extruding, Rolling, and Machining for different applications. Gear profile
generating methods involve Gear Shaping with pinion cutter & rack cutter and by an important
Gear making and press working
process called as Gear hobbing. After manufacturing of a gear it requires proper finishing
Gear Making: Manufacture of gears - by Casting, Moulding, Stamping, Coining Extruding,
operation on it for smooth working in mesh with other gears. To make the gear hard, it is heat
Rolling, Machining; Gear generating methods: Gear Shaping with pinion cutter & rack cutter;
treated according to specific process and material. For commercial usage gears are specified for
Gear hobbing; Description of gear hob; Operation of gear hobbing machine; Gear finishing
different machines applications.
processes;Gear materials and specification; Heat treatment processes applied to gears.
Presses are an important part of machining and forming operations like Cutting, bending, drawing,
Press working: Types of presses and Specifications, Press working operations - cutting, bending, punching, blanking, notching, lancing etc. Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and power presses
drawing, punching, blanking, notching, lancing; Die set components- punch and die shoe, guide are very common for sheet metal & other operations. Die set is an integral part of a presses having
pin, bolster plate, stripper, stock guide, feed stock, pilot; Punch and die clearances for blanking different components like: punch and die shoe, guide pin, bolster plate, stripper, stock guide,
and piercing, effect of clearance. feedstock, and pilot. While performing different operations on sheet metal workpieces, punch-die
clearances is very crucial for proper quality of product especially for blanking and piercing
Unit Specific / Learning Objective operations. A proper press tonnage and die set is need for producing quality products of sheet
metal. This chapter covers all such issues for the readers.
Objective of this unit in to talk about following aspects
Pre-requisites
 To introduce significance of Gear manufacturing and press working function
A course on Basic Mechanical Engineering (MEPC102)
 To learn about the importance of gear manufacturing methods and press working
operations and their principles of working Learning outcomes
 To introduce the underlying advantages and applications of gear manufacturing processes
and press working operations and types U4-O1: Ability to choose suitable work-piece for gear manufacturing job under different
 To introduce the gear manufacturing and press working operations processes and Press working jobs
 To understand the significance of various types of gear manufacturing methods, and press U4-O2: Ability to choose suitable method/process for gear manufacturing & Press working with
working methods and their significance proper machine tools and their operation
 To learn about gear specification and press working operations & the specification U4-O3: Ability to choose suitable operations and proper cutting tools for Gear manufacturing and
Press working
Additionally, few fundamental questions for self-assessment based on fundamentals are also
U4-O4: choose suitable working conditions and parameters () for Gear manufacturing and Press
included in this Unit in form of recall, application, comprehension, analysis and synthesis. There
working operations
are further suggested readings and reference for reader’s assistance.
U4-O5: Ability to predict the behavior of Gears and its dimensions after gear manufacturing and
press working part behaviour in applications
Rationale

Gearing is a specific area of mechanical engineering for power transfers. Gearing encompasses Course Objectives
gear design, production, inspection, and implementation, as well as some other supplementary
 To understand the importance of gears and press working machines and the process
subjects like manufacturing. Gears are generally manufactured by by Casting, Moulding,
equipments.

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 To study and recognise various types of gear making mathods and press working 4.1 Introduction to gears
machines, their parts and operations.
Gears have been in use for over 3000 years, and they are an important element in all machinery
 To be able to select, operate and control the appropriate gear manufacturing and press used nowadays. Gears are used in most types of machinery, like nuts and bolts. Gears are common
working operations for specific applications. machine elements that will be needed from time to time by almost all machine designers. The
ongoing need to create machinery that is more affordable, quieter to operate, lighter, and more
Mapping of learning outcomes and Course Objectives
powerful has led to a regular change in gear designs, which is a highly complex art. The load-
EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES carrying capability of gears is currently well understood, and there are numerous challenging gear
Unit-4 Outcomes (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation) manufacturing procedures available. All industrialised nations conduct research on gear in

CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6 academic labs and manufacturing firms. Even less developed nations carry out some study on the

U4-O1 1 2 3 mathematics of gears and on interesting uses of gears. Those who are just beginning their study

U4-O2 1 2 3 of gears should begin by being familiar with some basic terms that have particular significance in

U4-O3 1 2 3 the topic of gears. The many types of gear in use are shown in Figure 4.1.

U4-O4 1 2 3
U4-O5 1 2 3

Figure 4.1: Various gears in usages [9]

There is a huge area of gear work where tooth tension is essentially irrelevant. Punched gears are
widely employed in the simplest sort of gear drive, such as those seen in toys. Pinions with a few
teeth can be extruded or die-cast. Injection-molded gears and pinions may be employed if loads
are light enough and quiet operation is desired. Figure 4.2 displays molded-plastic gears from a
toy train.

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Figure 4.3: Sintered iron gears [12]

Some sintered-iron gears from an automatic washer are shown in Figure 7.3. Sintered iron gears
(a) (b)
typically wear less than comparable cut gears and are fairly affordable (in big quantities). The
Figure 4.2: (a) Plastic Moulded gears[10] (b) gears used in a toy train[11] porous sintered metal can be impregnated with lubricant due to its porous nature. To increase its
tensile strength, it could also be treated with copper. Sintering can totally finish gear teeth as well
In order to transmit little amounts of electricity, devices like calculators, oscillating fans, cameras,
as intricate gear-blank designs, although the cost of the tools required to create a sintered gear
cash registers, and movie projectors commonly require quiet-running gears. In these
might reach INR 3,50,000. Sintered iron gears (Fig. 4.3) are utilised in automatic washers.
circumstances, molded-plastic gears are frequently employed. It should be noted, however, that
the aforementioned devices frequently require precision-cut gears where loads and speeds are
noticeable. Small, inexpensive gears are frequently produced by die-casting on metals like zinc
alloy, brass, or aluminum. This method is especially preferred when the gear wheel is permanently
linked to another component, such as a clutch member, sheave, or cam. Simply by die-casting the
item in a precise metal mould, it is possible to finish the gear teeth and the unique curves of
whatever it is attached to the gear to close accuracy. If it had been necessary to produce every one
of the challenging gear components shown in Fig. 4.1, many of the inexpensive devices currently
available on the market would have been far more expensive. Figure: 4.4: Gears used in small mechanisms [13, 14]

Numerous small gears are used in home equipment like fans, food mixers, and washing machines. Figure 4.4 (from Winzeler Manufacturing and Tool Co., Chicago, IL, USA) illustrates a variety
These gears must be produced for only a few cents each due to competition. However, they must of gears used in small mechanisms. If 100,000 or more such gears are to be produced on
be sufficiently silent to satisfy a picky housewife and durable enough to last for many years with semiautomatic machines, this does not amount to much. Where noise reduction is an issue,
little to no lubrication beyond that provided at the factory. The industry standard used to be laminated gears made of phenolic resins, cloth, or paper have proven to be particularly effective.
medium-carbon steel gears with conventional cutting as the last step. Although cut gears are still In general, laminates are far more capable of carrying loads than molded-plastic gears. Cut-tooth
widely used, they are frequently cut by high-speed automatic machinery. On such a cutting nonmetallic gears do not experience tooth inaccuracy to the same extent as metal gears. A
machine, the operator hardly does anything more than bring up trays of blanks and remove trays laminated phenolic-resin gear tooth will flex around 30 times more than a steel gear tooth under
of finished pieces. More and more non-cut steel gears are being used in modern products. the same strain. It has frequently been able to replace one member of a set of steel gears that was
excessively worn due to tooth error effects with a nonmetallic gear and have the set hold up
properly.

When high sliding velocity wear is a concern, nylon gear parts have proven to be particularly

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effective. The nylon substance appears to have some qualities of a solid lubricant. In some Term Definition
processing equipment where the use of a conventional lubricant would taint the material being one gear tooth and a similar location on the following tooth. For two
processed, nylon gearing has been used. Gears are typically described by their kind, such as spur, gears to mesh, their circular pitches must match. Their circles will be
bevel, or spiral, by the size or dimensions of the material, by the geometry, or by specific features. tangent to one another when they interlock.
Before continuing on the trip of gears, it is important for everyone to understand the words in Ratio Gear tooth ratio, often known as ratio, is the product of the number of
Table 1. The nomenclature of a typical spur gear is shown in Fig. 4.5. teeth on the gear and the number of teeth on the pinion that it meshes
with.
Addendum It is the radial height of a gear tooth above the pitch circle.
Dedendum It is the radial height of a gear tooth below the pitch circle.
Whole depth It is the total radial height of a gear tooth (i.e., Whole depth = addendum
+ dedendum).
Pressure angle It is the gear tooth's slope at the pitch-circle position. (If the pressure
angle were 0, the tooth would be perpendicular to the gear axis and would
actually be a spur-gear tooth.)
Helix angle It is the longitudinal slant of the tooth. The tooth is actually a spur-gear
tooth if the helix angle is 0°, in which case it is parallel to the gear's axis.

Figure 4.5: Spur gear nomenclature [6] Spur gears It is the gears with teeth straight and parallel to the axis of rotation.
Helical gears It is the gears with teeth that spiral around the body of the gear.
Table 4.1: Common terms related to gears External gears It is the gears with teeth on the outside of a cylinder.
Internal gears It is the internal, hollow cylinder-shaped gears with teeth. (An exterior
Term Definition
gear must serve as the mating gear for an interior gear)
Module A metric scale for determining tooth size. There are millimeters of pitch
diameter in a single tooth. The module also grows as the tooth size does. 4.2 Manufacture of gears
Typically, modules have a range of 1 to 25.
Manufacturing gears requires a variety of methods based on the kind and usage, hence there is no
Gear A geometric structure with evenly spaced teeth all the way around. A
single technique for all gears. Since power transmission is the gear's primary purpose, it requires
gear's teeth are often designed to interlock with those of another gear.
a number of specific conditions, where gears typically function under very demanding conditions.
Pinion The smaller of two gears that mesh is referred to as the pinion. It is
The first need is that the gears be in flawless condition. Then, they must consistently be
referred to as the gear.
trustworthy, have a low level of residual stresses, and have a low to zero likelihood of crack
Pitch diameter It is the diameter of the pitch circle of a gear.
propagation. Naturally, it is very challenging to meet all of these standards. No one can dispute
Diametral A unit used in the English system to measure tooth size. It is the number
their significance, though. Because of this, the fabrication of gears is a highly specialized industry
pitch of teeth per inch of pitch diameter expressed in units. The diametral pitch
with very strict tolerances and no opportunity for error. As a result, depending on the type,
decreases as tooth size rises. Typically, diametral pitches vary from 25
material, and intended quality of the gears, a number of processing processes must be performed
to 1.
sequentially during the manufacturing process. These steps in the gear manufacturing process
Circular pitch The circumference measured along the pitch circle between a point on
might be:

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key factors to take into account, and making casting molds requires significant upfront costs.
Large production quantities, however, make the expenditure worthwhile after the mold and
(i). Performing the blank before adding or removing teeth
process parameters are established. While machining is used to produce the teeth of gears, casting
(ii). If necessary, annealing the blank, as with forged or cast steels
is a simpler procedure that is typically employed to prepare blanks or cylinders for gears. However,
(iii). By using machining, the gear blank is prepared to the necessary proportions.
due to its ability for mass production and relative simplicity, it is a method that may be used to
(iv). Making teeth or using machining to complete already-formed teeth
manufacture gears for a variety of applications. However, casting is the most often used
(v). If necessary, complete or surface hardening of the machined gear's (teeth);
production technique in one specific field. Production of really huge gears is possible as shown
(vi). If necessary, finishing the teeth by shaving, grinding, etc.
in Fig. 4.8.
(vii). Checking the completed gears.

Large dimensions make machining techniques and other gear building techniques less practical.
Gear teeth can be made using a variety of techniques. The gear or pinion's size and geometrical
Larger gears are typically almost usually of the spur gear kind. Casting, then, is a very wise choice
shape must fall within the capabilities of any machine tool. In order to achieve the lowest
because of their relative simplicity. The most popular casting techniques for making gear include
competitive cost, the gear designer must create the gear in a size, shape, and material that will
shell casting, die casting, sand casting, and permanent mold casting. Other approaches have a
enable the most cost-effective manufacturing process. The three kinds of gear manufacturing are
narrow range of uses. Sand casting, die casting, or investment casting are all options for
(i) forming, (ii) casting, and (iii) metal removal via machining as shown in Fig. 4.6. Direct casting,
completing the casting (Fig. 4.7). The method is only applicable to large gears (Fig. 4.8) that are
molding, drawing, or extrusion of teeth forms in molten, powdered, or heat-softened materials are
afterwards machined to the necessary accuracy.
examples of form making processes.

Figure 4.7: Common types of casting for gears Figure 4.8: Casting large gears [6]

[Link] Sand casting

Gear blanks for use in other procedures are usually produced by sand casting. Gear casting is used
to create fully functional spur, helical worm, cluster, and bevel gears that are found in washing
Figure 4.6: Methods of gear manufacturing machines, small appliances, hand tools, toys, and cameras. Sand casting is used to create the
blanks for big cast iron gears that need to be built in one or more parts. The blank is then made to
4.2.1 Manufacture of gears by casting
the correct size, and the cast preform is machined to create the teeth. Direct production of complete
Gear blanks, which are later machined, and complete gears with cast tooth profiles are both gears with teeth is also possible with this type of casting, and they can be used in low-speed
produced through the casting process (Fig. 4.7). When casting gears, tolerances and accuracy are machinery like farm equipment and manually operated devices where a high degree of gear

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accuracy and finish is not necessary. alloy (step 5), pour into the mould (step 6), release the cast from the mold (step 7), and complete
your item (step 8).
Major features of cast gears include: (i) their low cost and low quality, but small quantity (ii) their
reasonable tooling costs (iii) their poor surface finish and good dimensional accuracy (iv) their
Major characteristics of characteristics of such gears are: (i) reasonably accurate gears (ii)
noise due to their low precision and high backlash; and (v) their suitability for non-critical
Applicable for a variety of materials (iii) Refractory mould material (iv) Allows high melt-
applications. These gears are used extensively (without finishing operation) in a variety of
temperature materials (v) Accuracy depends on the original master pattern used for the mold. The
industries, including toys, small appliances, cement mixer barrels, the hoist gearbox used in dam
common materials used for lost wax process are Tool steel, Nitriding steel, Monel, Beryllium
gate raising mechanisms, hand-operated cranes, etc. Cast iron, cast steel, bronzes, brass, and
copper and the process is used only if no other process is suitable since production cost is high.
ceramics are typically the materials used to make cast gears.

[Link] Metal mould casting

Medium-sized steel gears with limited accuracy and finish are frequently produced in a single or
small number of pieces by metal mold casting. Many agriculture industries employ such
unfinished gears. The cast preforms are appropriately machined for both general and precise
application. The following are some of the major attributes of such gears: (i) Better surface
smoothness and precision (tooth spacing and concentricity) high tooling costs (ii), suitable for
mass production (iii). These gears are used in a variety of devices, including lawn mowers,
cameras, office equipment, washing machines, gear pumps, and small speed reducers. Zinc,
aluminum, and brass are the often utilised materials for metal-molded gears. These gears are often
Figure 4.9: Investment casting of gears
used to tiny size gears and are not used for high speeds or significant tooth loading.
[Link] Shell mold casting
[Link] Die casting
This method is frequently used to create small gears in batches. This method offers quality that is
Die casting is the primary method used for large-scale or mass manufacture of tiny gears made of
halfway between investment casting and sand casting.
low melting point alloys of Al, Zn, Cu, Mg, etc. Such reasonably precise gears are employed in
toys, instruments, and cameras, among other things, under light loads and moderate speeds. [Link] Centrifugal casting

[Link] Investment casting or lost wax process (Fig. 4.9) Centrifugal casting is preferred for the solid blanks or outer rims (without teeth) of worm wheels
composed of cast iron, phosphor bronze, or even steel. The preforms are machined to provide the
A single metal object is produced using the lost wax casting process, commonly referred to as
right size gear blank. The teeth are then created through machining.
"investment casting," from a wax model. It is a very flexible procedure that produces outcomes
that are incredibly precise. A mould is constructed around a wax sacrifice model in lost wax 4.2.2 Manufacture of gears by moulding
casting. The wax is melted off and produces a hollow into which the metal or glass flows after the
Nonmetallic gears are made by injection molding (Fig. 4.10) from a variety of thermoplastics,
mould investment has been set. Fine details in both metal and glass can be captured with this
including nylon and acetal (Fig. 7.10). These tiny, low-precision gears have the advantages of
casting technique. Since 3000 B.C., this age-old technique has been utilised to artistically record
being inexpensive and operating without lubrication under light loads. Cameras, projectors,
the tales of historic societies and religions. It entails the following 8 steps: Create a wax model
windscreen wipers, speedometers, lawn sprinklers, and washing machines all use IM gears.
(step 1), make a mold (step 2), remove the wax (step 3), choose a metallic alloy (step 4), melt the

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Nylon, cellulose acetate, Polystyrene, and Polyimide phenolics are the materials. use the gear blanking method for lightweight applications. Typical examples of applications with
modest load needs include office equipment, hydraulics, minor medical devices, and others.

Figure 4.10: Moulding of gears [15]

4.2.3 Manufacture of gears by stamping (Fig.4.11)

Figure 4.12: Blanking of gears [17]
In order to create poor precision gears in large quantities at a low cost, sheet metal can be stamped
with tooth forms. Poor precision and surface quality. Such gears are frequently used in (i) toys,
4.2.5 Manufacture of gears by coining
manually driven machines, slow-moving mechanisms, (ii) precision stampings as gears without
burrs, and (iii) precision stampings as dies constructed of greater precision with tight tolerances In the closed die forging process of gear coining (Fig. 4.13), pressure is applied to the forging's
such as in watch, clock gears, etc. surface to provide tighter tolerances, smoother surfaces, and draught elimination. In a procedure
known as "closed die forging," the work piece is forged while sandwiched between two shaped
dies. Although it is primarily a cold work process, this process can be carried out in hot working
circumstances as well. This method of precision stamping involves applying high stress to the
metal work piece in order to cause plastic deformation that conforms to the shape of the die. With
the use of a hydraulic press or forging hammer, gears are coined from blanks. This procedure
produces gears that either don't require heavy grinding or can be utilised as such.

Figure 4.11: Stamping gears [16]

4.2.4 Manufacture of gears by blanking

Extrusion and blanking (Fig. 4.12) are extremely similar processes, although blanking only works
in two dimensions. With the aid of numerous dies, this gear forming procedure employs sheet
metal to produce the necessary shape. With the blanking technique, various sorts of gears can be Figure 4.13: Coining of gears [6]
produced. The finest results, however, are provided by spur gears. Today, a variety of industries

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4.2.6 Manufacture of gears by extruding Gear rolling can be done in one of two ways. In the first method, forming tools are flat tools
(racks). The flat rolling approach is this. Utilizing circular toothed gears as tools is the second
Long rods are formed into gear teeth by extrusion (Fig. 4.14), which are subsequently chopped
method of rolling gears. The circular rolling approach is what is used in this. Tools used in flat
into manageable lengths and machined for bores and keyways. Steels are rarely extruded, instead,
rolling move linearly. Both tools are in touch with the workpiece. The shaping happens in a single
nonferrous materials like aluminum and copper alloys results in a dense, pore-free structure with
motion of the instruments rubbing up against one another. The press load that the tools place on
better strength and a nice surface finish with crisp edges. Other extruded materials include
the workpiece as it is moving linearly is what causes the deformation. Figure 4.16 shows the flat
aluminum, copper, architectural bronze, phosphor bronze, brass, and naval brass. Sector gears and
rolling process in phases.
splined hollow and solid shafts are also applications of extrusion.

Figure 4.14: Extrusion of gears Figure 4.16: Rolling of gears by flat rolling or stepped rolling

4.2.7 Manufacture of gears by rolling As shown in Fig. 7.16, the straight and helical teeth of external steel disc or rod gears with small

One of the earliest forms of formation is rolling. As shown in Fig. 4.15, the gear is created by hot to medium diameter and module are produced by cold rolling using either flat dies or circular

or cold rolling a blank work piece through two or three dies. Rolling is a suitable alternative dies. As opposed to cutting, material flow results in the formation of teeth, which have great

because there is no chip creation when material savings are a top priority during manufacturing. precision and surface integrity. Despite having somewhat high initial equipment expenditures,

Before ramping up production, you must take rolling parameters, deformations, and gear rolling is a reasonable method for achieving high productivity and quality. Hot rolling is used

microstructure impacts into account to obtain an efficient process. to create larger gears, which are then finalised by machining.

4.2.8 Manufacture of gears by powder metallurgy

As a cost-effective alternative to traditional, machine-finished steel and cast-iron gears, powder

metallurgy (4.17) is a high-precision forming technique. Although this technique is good for
producing small, premium spur, bevel, and spiral gears, it is not appropriate for larger gear sizes.
Larger gears have less fatigue and impact resistance due to the porosity of the produced material,
but a sintering technique can be employed to enhance its mechanical qualities. When gear designs
feature holes, depressions, or varied surface levels or projections, powder metallurgy is also

Figure 4.15: Rolled gears [6] extremely advantageous. These gears can be found in household appliances, farm and garden
machinery, cars, trucks, and military vehicles and are extremely effective, easy to use, and

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practical for huge numbers is powder metallurgy. However, the resulting gears have size 4.2.10 Manufacture of gears by machining
restrictions and are limited in terms of load capacity. Additionally, the initial investment required
The prefabricated blanks are shaped roughly and have an irregular surface; they are then machined
for any powder metallurgy setup is rather large, making it unworkable for low-volume production.
to the necessary dimensions and finishes, and the teeth are often created through machining but
To create compact, high-quality external or internal spur, bevel, or spiral gears, a powder
occasionally through rolling. Following additional machining and/or grinding, complete gears
metallurgical process route is employed (Fig. 7.17) For increased durability and strength, large
with teeth are created using a variety of techniques. By using near-net-shape processes, such as
gears are rolled following briquetting and sintering. Almost no additional finishing work is
rolling, plastic molding, powder metallurgy, etc., accurate gears are manufactured immediately in
necessary for gears manufactured via powder metallurgy.
final form with little to no additional finishing. The most often used technique entails preforming
the blank through casting, forging, etc., followed by pre-machining to prepare the gear blank to
appropriate dimensions, and finally manufacturing of the teeth through machining and further
finishing through grinding if necessary.

Gear teeth are created through machining based on form, where the profile of the teeth is obtained
as a copy of the shape of the cutting tool (edge); for example, milling, broaching, etc. Rolling
type, tool-work motions, such as hobbing, gear shaping, etc. are used to generate the complex
tooth profile, as shown in the following examples:

[Link] Shaping, planning and slotting

Figure 4.17: Gear manufacturing steps by powder metallurgy
Figure 4.19 illustrates schematically how straight toothed spur gears can have their teeth made in
4.2.9 Manufacture of gears by forging a shaping machine if necessary. This procedure is only utilised, if at all, to make one or a few

Depending on the needs, this is another shaping method that can produce both blanks and ready- teeth on one or two pieces of gears as and when necessary for repair and maintenance because

to-use gears. When one has reasonably basic gears, forging is a very viable option. Theoretically, both productivity and product quality are very low. Planning and slot machines operate on the

forging (Fig. 4.18) is a great method of producing gears for heavy-duty applications for one reason same basic tenet. If at all necessary, a planning machine is utilised to create the teeth for large

in particular. Heat treatment is necessary during forging, so the finished gear would have gears, while slotting is typically employed for internal gears.

improved fatigue characteristics. However, the size and thinness of this technique are constrained
by the enormous force needed for forging. Forging typically works effectively for gears with a
diameter between 6 and 10 feet. One might or might not need to manufacture the gears in the end,
depending on the type of forging, for instance precision forging.

Figure 4.18: Forging of a gear Figure 7.19: Gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine [6]

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[Link] Milling produce external teeth, as shown schematically in Fig. 4.21 (b). Although the productivity and
quality of this technology are quite good, the cost of the machine and the broach is also very high.
As shown in Fig. 7.20, milling cutters of the disc and end mill varieties can both be used to create
(iii) the generation concept is used to produce gear teeth, and this method is characterised by
gear teeth. Gear teeth are produced by form milling, which is distinguished by (i) the use of HSS
automatic indexing, the ability of a single cutter to cover the whole range of teeth for a particular
form milling cutters and (ii) the use of standard milling equipment (iii) Slow speed and feed due
combination of module and pressure angle, and high productivity and efficiency.
to ((a) the need for indexing after milling each tooth gap (b) poor production rate) low precision
and surface polish (iv) Inventory issue-each module-pressure angle combination requires a set of
[Link] Sunderland method using rack type cutter
eight cutters (v) To cut the teeth of big gears and/or modules, end mill type cutters are employed.
In order to complete the machining (cutting) action, the rack type HSS cutter, which has rake and
clearance angles, reciprocates while rolling type interaction with the gear blank, simulating a pair
of rack and pinion. This generating process is schematically shown in Fig. 7.22. The advantages
and key uses of this technique (and machine) include: (i) producing moderate-sized straight and
helical toothed external spur gears with high accuracy and finish (ii) cutting the teeth of double
helical or herringbone gears with a central recess or groove (iii) and producing straight or helical
fluted cluster gears. However, although being automatic, this method only requires a few indexing
(a) (b) (c) operations.

Figure 4.20: Producing teeth by (a) disc type end mill (b) single helix (c) double helix [6]

[Link] Fast production of teeth of spur gears

In theory, (i) parallel multiple teeth shaping is identical to conventional shaping; but, as shown in
Fig. 4.21 (a), a set of radially in feeding single point form tools are used to concurrently create all
of the tooth gaps without the need for indexing. Although this outdated method was extremely
Figure 4.22: External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter (Sunderland method) [6]
effective, it nearly completely lost popularity due to its high upfront and ongoing costs.

[Link] Gear shaping

In theory, gear shaping is identical to rack type cutting, with the exception that the circular cutter
shown in Fig. 4.23, which rotates both the cutter and the blank as a pair of spur gears in addition
to the reciprocation of the cutter, replaces the linear type rack cutter used in rack type cutting. The
generation method, which has great productivity and economy, is characterised by automatic
indexing and the capacity of a single cutter to span the complete range of number of teeth for a
given combination of module and pressure angle. The gear type cutter is built of HSS, has the
Figure 4.21: Faster production of teeth on spur gear [6]
right rake, and has the right clearance angles. Additionally, there are benefits of gear shaping over
rack type cutting including: (i) External and internal spur gears can be made with high accuracy
(ii) broaching procedure can be used to create a lot of the straight or single-helical teeth for small
and finish with either straight or helical teeth, (ii) negating the need for separate indexing entirely
internal and exterior spur gears made of somewhat softer materials. In one pass, a broaching can
and (iii) Productivity has increased as well.

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as follows:
(i) Straight-toothed bevel gear. (a) Forming by milling cutter- poor productivity and quality;
used for production needing less volume and accuracy (b) Generation- high accuracy and
finish; used for batch to mass production. The method of tooth formation and generation for
a straight-toothed bevel gear is depicted graphically in Fig. 4.25. During the generation
process, the cutters' straight teeth under rolling action form an involute profile on the inner

(a) (b) flanks of two neighboring teeth.

Figure 4.23: Gear teeth generation by gear shaping (a) external spur (b) internal spur [6]

[Link] Hobbing

Figure 4.24 depicts the tool-work configuration and motions involved in hobbing. A gear milling
cutter-like HSS or carbide cutter and a gear blank appear to cooperate in hobbing like a pair of
worm and worm wheel. The hob (cutter) resembles a single or multiple start worm in appearance
and behavior. Hobbing machines are far more stiff, sturdy, and productive than gear shaping
machines while having fewer tool-work motions, only three than gear shaping machines.
Figure 4.25: Production of straight toothed spur gear (a) forming (b) generation
However, hobbing only works for cutting straight or helical (single) teeth on external spur gears
and worm wheels and offers less accuracy and polish. (ii) Teeth of spiral and hypoid bevel gears are produced by almost the same generation principle
but the cutter resembles face milling cutter as shown in Fig. 4.26.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.24: Gear generation by hobbing (a) straight tooth (b) helical tooth (c) worm wheel

The process of making steel screw-like single- or multi-start worms (gears) typically involves
machining, such as long thread milling, or cold rolling, such as thread rolling, followed by heat
treatment for surface hardening and finishing by grinding. Bevel gears are made by first casting Figure 4.26: Generation of tooth of spiral and hypoid bevel gear [6]
or forging the blanks, which are then turned on lathes or other specialised machinery to the desired
proportions. After that, machining is used to create the teeth in the blank. Based on the shape of 4.2.11 Electrical discharge Machining (EDM)
the teeth and the volume of production, the method of machining and the machine tool are selected A series of current discharges between two electrodes separated by a dielectric bath liquid are

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used in the industrial process known as electrical discharge machining (Fig. 4.27) to remove
With additive manufacturing techniques, conventional and non-circular gears can be created, and
material from the workpiece. Despite its strengths in cutting intricate geometries of various sizes,
high-quality 3D printers are widely accessible and reasonably priced. Due to its accessibility, it
EDM has some drawbacks. Without a strong control and program, it's simple to damage part
has taken the lead in mechanical projects and repairs for items like educational toys and other
surfaces, particularly curved tooth profiles, which are notoriously difficult for CNC programs to
devices that require fully operating gears. In order to add unique shafts, keys, or grooves to the
implement. The smooth EDM motion required to cut curved teeth, however, may be created by
same solid, you may also insert other characteristics and even combine geometry with the gear
high-quality and user-friendly 3D modelling and CAM software, such as Feature CAM, Autodesk
designs.
Fusion, Master CAM, and others.

Early EDM devices and applications had drawbacks, but they have since improved. This
development has reduced surface finish problems, enhanced cutting accuracy, and improved
material characteristics (microstructure, mechanical properties, etc). The procedure can produce
both small (with a diameter of fractions of an inch) and big gears with tolerances as tight as
thousandths of an inch (diameter of over 20 inches). This method is used to cut more durable Figure 4.28: Gear geometry made using 3D printing
gears, such as those used in race vehicles, as well as sensitive applications in watches and clocks.

4.3 Gear generating methods

The gear manufacturing process begins with the gear producing procedure. The phrase
"generating" in gear cutting refers to the formation of the involute curve by the cutter's
straight cutting edges, which results in a number of facets on the blank to create the involute
profile. When in working contact, the cutter and blank behave as mated gears. In this
procedure, a cutting machine is used to carve the gears from a solid piece of metal. The gears
are taken to a grinding machine after being cut out, where their teeth are ground down to the
required size. The gears are then run through a polishing machine to provide a smooth surface.
The gears are then examined to verify sure they adhere to the manufacturer's standards. There
are three common methods of creating gears: gear hobbing, gear shaping with a pinion cutter,
.
and gear shaping with a rack cutter.

Figure 4.27: Electrical discharge machining (EDM)

4.3.1 Gear shaper with pinion
4.2.12 Additive Manufacturing
Gear shaping (Fig. 4.29) involves the use of a pinion-type cutter. With a top rake and clearance,
Additive manufacturing (Fig. 4.28), also referred to as 3D printing, builds a three-dimensional the cutter teeth are ground. On a vertical spindle, the cutter is fixed. A cutter's and a blank's axes
object layer by layer from a CAD 3D model. Because of how the process works, additive machines are parallel. The cutter and the blank are designed to spin in tandem like two meshing gears. The
can create intricate shapes with lattice structures. Mass reduction that is difficult to achieve using cutter and blank appear to be moving at the same speed. Along the width of the blank, the cutter
conventional techniques can be achieved by modelling these structures. Utilizing generative rotates in a vertical manner. To determine the depth of cut, the pinion cutter is inserted radially
computer design and 3D topology optimization, this form of geometry is frequently produced. into the gear blank. Till all of the teeth are produced on the blank, the cutter and blank gently

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rotate together. The blank is pulled from the cutter during each return stroke. This is done to avoid reciprocated across by the rack cutter as shown in (Fig. 4.30).
cutting the gear teeth and causing damage to the cutting edges. The various movements are
described below:

i. Rotational movement of the blank and cutter.

ii. The cutter's vertical reciprocating motion.
iii. The cutter is fed in a radial motion toward the blank.
iv. During the return stroke, the blank is pulled away from the cutter.

This technique for shaping gears is frequently used for other kinds of gears, but because it involves
Figure 4.30: Gear cutting in a Planner [6]
utilising a cutter that reciprocates the gear shape, it has proven helpful for the gear types indicated
above because it makes production setup simple. There are also alternative ways to make these The blank spins. The cutter rolls in tandem with the blank as a rack and pinion while
kinds of gears, but gear shaping has advantages in terms of speed, setup, and design for mass reciprocating in order to move longitudinally. One of the main approaches to gear generation
production. The position of the cutter (on the exterior) and the cut direction, however, make this use rack type cutters. The technique, which is sometimes referred to as the Sunderland
approach a poor choice for internal gears and worm gears. method (Fig. 7.31), uses a rack cutter with rake and clearance angles to design the teeth
profile on a gear blank. Similar to a rack and pinion, it uses precise relative motion between the
work piece and the cutter throughout the machining process to produce tooth profiles. This is
shown in Figure 4.31. The geometry of the teeth profiles is represented by an involute of a circle,
which is essentially a spiraling curve traced by the end of a fictitious thread unwinding from that
stationary circle or if one traces the point of contact from one tooth to another as illustrated in Fig.
4.31.

A rack-type HSS cutter with rake and clearance angles reciprocates to perform the machining
(cutting) action while interacting with the gear blank in a rolling manner, much like a pair of rack
Figure 4.29: Gear shaper [6]
and pinion. The advantages and key uses of this technique (and machine) include: I cutting the

Frequently, a work tool is entirely encircled by two different cuts. Roughing is done on the first teeth of double helical or herringbone gears with a central recess (groove), (ii) cutting the teeth of

cut, and finishing is done on the second cut, which improves precision and smoothness. In gear straight or helical fluted cluster gears, and (iii) producing moderate size straight and helical

shapers, helical gears can also be made. The cutters employed should have helical teeth, and while toothed external spur gears with high accuracy and finish. Although automatic, this method only

a cutter reciprocates on a machine, a guiding cam put on it twists the cutter during cutting strokes requires a small number of indexing operations.

to force the cutter teeth to follow helical courses.

4.3.2 Gear shaping with rack planning

The cutter in this instance is shaped like an involute rack. The clearance and rake angles are carved
into it. The cutter is fixed to a sliding reciprocator. The blank is fixed to an arbour that is vertical.
To determine the depth of cut, the cutter is fed radially into the gear. The blank's face is Figure 4.31: Sunderland process [6]

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4.3.3 Gear hobbing the cutter completes all of the teeth and (v) the hob must be adjusted over an additional amount
equivalent to the helical angle of the gear for cutting helical gears (Fig. 4.33) All kinds of gears
Using a spinning shaped cutter to create gear teeth is known as gear hobbing (Fig. 4.32). This
made of ferrous, non-ferrous, and non-metallic materials can be hoofed and Hobs with carbide
process is used to create the vast majority of involute gears. Although a variety of different gears,
tips can be used in large quantities.
including cycloid gears, helical gears, worm gears, ratchets, and sprockets, are all formed by
hobbing, spur gears are most frequently manufactured using this technique. The hob must be
carefully thought out, especially when cutting complicated geometries. Internal gears often do not
respond to this operation.

Figure 4.33: Gear Hobbing of helical gear [6]

4.3.4 Gear form cutting

Figure 4.32: Gear hobbing process [6]
Form cutting is the next important gear manufacturing technique. Due to its drawbacks, including

Since the hob is cutting the outside of the gear blanks, the procedure, which is similar to gear low productivity and subpar product quality, this procedure is not chosen. However, when repair

shaping, provides advantages in the setup but only for exterior cuts. The gear blank is fixed to an or maintenance is required, the various form cutting processes are practical substitutes.

arbour that is vertical. A spinning arbour is used to support the hob. To align its teeth with the
4.3.5 Gear shaping, planning and slotting
axis of the gear blank, the hob axis is slanted through the hob lead angle. A cutting-speed rotation
of the hob is used. It is fed into the blank of the gear. The hob and gear blank are made to rotate The workpiece is stationary while shaping, and the tool is pushed back and forth across the

in the proper direction with respect to one another. The gear moves one tooth for every turn of the workpiece by the ram (Fig. 4.34). When planning, the tool is fixed, and the workpiece moves back

hob. and forth on the table beneath the tool (Fig. 4.35). When slotting, the workpiece is kept still while
the tool on the ram is moved across it in an upward and downward motion (See Figure 4.36).

The main focal points of gear hobbing includes: (i) Hobs can have a single thread or several
threads. While a double threaded hob can produce two teeth in a single revolution, a single
threaded hob requires one revolution to produce each tooth (ii)The index worm and gear drive the
blank at a constant pace. The hob is driven by the bevel gears at the proper ratio of speed, and a
feed screw moves the hob across the gear's face (iii) Gear cutting with a hob requires three
fundamental motions that all take place at the same time. The hob advances radially in two
motions. Indexing and cutting both happen continually (iv) The hob axis is set at an angle that is
equal to the thread's helix angle with respect to the gear blank's axis. This aligns the hob's teeth
Figure 4.34: Gear form cutting by planning
with the blank teeth. This aircraft is known as a generating aircraft. In a single pass over the piece,

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Figure 4.35: Gear form cutting by shaping

Shapers and planers both produces straight cuts. The planer, on the other hand, is designed for
larger applications, while the shaper tackles tiny size geometries. Slots, grooves, and keyways can
Figure 4.37: Process of Gear Hobbing [6]
be made with shapers. A vertical shaper that cuts internal gears and grooves is what slotting
essentially is. Hob: During this procedure, a spinning cutter known as a hob is used to roll the gear blank. A
multipoint cutting tool called a gear hob is used to gear hob. It resembles a worm gear with several
straight flutes running parallel to its axis all around its circumference. These flutes are fashioned
in such a way by being given the correct angles that they serve as cutting edges. In a gear hobbing
procedure, the hob is fed to the gear blank while rotating at an appropriate rpm. The gear blank is
maintained as rotating as well. Gear blank and gear hob's rpm are coordinated such that for every
gear bob revolution, the gear blank spins one pitch distance of the gear hob.

Both the hob and the gear blank move consistently and steadily. Figure 4.37 depicts a gear hob
and the gear hobbing operation is demonstrated. The hob teeth have a distinct helix angle and act
like screw threads. In order for the hob's cutting blades to stay square with the gear blank during
operation, it is tilted at a helix angle. A wide range of gears, including spur gears, helical gears,
Figure 4.36: Gear form cutting by slotting
hearing-bone gears, splines, and gear sprockets, are made by gear hobbing. Figure 4.38 illustrates
4.4 Operation of gear hobbing machine how the shaving is done.

For large or low volume production of external cylindrical gears, the industry frequently uses the
continuous gear creation technique known as hear hobbing. One of the main manufacturing
techniques used in the sector is gear hobbing. The requirements for additional gearing of both old
and new varieties with a better and higher degree of accuracy are continuously rising in modern
engineering practise. The gear hobbling machine's construction is depicted in Fig 4.37.

Figure 4.38: (a) Cutting teeth of gear shaving and (b) action

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4.4.1 Working of gear hobbing 3. In comparison to other gear machining procedures, the process has greater variability in the
following senses:
Important features of hobbing are: (a) Gear hobbing is a technique in which gears are cut
a. Able to create several different types of gears, including spur gears, helical gears, worms,
using a generating process in which the cutter, known as a hob, and the gear blank are both rotating
splines, and sprockets.
simultaneously with a set gearing ratio. The gear blank is fed into the rotating hob in this method
b. The so-named needed indexing process is remarkably straightforward and capable of
until the necessary depth is obtained. Until all of the teeth are formed, the hob is fed across the
producing any number of teeth while maintaining the module's precision.
blank's face (b) the hob teeth in a hobbing spur gear are positioned parallel to the blank's axis of
c. Gear hobbing alone can produce a specific kind of gear known as a herringbone gear.
rotation. The axis of the hob is placed over an angle to create the proper helix for helical teeth
d. This procedure can handle a wide range of batch sizes (from tiny to huge volume).
bobbing. While producing worm gears, the hob's axis must be at the proper angle to the gear blank
4. It is possible to process multiple gear blanks placed on the same arbour at once.
(c) Typically, the hobbing procedure uses two techniques: (i) conventional hobbing (also known
5. A hob is a multipoint cutting tool with several cutting teeth or edges. Because there are fewer
as ‘traditional hobbing’) and (ii) climb hobbing (d) Compared to other gear-generating techniques,
cutting edges operating at once, there is a lot of time for the heat to be dissipated. There isn't
the manufacturing rate is fairly high. Spur, helical, worm, sprocket, and spline gears, among other
a heating or cutting device.
types of gears, can be produced using this method. But cutting up to the shoulder is impossible
because of the rotary cutter.
4.4.5 Disadvantages of gear hobbing machine

4.4.2 Gear hobbing parameters a) It is not adopted to generate internal gears.

b) It is restricted adjacent shoulders larger than the root diameter of the gear.
Indexing movement, feed rate, and the angle between the axis of the gear blank and the gear
c) Splines and serrations are not suitable for hobbing.
hobbing tool are three crucial variables that must be under control (gear hob).

4.4.6 Applications of gear hobbing

4.4.3 Types of hobbing process
a) It is widely used to produce spur, helical gears, worms, and worm wheels.
The process of gear hobbing is classified into different types according to the directions of feeding
b) It can also be used for producing internal gears for which the machine should have a facility
the hob for gear cutting as: (i) Hobbing with Axial Feed - In this technique, the gear hob is fed
for fitting a special head.
against the gear blank while being parallel to its axis and along the blank's face. Gears like spur
and helical gears are made using this. (ii) Hobbing with Radial Feed - In this technique, the axes
4.5 Gear finishing processes
of the gear blanks and the hob are configured to be parallel to one another. In a radial direction or
Depending on the method used for gear production, the gears will require some post-processing
perpendicular to the axis of the gear blank, the rotating hob is fed against the gear blank. This
before they are completely ready. The post-processing can include dimension correction, surface
method is used to create the blank and the worm wheels. (iii) Hobbing with Tangential Feed -
polishing, and heat treatment for better fatigue characteristics. Here are the top five popular
This technique is also used to shape the worm wheel's teeth. In this instance, the hob is held
methods used in gear manufacturing for surface polishing.
horizontally with its axis angled at the axis of the blank. The hob is positioned at the whole depth
of the tooth and fed axially forward. To the face of the gear blank, the hob is fed tangentially.
1. Grinding. As its name suggests, grinding is a typical surface finishing technique that
leaves the surface with a smooth finish. It won't matter if you do it continually or
4.4.4 Advantages of gear hobbing process
sporadically; the outcomes will remain the same.
1. When compared to other gear generation techniques, gear hobbing is an economical
procedure since it is a quick and continuous operation.
2. Shorter manufacturing cycles, or a higher output rate.

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2. Lapping. This procedure is used for delicate gears where high precision is required.
Lapping is a low- to medium-speed process that uses tiny abrasive particles to smooth a
surface.
3. Honing. Another typical technique for smoothing and polishing the surface. Additionally,
you can make a few tiny corrections to the shape of your teeth.
4. Shaving. To create a smooth profile, this operation involves removing incredibly thin
(a) (b) (c)
layers from the surface. Since shaving is typically expensive, it is rarely employed in the
manufacture of gear. Figure 4.39: Gear shaving cutters (a) spur gear type (b) rack and (c) worm type [6]

5. Burnishing. Essentially, burnishing is the process of applying compression to a surface

All of those gear, rack, or worm type shaving cutters are made of hard steel or HSS, and to produce
to make it smoother.
sharp cutting edges, all of their teeth are consistently serrated as illustrated in Fig. 4. 39 (a). The

Gears need to go through a number of finishing processes after production. Heat treatment and shaving cutter's cutting teeth continue to smooth the mated gear flanks as they interact with the

final dimensional and surface finishing are examples of finishing activities. Shaving, grinding, gears by finely milling to a high degree of accuracy and surface finish. As shown in Fig. 4.39 (b),

and honing are among finishing techniques. The gears must meet the following requirements for the shaving teeth require an actual or apparent movement relative to the mating teeth throughout

smooth operation, effective performance, and extended service life: (i) exact dimensions and their length to perform such minute cutting action.

forms (ii) excellent surface finish and (iii) hardness and wear resistance at the sides of the teeth.
4.5.1 Gear teeth grinding
Which are accomplished by a small amount of gear tooth finishing work following rather precise
preforming and machining. Small gears produced by cold rolling frequently don't need additional Although relatively expensive, grinding is a very accurate procedure that is more frequently

polishing. employed for smoothing out the teeth of various types and sizes of hard-material or hardened
surfaces on gears. With the aid of fine machining or abrasive action from the fine abrasives, the
A little finishing by grinding and/or lapping is done after hardening if a rolled gear simply requires properly formed and dressed wheel finishes the sides of the gear teeth. Like gear milling, gear
additional surface hardening. Gears made by die casting, powder metallurgy, extrusion, blanking, grinding is also done on two principles as (i) Forming (ii) Generation, which is more productive
etc. that are nearly net-shape require minimum polishing. However, gear teeth that have been and accurate.
machined and hardened are virtually finished for accuracy and surface finish. Common techniques
for polishing gear teeth after preforming and machining, gear teeth are typically completed by: [Link] Gear teeth grinding on forming principle

(a) for soft and unhardened gears such as gear shaving and gear rolling or burnishing. (b) for hard As seen in Fig. 4.40, when the grinding wheel is prepared to the precise form needed on the gear,
and hardened gears such as grinding and lapping (c) for soft but precision gears such as shaving this is quite similar to milling gear teeth using a single disc type form cutter. The method is
followed by surface hardening and then lapping. sluggish and less precise when indexing is required. With changes in the module, pressure angle,
Gear shaving. External spur gears and worm wheels with moderately sized straight or helical and even number of teeth, the wheel or dressing must be altered. Straight or single helical spur
teeth composed of soft metals like aluminum alloy, brass, bronze, cast iron, etc. and unhardened gears, straight toothed bevel gears, as well as worm and worm wheels, can all be finished using
steels are typically polished by shaving. Figure 4.39 depicts the various shaving cutter types that, form grinding.
while performing their finishing function, seem to function as a spur gear, rack, or worm in mesh
with the corresponding gears that need to be finished.

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The gear that needs to be completed is run in mesh with a gear-shaped lapping tool or another cast
iron mating gear after being machined, heated, and even after grinding. They are separated by an
abrasive lapping substance. Such lapping significantly increases the gear tooth contact.

4.6 Gear materials and specification

Gears have been made from a wide range of steels, cast irons, bronzes, and phenolic resins.
Additionally, new materials like sintered iron, titanium, and nylon have grown in significance in
the gear industry. If not for the fact that each of the materials used for gears has been adopted for
a reason, designers might get utterly perplexed when presented with such a wide variety of gear
materials. Steel gears stand out for having the highest strength per unit volume and the lowest cost
Figure 4.40: Gear teeth finishing by grinding [6]
per pound. Steel is the only material to take into consideration in many disciplines of gear work.

[Link] Gear teeth grinding by generation principle Because of their great machinability, good wear properties, and ease of producing complex shapes
using the casting method, cast irons have enjoyed a long history of use.
The methods for polishing spur gear teeth by grinding using the generation principle are shown
schematically in Figure 4.41. The simplest and most popular technique is quite similar to cutting Due to its capacity to tolerate high sliding velocities and to wear in to suit hardened-steel worms,
spur gear teeth with a single or many rack cutter teeth. The gear teeth are reciprocated along by bronzes play a crucial role in worm gear work. Additionally, they are excellent in areas where
the rotating grinding wheel, which can have one or more ribs, as indicated. As shown in Fig. corrosion is a problem. Bronze is a good option when producing small gear teeth by stamping or
4.38b, the other tool-work motions are the same as when gear teeth are generated by a rack type by drawing rods through dies because of how easily it can be manipulated. Despite the material's
cutter. As shown in Fig. 4.41(c), a pair of thin dish-type grinding wheels are utilised to polish poor physical strength, diverse combinations of phenolic resins can be employed to create
massive gear teeth. In either case, the two flanks of the virtual rack tooth are made to behave as laminated gears with astonishingly good weight carrying capability. These substances are
the contacting surfaces of the wheels. typically 30 times more elastic than steel. Due to their "rubbery" nature, they operate with less
shock from tooth faults and can have teeth that can bend enough to make more contact and
distribute load than designs made of metal. Several of these materials can withstand sliding at
quite high speeds.

4.6.1 Gear specification

The specification establishes the requirements for the manufacture, inspection, testing, and
workmanship. The parameters of a spur gear specification are: Gear Type, Module, Number of
teeth and thickness, radius of pitch circle, nominal circle radius, radius of base circle, radius of
(a) (b) © addendum circle, radius of dedendum circle, pressure angle, fillet radius, material of the gear, heat
treatment type, surface finish and circular pitch etc. One of such specification is shown in Table
Figure 4.41: Gear teeth grinding on generation principle [6] 4.2. There are few more parameters (form of teeth, size of teeth, face width of teeth, design of the
hub of the gear, degree of precision required, means of locating the gear on the shaft etc.) that
[Link] Gear teeth finishing by lapping
esquires additionally depending on the type of meshing gears.
Only little variations from the ideal gear tooth profiles are corrected by the lapping procedure.

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Table 4.2: Gear specifications challenge. The major method utilised at the moment is gas carburization, which involves heating
goods in carbon dioxide gas, methane, propane, and steam. A huge number of materials can be
processed efficiently even though gas carburization is expensive due to the vast amount of
specialised equipment required. Usually, carburizing takes place after cutting the gear and
forming the gear teeth. The tooth surface is then finished by being lapped and ground.

4.7.2 Induction hardening

A common method of treating gears composed of medium-carbon steel. When the metal gear that
4.7 Gear heat treatment processes is wound with wire is electrified, the eddy current moves through electromagnetic induction. The
eddy current's ability to concentrate at the metal surface and heat metal is exploited by induction
The qualities of a component can be improved by a procedure called heat treatment to suit
hardening. The wiring coil that is layered on top of the cut-out gear tooth is subjected to an electric
application-specific criteria. The performance of each gear in terms of transferring power or
current as part of the standard procedure for induction hardening. Induction hardening is less
carrying motion to other components in an assembly is significantly impacted by heat treatment,
precise and can handle fewer items at once than other techniques like carburizing. On the other
which is a crucial and difficult step in the manufacturing of gears. By changing their chemical,
hand, because the gear tooth can be partially hardened, this procedure is appropriate for processing
metallurgical, and physical characteristics, heat treatments improve the performance and lengthen
items with integrated gear and axis or big gears.
the lifespan of gears in use. Heat treatment is the process of repeatedly heating and cooling a
material to modify its microstructure and, in turn, its mechanical properties.
4.7.3 Nitriding

Both tooth flanks are in sliding and rolling contact as the power is transferred between mated Most steel gears contain molybdenum or chromium. Aluminum-containing steel, also referred to
gears. That is to say, the pressure applied to the tooth flank is equivalent to the pressure as "nitride steel," has a particularly potent effect among the numerous types of steel that are
experienced when a cylinder slides while rolling on a flat surface. The tooth flank must withstand appropriate for nitriding. With nitration, gears are heated in nitrogen gas to create an iron nitride
this strain without breaking. However, some hard materials, like ceramic, are fragile and break layer on the gear surface that ranges in thickness from 0.1 to 1 mm. The layer that is hardened by
readily. When the gears begin to turn, the dedendum is commonly subjected to bending force, and nitriding is thinner than that produced by other heat treatments, but it can produce harder materials
impact may result. In order to obtain high durability against external pressures and impact, the than carburizing and induction hardening. At 500o to 600o Celsius, the temperature required for
material of the gear must be tenacious. Therefore, exactly like a Japanese sword, gears need to be nitriding is quite low. In contrast, carburizing and induction hardening need items to be heated to
tough on the surface and tough on the inside. The process used to impart such features is heat 800o Celsius. In contrast to other heat treatments, nitriding does not result in quenching cracks or
treatment. Gears can be heated using three different methods: Carburizing, Induction hardening, deformation. Since nitriding doesn't deform and produces high hardness, it is typically done as
and Nitriding. the final stage in the production of gears.

4.7.1 Carburizing 4.8 Introduction to press working

A common method of treating low-carbon steel gears. As implied by the term, the metal surface In almost every industry today, presses are employed. Presses have been around for a very long
is quenched and tempered to harden after being pierced by "carbon." Depending on the gear size, period (Fig. 4.42). It can be used to manipulate a wide range of materials, both hot and cold, and
the hardened layer's thickness ranges from 0.2mm to 2mm. Crushed carbon was once applied to it can perform a number of operations that call for intense pressure, including packing, squeezing,
metal before it was sealed and heated. High-temperature, molten inorganic salts based on sodium forging, stamping, flush mounting, extrusion, laminating, and stretching. Even if we keep with
cyanide were used to coat items in Europe, but the toxicity of sodium cyanide presented a the functioning of metals, its great variety allows for many different classifications of such

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presses. Depending on the positioning of the guides in the space (vertical, horizontal, inclined), metal forming activities. Figure 4.43 (a) shows a manual and 4.43 (b) shows a powered system
the motor agent (manuals, gravity, engine), or the drive's active elements (single, double, or triple illustrating a line diagram of such a typical presses. The press's frame construction determines the
effect presses), or the methods of implementing the drive's energy (of eccentric lever, friction, base and ram's relative placements. In most cases, the punch is held in the punch holder, which is
screw, etc) (mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic), the fact shows that there are so many variations connected to the ram. The press bed is covered with a balster steel plate, and a die is fixed on the
on a single theme and that the evolution of the press throughout the narrative does not proceed in plate. There are numerous capacities, power systems, and frame types for presses. The ability of
a straightforward or linear fashion. On the other hand, it has taken a lot of various methodologies, a press to exert the necessary power to finish an operation is the definition of capacity.
far-flung theoretical foundations, and multiple individual contributions to get the pressing
technology to where it is now.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b)
Figure 4.42: Press working history (a) Hammer type (b) Nicolas Briot (1626) rocker type [18] Figure 4.43: Typical Press of (a) Manual type (b) Power Press (c) Hydraulic press

One of the manufacturing techniques that is virtually chip-free is metal shaping. Presses and 4.9 Classification of presses
other press-related equipment are mostly used to carry out these processes including applying
Many different industries employ press working. Some of the prominent examples are:
pressure or force to metal workpieces to cause them to deform to the required size. Using
automotive, aerospace, communications, electrical appliance, and utensil manufacturing
mechanical pressure or force, the press is a metal-forming device that can cut or shape metal.
industries. Hydraulic presses use a sizable piston and cylinder to drive the ram as their power
One of the most popular ways to create parts with complicated shapes and thin walls is with this
source. Longer ram strokes can be provided by this technique than by mechanical dries. A constant
technique. Press working activities have a number of benefits, including: Material economy,
applied load is provided. It operates somewhat more slowly. These presses can be one- or two-
high productivity, part uniformity, and use of fewer labour.
action, among other variations. The amount of independently operating slides determines the

In general, all press working procedures on sheet metal are referred to as press working. Stamped number of actions.

pieces made of sheet metal are moulded or curled through deformation such as shearing,
There are various drive mechanisms that are employed with mechanical presses. Eccentric,
punching, drawing, stretching, bending, coining, etc. High production rates enable completed
crankshaft, knuckle joint, and other drives are among them. These drives are used to change a
products to be produced within tolerance without the need for further machining. Work related to
motor's rotational motion into a ram's linear motion. Typically, a fly wheel serves as an energy
mass production is made easier by presses and press tools. Numerous industries, including those
source for forging processes. These presses are advised for blanking and punching operations due
that produce office furniture, electric goods, radios, air travel, telephones, and stainless-steel home
to the drives' ability to generate extremely high forces at the end of their strokes.
waves, use press working.
Therefore, a press is a tool for working with sheet metal that has a stationary bed and a powered
ram that can be moved in either direction to impart force or the necessary pressure for different

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4.9.1 Presses classified on the basis of source of power Characteristic Mechanical Presses Hydraulic Presses
veriable Variable speeds uniform throughout
(i). Mechanical presses. These presses utilize flywheel energy which is transferred to stroke.
Capacity' About 50 MN (maximum) About 500 MN. or even more.
the work piece by gears, cranks, eccentrics, or levers. 5 to 100 tons capacity. (Fig. Control
Full stroke generally required before Adjustable, slide reversal possible from
reversel. any position.
4.44a) Operations requiring maximum pressure Operations requiting steady pressure
near bottom of strock. cutting operations Ihrough-out stoke. Deep drawing. Drawing
(ii). Manual (fly) Presses. These are either hand or foot operated through Application (blanking, sharing, piercing, forming and irregular shaped parts. Straightening.
levers, screws or gears. A common press of this type is the arbor press used for drawing to depths of about 100 mm. Operations requiring variable forces and 'or
strokes.
assembly operations. Capacity ½ to 10 tons.
4.9.2 Presses classified on the basis of number of slides
(iii). Hydraulic Presses. These presses provide working force through the
application of fluid pressure on a piston by means of pumps, valves, intensifiers, and (i). Single Action Presses: A single action press features a single reciprocating slide
accumulators. These presses have better performance and reliability than mechanical that transports the tool used for metal shaping. The bed of the press is fixed. For procedures
presses (Fig. 4.44b). like blanking, coining, embossing, and drawing, it is the press that is most frequently
(iv). Pneumatic/Power Presses. These presses utilize air cylinders or motor utilised.
power (Fig. 4.44c) to exert the required force. These are generally smaller in size and (ii). Double Action Presses: A double action press uses two slides that move in unison
capacity than hydraulic or mechanical presses, and therefore find use for light duty against a stationary bed. Compared to a single action press, it is better suited for drawing
operations only. tasks, particularly deep drawing.
(iii). Triple Action Presses: There are three moving slides in a triple action press. The
third or lower slide moves upward through the fixed bed in a direction opposite to that of
the other two slides (the blank holder and the inner slide move in the same way as in a
double action press). While both upper actions are residing, this action permits reverse
drawing, shaping, or bending operations against the inner slide.

4.9.3 Presses classified on the basis of frame and construction

(a) (b) (c)
(i). Arch-Frame Presses. The frames of these presses are shaped like arches (Fig.

Figure 4.44: Types of Presses (a) mechanical (b) hydraulic (c) power 4.45).
(ii). Gap Frame Presses. The frame of these presses is C-shaped. These are the most
Presses with power hammers (Fig. 4.44c) are also frequently employed for demanding, hard work. adaptable and widely used since they allow free access to the dies from three sides and
For the necessary blanking, shaping, and drawing processes on sheet metal, mechanical presses typically have open backs for the ejection of stamping and/ or trash (Fig. 4.45).
are employed extremely frequently. Hydraulic presses are preferable for specific tasks that (iii). Straight Side Presses. These presses are more durable because the large side
demand a lot of force, for instance. There are some distinctions between the use of mechanical frame can support huge weights in a vertical direction, and the alignment of the punch and
and hydraulic presses, as given below: die is less likely to be impacted by stress. These presses typically have a capacity of more
than 10 MN (Fig. 4.45).
Characteristic Mechanical Presses Hydraulic Presses
Force
(iv). Horn Presses. Instead of the typical bed, these presses typically feature a large
Dose not depend upon slide position.
Depends upon slide position.
Relatively constant. shaft protruding from the machine frame. This press is mostly used to punch, rivet,
Stroke length Short strokes Long strokes. Even as much as 3 m.
Slide speed High. Highest at mid- stroke. Can be Slow. Rapid advance and retraction. emboss, and flange edges on cylindrical items (Fig. 4.45).

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(iii). Die space. The die space is defined as the available area for mounting the punch
and dies components in the press.
(iv). Press adjustment. The press adjustment means the capability of press to adjust
the length of stroke as per need, as in the case of rack and pinion-driven presses.
(v). Number of ram head. The number of ram heads provided for simultaneous operations
i.e. single- acting, double-acting or multiple-acting.
(vi). Amount force or press. The size of any press is determined by the maximum force
or pressure that can be exerted by the ram on the work piece without any failure.
(vii). Capacity of working. The capacity of mechanical press is determined by the shear
strength of the crank shaft material multiplied by the area of the crankshaft bearings. The
capacity of mechanical presses ranges from 50 tons to 4000 tons. On the other hand, the
capacity of a hydraulic press is determined by the piston area multiplied by the pressure of
Figure 4.45: Typical frame designs used for power presses [6] oil in the cylinder. The capacity of a hydraulic press ranges from 100 tons to 40,000 tons.

4.9.4 Presses classified on the basis of design of the frame 4.10.1 Mechanical press specification

(i) Inclined (ii) Straight side (iii) Gap (iv) Horn (v) Arch (vi) Inclinable. It may be done on basis of Capacity of press (kN): 400, Stroke range (mm): 10-70, Number of
stroke (stroke/min): 72, Morse diameter (mm): 35 Dimensions of table (mm): 420 x 500, Hole
4.9.5 Presses classified on the basis of the drive mechanism diameter of the table (mm): 140, Distance between table and head (mm): 450, Motor power (kW):
(i) Crank (ii) Eccentric (iii) Rack and pinion (iv) Screw (v) Toggle drive (vi) Knuckle joint. 4, Speed (rpm): 1400, Speed of the hammer (m/s): 0.14 etc.

4.9.6 Presses classified on the basis of the number of slides 4.10.2 Hydraulic press specification

(i) Single action (ii) Double action (iii) Multiple actions. It may be done on basis of Maximum load:150 KN, Internal fluid pressure: 3.82 N/m2 , Tangential
stress: 480 x 106 N/m2 , Shear stress of flange: 480 x 106 N/m2, Maximum bending moment: 45 KN/m,
4.9.7 Presses classified on the basis of the uses Pumping pressure: 47.16 x 106 N/m2, Piston stroke: 600 mm, Piston diameter: 80 mm, Thickness of

(i) Shearing (ii) Punching (iii) Coining (iv) Stretching (v) Extruding (vi) Straightening (vii) cylinder wall: 17 x 10-3 m, Core diameter of bolt: 16 x 10-3 m, Internal radius of cylinder: 50 x 10-3 m,

Bending etc. Length of the lever: 0.8 m, Width of flange: 22.2 x 10-3 m, Thickness of cylinder wall: 17 x 104 m, 0-
ring seal dimension: 4 mm x 3 mm, Outside diameter of seal: 134 x 104 m etc.
4.10 Specification of presses
4.10.3 Power press specification
For practical selection of a press, specification is needed. The specification of a press involves the
following parameters: It may be done on basis of Capacity: 80 Tones, Bed Area: 900 X 600 mm, Stroke: 100mm,

(i). Length of stroke. The length of stroke is defined as the distance between up and down Shut Height:400 mm, Adjustment:75 mm, Speed:40mm/min, Motor: 5.5 Kw, 1800 RPM,

position the ram Drive shaft: RPM 300, Approx. Weight: 800Kg, Approx. Height: 1.8 M etc.

(ii).Shut height. The shut height is defined as the distance between the top of the bed to the
4.10.4 Application basis
bottom of the ram.

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There are many factors for selection of a Press based on the application :(i) Work piece material, c) Coining. A squeezing operation, usually performed in a closed die in which the metal is
(ii) Work piece size, (iii) Work piece thickness, (iv) Operations to be performed, (v) Operational forced to flow and fill the shape and profile of the die. There is a definite change in metal
speed required, (vi) Production rate, (vii) Power required, (viii) Dimensional tolerances and thickness.
accuracy required for parts, (ix) Die types i.e., single, compound or progressive type etc.
d) Perforating. It is the method of punching or stamping slots or holes in a pattern, not
The application of different presses also depends on: (i) Crank or eccentric type presses. Because specifically in a round shape. The wastage of material here is minimal.
their small working strokes and high production rates, these types of presses used for punching,
e) Shearing. The sheet metal is separated into two or more pieces by simply cutting a long
blanking and trimming operations (ii) Knuckle joint type Presses. Because of their large force
line. Shearing creates clean cuts with smooth edges. It doesn’t produce wastage in the form
capacities, these presses are used for coining and squeezing operations (iii) Toggle presses. These
of chips or debris.
are used for operations like heading, perforating, upsetting, etc.(iv) Hydraulic presses. Hydraulic
presses are best suited for operations require slower speed, like pressing, forming, drawing, etc.
f) Trimming. As the name implies, this process removes the excess metal portions surrounding
the formed pre-designed parts.
4.11 Press working operations

Press working operations are same as sheet metal presses operations. This is because different g) Notching. This process produces desired parts by removing the edges of the metal
operations are performed on sheets through various press tools to get the required shape. These workpiece. Notching is a manually operated and low-production process.
press working operations are mainly divided into two categories as cutting and forming. There
h) Slitting. Slitting is similar to the shearing process. However, this process cuts a wide coil of
are various sub operations that fall under each of these two categories. The working methods of
sheet metal into various narrow coils using circular knives.
sheet metal presses will vary depending on specific application requirements.

i) Piercing. Practically the same operation as blanking, except it is limited to holes or slots in
4.11.1 Sheet metal cutting operations
sheet metal. The piece cut out is the scrap.
In this press work process, the sheet metal is subjected to tensile and compressive stresses to break
its structure and separate it into different parts. Hence, it is considered an efficient material j) Trimming. A secondary operation on drawn or formed parts to remove excess metal on the
utilization operation. Sheet metal cutting operations include: flange or axial length.

a) Punching. It is a metal fabrication process where enough shearing force is applied on the 4.11.2 Sheet metal forming operations
sheet metal to produce holes and cutouts of different sizes and shapes. Punching is performed
It is one of the most widely used processes that cause stress below the ultimate strength of the
by placing the sheet metal between the punch and die. The punch presses drive downward at
metal, which results in distortion. Sheet metal forming operations include:
high speed through the sheet metal to create holes.
a) Bending. A sufficient amount of force is used in this operation to bend the sheet metal into
b) Blanking. This press working process removes a pre-defined part from the sheet metal. The
a curved shape. The metal's volume is kept constant while its shape is altered during
part is punched out with a single stroke, using one die and punch. This method usually
bending. Different techniques can be used to bend sheet metal. Among the most common
produces a flat shape from a metal sheet. Cutting or shearing of outside contours or shapes
varieties are v-bending, offset bending, channel bending, and edge bending.
from sheet or strip stock. The piece cut out is the useful part.

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b) Drawing. With this technique, a workpiece is transformed into hollow components with b) Staking. An action that permanently joins two or more components together by moving
thin walls or vessel shapes. Deep drawing and shallow drawing are the two types of a tiny metal piece over the mating part, which creates compression on the assembled
drawing that are distinguished. pieces.
c) Swaging. Forming a metal with the swift application of several repeated strikes. When
c) Squeezing. It is the most well-liked and frequently applied method of producing ductile
using aviation cable fittings, the fitting is rotated while being struck by press blows.
metals. The procedures of squeezing include coining, scaling, and riveting. These
procedures are used to lessen the metal's overall thickness. Table 4.3: Press operations

d) Curling. The creation of an edge with a circular cross section around the end of a shell or
tube or along a sheet. Sometimes this procedure is referred to as fake wiring.

e) Embossing. A process for producing raised or sunken designs in sheet metal by means of
a male and female die.

f) Extrusion. A process in which pressure is applied to a slug of metal causing the metal to
flow either up around the punch (toothpaste tubes) or down in the direction of pressure
(cartridge cases – Hooker process).

g) Ironing. A process in which the wall thickness of the shell is reduced without changing
the O.D. of the shell (cartridge case work for example).

h) Necking. Reducing the diameter of a portion of the length of a cylindrical shell or tube.

i) Redrawing. The second operation after deep-drawing operations, in which the cross section 4.12 Different terminology used for press working tooling
of cups is narrowed and deepened. These are:

4.11.3 Cutting & forming operations (a) Stock Material. General term used for the material that will be used to produce the piece
A combination of processes, including the following, result in a part having partial cutting and part.
forming as: Slitting. Slitting is a sheet metal cutting process with circular knives, which is used (b) Die. Die has many definitions with reference to tooling. A die normally refers to a
to split wide coiled sheet metal into narrower widths or for edge trimming of rolled sheet and complete production tool that can make piece parts accurately and consistently, it may
Lancing. Slitting and forming a pocket shaped opening in sheet metal, without removing metal. also refer to a female part of a complete die.
(c) Punch. A punch can be described as a male component of a complete die that acts in
4.11.4 Other operations conjunction with the female half of the die to produce a piece part.
a) Crimping. When a can or shell's open end is crimped, it is squeezed tightly over or (d) Piece Part. A piece part is the product a die produces, it may also be a component of a
around a compatible portion. The majority of this type of employment is restricted to product.
assembly tasks.

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4.13 Die set components the correct punch location can be found (3) The punch's top end is flattened to fit into the
countersunk recess before the punch's shank is pressed into the punch plate (4) Grub screws can
A punch, a die, and a few more accessories make up the entire die set (Fig. 4.46), these accessories
be used to firmly fasten the punch to the punch plate (5) The punch is attached to the punch plate
are discussed in this section later. The key to a successful punch's operation is exact alignment of
using set screws (6) The punch is fastened using a set screw, which is located during fastening
the punch and die. Accessories for a die set give the system the necessary alignment and rigidity
with the help of two dowel pins (7) The punch's flange end is fastened to the punch plate using
and increase the performance's accuracy. An assortment of dice includes:
set screws that are inserted from the punch end.

4.13.1 Press tool

Punches and dies are commonly used instruments that are essential elements of press operating
(Fig. 4.46). The punch, which is secured to the ram and pushed into the die where the workpiece
to be processed is supported, is a crucial component of the system. Die is a work-holding tool
created especially for a specific product design. Die is fixed firmly to the press's base. An opening
on the die is ideally positioned to match the punch's motion. A die set is a combination of a die
and a punch that functions as a single entity. High speed steel is used to make the punch and the
die. The section of the die that requires both strength and wear resistance. As a result, satellite or
cemented carbide is typically used for the die's working surface. Below is a description of the die
set specifics.

Figure 4.47: Different ways of holding a punch [6]

4.13.3 Accessories of die set

Cutting shapes and piercing metal, at the most basic level, is really all the toolmaker is trying to
achieve. Like everything, when ONE learns a new skill or topic, it will have a set of principles
Figure 4.46: Die & punch as a die set [6] and terminology that one should become familiar with. It’s like learning a new language. Similar
to the language of medical jargon, one should learn the following tooling’s terminology as the
4.13.2 Punch
language of the tool making and the accessories. These accessories are the finished parts, removal
Punch holder at the ram's lower end is fitted with a punch plate. Punch plates are often constructed of waste. The die accessories are shown in Fig. 7.48 with their description as given below:
of HSS or stainless steel. The punch is held firmly and precisely by the punch plate. Various punch
holding positions are illustrated in Fig. 7.47 as follows: (1) Punch may be secured by pressing it
on the punch plate; the punch's top end has been flattened to fit in the countersunk recess (2) A
set screw can be used to clamp the punch to the punch plate. By making a slot in the punch plate,

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after the cutting and is thus prevented from being lifted with the punch when the upward
stroke comes next. The stripper carries out this preventative activity.
g) Knockouts. Another kind of stripper called knockout is typically employed with
inverted dies. The knockout plate ejects the blank from the cutting edge when the cutting
process is finished.
h) Pressure Pads. When the workpiece flows plastically between the punch and the die,
pressure pads are plates that firmly hold the workpiece at both ends. This firm gripping
prevents the possibility of creasing during the metal-forming process. The same purpose
can alternatively be achieved by a plunger that is spring-loaded and acts on the
workpiece plate's bottom. The sheet metal workpiece is ironed in a manner by the
Figure 4.48: Accessories of a die set.
pressure pads.
a) Punch Holder. Other names for it include upper shoe of die set. The press's ram is
i) Guide Posts. The precise alignment of punch action and die opening is crucial. For
secured to the punch holder. The punch below it is held by it.
proper punch and die shoe alignment, guide posts are used.
b) Punch. It is the primary die assembly tool that makes direct contact with the workpiece
j) Punch Plate. Punch retainer is another name for punch plate. The punch holder has this
as it is being processed; its specifics have already been covered.
fastened to it. Punch plates provide as a reference point for holding the punch in the
c) Die Holder. Additionally, known as die shoe. It serves as a support for the die block and
correct alignment and position. Punch replacement becomes swift and accurate as a
is firmly secured to the press's base plate.
result.
d) Stops. Stops are used to keep the sheet metal properly spaced when it is fed below the
k) Backing Plate. A backing plate is utilised to maintain uniform pressure distribution
punch to maintain output quality. These, without taking any action, limit the feed of
over the entire region and minimise stress build up on any one part of the punch holder.
stock (workpiece) to a predetermined length each time. Bottom stop and lever stop are
Between the punch and punch holder, this is often formed of hardened steel.
the two common types of stops employed. The bottom stop is a mechanical mechanism
l) Die Retainer. The punch holder, punch plate, and die retainer all serve the same
tape. After each cut, this device puts a stop to punch motion. A button is positioned so
function. To hold the die block in the proper alignment with the movement of the punch,
that when fresh stock is fed to die, the impact of the fed stock presses the button, showing
a die retainer is fastened to the press's bed (base). In certain circumstances, the die shoe
genuine stock length being fed. In this manner, the device also serves as a fixture. The
itself serves as a die retainer.
system can be made ready for the next cutting activity by pressing a button. Lever Stop,
slow acting power presses, and manual presses all employ the button stop. A lever is Typically, the die is held in a die holder that is secured to the base plate mounted on the press's
used to move this device. When fresh stock is fed, the stop mechanism prevents the table or base. There are three distinct ways to attach die blocks to the die holder:
downward movement of the punch for the subsequent cut after the stock has reached a
predetermined length. The punch can move for a cut thanks to the lever as well. (i). Using the four set screws depicted in Fig. 4.48, the die block is fastened to the die holder.

e) Pilots. Pilot is used for correct location of blank when it is fed by mechanical means. Currently, only one screw is visible. By using a dowel pin, the die is placed exactly where it

The pilot enters into the previously pierced hole and moves the blank to the correct should be.

position to be finally spaced by the stops. Normally pilots are fitted to the punch holders. (ii). The set screws at the bottom of the die holders illustrated in Fig. 4.48 hold the die block in

f) Strippers. After the cutting or forming procedure is finished, the workpiece is removed place.

from the press using a stripper. The blank is separated from the punch's cutting edge (iii).The wedge in Fig. 4.48, which is attached to the die holder by set screws, holds the die block
in place.

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4.13.4 Design and materials for different components slider adjustment mechanism, novel design, and environmental protection are only a few of the
qualities of an excellent punching machine.
This is also equally important to consider following points listed below while designing a good
die set.
a) The life of the die set determines the cost of production; thus, material selection should be
done carefully while keeping strength and wear-resistant features in mind.
b) Since heat treatment is typically used to harden die, design should take all necessary safety
measures and provide for heat treatment's negative consequences.
c) The precision of a die set's production is directly correlated with the precision of the die
set's individual parts. Focus should be placed on keeping precise measurements and small (a) (b)
tolerances during design. Figure 7.49: (a) Blanking machine (b) Punching, piercing operations
d) Block-shaped portions should be used in place of long, thin sections to prevent warpage. The following factors provide better practice when choosing the appropriate die clearance for
e) Standardized parts ought to be utilised to the greatest extent practicable. punching and blanking operations on a punching machine. The benefits include: (i) extending the
f) Reinforcing grips should be employed in accordance with the sections' specifications. mold's useful life (ii) good material return effect (iii) small generated burr (iv) getting a cleaner
g) Easy upkeep should be taken into account. Parts replacement ought to be simple. and tidy hole (v) reducing the chance of sticking (vi) work piece levelling (vii) more accurate
h) When choosing the material for the die set's component parts, shock resistance qualities positioning of the hole (viii) needing the least amount of punching force for blanking and (ix) the
should also be taken into account if the process cannot be made shockproof. ideal distance between the punch and die. When the blanking force is balanced, the punching
quality is good, and the mould has a long service life, a good clearance can make the shear fracture
Along with the crucial design factors, one should be aware of the appropriate material choice for
joint safe. Table 4.2 below lists the recommended punch and die clearance.
a die set's component parts and the many types of tool steel that are suitable for such parts. In
order to resist wear and be strong enough to withstand loads, the material or tool steel chosen
Table 4.4: Recommended die clearance
should be very hard. At the same time, die set components may have very complex shapes and
Thickness Aluminum Mild Steel Stainless
designs, necessitating extremely precise sizing. The majority of them are produced using (mm) (mm) (mm) Steel (mm)
machining and finishing processes. Tool steel is processed to create these components, which are
1.00 0.15 0.20 0.20
then hardened using a variety of techniques, including water hardening, oil hardening, air
1.50 0.23 0.30 0.40
hardening, and hard coatings. The following aspects should be considered when choosing a
material for a die set component: 2.00 0.30 0.40 0.50

3.00 0.60 0.75 0.90

(i). The required lifespan of the die set component.
4.00 0.80 1.00 1.20
(ii). Their manufactured mobility and precision level.
(iii). Ability to withstand load, stress, and wear (type of process subjected). 5.00 1.00 1.25 1.75

(iv). Their expenses, including their startup and ongoing costs. 2.22
6.35 1.60 2.00

4.14 Role of Punch and die clearances for blanking and piercing
The consequences of inadequate clearing include: (i) secondary shearing (ii) an increase in
A punching machine for blanking, punching, and piercing operations is shown in Figure 7.49. punching force and (iii) a reduction in mould life.
High rigidity, stability, precision, safe operation, automated production, labor-saving efficiency,

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4.14.1 Determination of the punch and die clearance value For Soft materials:

Due to experience, it goes without saying that someone who has worked as a stamping die fitter
 Material thickness t < 1 mm, blanking clearance c = (3% ~ 4%) t
and stamping die designer for a significant amount of time will understand and be familiar with a
 t = 1 ~ 3mm, c = (5% ~8%) t
wide range of products, including their material, size, and appearance accuracy requirements.
 t = 3 ~ 5mm ,c = (8% ~10%) t
They will also be knowledgeable about how to design the mould to successfully produce qualified
products, how to reduce mould repair, repair times, etc. For Hard materials:

The die clearance c, has very important role and there are two methods (i) by experience and by  t < 1mm, c = (4% ~5% ) t
formula as, c = ( t – h0 ) tanβ = t (1-h0/t) tanβ. Where, h0 – Punch penetration depth; β - The angle  t = 1 ~ 3mm, c = (6% ~8% ) t
between the maximum shear stress direction and the vertical direction, the gap c is related to the  t = 3 ~ 8mm, c = (8% ~ 13%) t
material thickness t, the relative penetration depth h0/t and the crack direction β. While h0 and β
are related to the nature of the material, the harder the material, the smaller the h0/t. Material characteristics and material thickness are thus the key determinants of clearance value.
The die clearance value increases with the hardness or thickness of the material. In order to
determine the proper clearance, consider the following criteria: (i) Correct die clearance (Low
tonnage, Small burr, and More to Life); (ii) Tight die clearance (Higher tonnage, Small burr, and
Less to Life); and (iii) Excessive die clearance (Low tonnage, Larger burr, Less too life).

When a piece part is produced by blanking, that means the piece part has been made out of a stock
strip of material. The distance the stock strip moves through the die is called the advancement.
The scrap material left on the stock strip, in between the piece parts, is called the scrap bridge.
When a die is used to make a hole or an opening in the piece part, the operation is called
Figure 4.50: The role of die clearance across the crack path. piercing. The unwanted material removed by the piercing operation is called the slug. The effect
of the tool on the stock material is the same whether it is punching out slugs, in order to produce
4.14.2 Determine the punch and die clearance by experience the desired opening in a piece part, or punching out blanks which are the desired product of the

The percentage of the die clearance to the material thickness is selected as below: die.

◆ Min service life of dies: 15% 4.15 Press cycle during blanking or piercing

◆ Optimal clearance: 20~25% When a press is tripped or activated, a clutch will allow engagement with a flywheel. The
◆ Long service life of dies: 30% crankshaft rotates in one full turn. During the first half of the cycle, the ram moves toward the bed
◆ Heavy duty die clearance: 30% of the press, then, during the last half of the cycle, the ram moves back up. The distance travelled
by the ram during the first half of the cycle is called the Press Stroke.
4.14.3 Determine the punch and die clearance by formula
4.15.1 Actions of blanking or piercing die
The value of c can be calculated according to the following punch and die clearance formula as:
c = (t – h0) tanβ = t (1-h0/t) tanβ. Stripping. Once the punching or piercing operations have taken place and the press moves up,

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the piece part or slug may remain in the die. The stock material will want to cling to the punch 4.16.3 Insufficient cutting clearance
and stick unless another step, known as stripping, is added in the part production. The function of
Objectionable burrs may appear on the piece part if the cutting clearance is insufficient. When
the stripper is to keep the material from travelling with the punch on the return stroke.
there is insufficient clearance, the burr is caused by compressive forces.

4.16 The Reaction of the stock material

4.16.4 Misalignment of punch and die
In tool making, there are 3 important stages:
The piece part will show burring to one side and this information is useful for the toolmaker for

(i). The plastic deformation – The press is tripped and the punch is driven toward the detecting the misalignment.

die. The punch exerts a force on the stock material. Plastic deformation takes place once
4.16.5 Importance of cutting clearance
the elastic limits are exceeded.
For the life of the die and the quality part, proper cutting clearance is required. Undesirable piece-
(ii). Penetration – This is the true shearing stage of the cutting cycle. The punch is part qualities are the result of excessive cutting clearance. Because more punching force is needed,
forced to penetrate the stock material and the blank or slug is pushed out. insufficient cutting clearance puts undue strain and wear on the tool's cutting element. The
aforementioned rule does not always apply. For instance, circular cutting punches can function
(iii). Fracture – The punching force causes fracturing of the piece part/slug. Then the
properly with less cutting clearance than usual, and decreased cutting clearance can also be
fractures extend and meet to complete the piece part/slug. This is when the greatest stress
employed to defeat slug pulling.
or pressure is applied to the cutting edges.

4.16.6 Determining cutting clearance

4.16.1 Typical appearance characteristics
Experience and actual experiments are frequently required to find the ideal clearance. Increasing
The radius edge forms as a result of plastic deformation when the piece part is cut under optimal
the cutting clearance is always a fairly straightforward process. A toolmaker always starts with
circumstances. The cut band is produced as a result of the shearing operation and is highly
less cutting clearance than he anticipates being required. Always expressed as thickness per side
burnished. The cutting band's width is roughly equal to the stock material's thickness. The break,
is cutting clearance.
which is the outcome of the third step of the cycle, makes up the remaining portion of the cut. The
distance between the cutting edges of the punch and the corresponding cutting edges of the die is 4.16.7 Relationship of piece-part and die size
known as the cutting clearance. The break is close to the piece part's burr side. Nearly
The die opening's cutting edge performs the actual cutting of the blank or slug. Therefore, the size
no burr should be present. A blank or slug's burr side is always facing the punch, and
of the blank or slug depends on the die opening. The punch determines the size of the punch
a punch opening's burr side is always facing the die opening.
aperture.
4.16.2 Excessive cutting clearance
4.16.8 Angular clearance
When there is too much clearance, the punch behaves more like a shaping tool than a cutting tool
In order to relieve the internal pressure of the blank or slug as it goes through the opening, angular
when it comes to the material. The edge radius thus exceeds the tolerance provided for the piece
clearance is a draught or taper added to the sidewalls of a die opening.
part and does not merge seamlessly into the cut band. The ring that was sliced gets smaller or
thins out. The crack starts to look uneven and could even reach the radius of the edge. Large
4.16.9 Importance of angular clearance
fractures and burrs are produced on the component as a result of the material being forced into
The pressure created inside the die aperture by the blank or the slugs as they are forced through
the die's clearance gap.

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will prevent the blank-through kind of die from operating correctly unless there is a release for The upper and lower cracks cannot be heavier than one line because of the staggered inward
the pressure. location of the lower microcrack near the edge of the die.

4.16.10 Specifying angular clearance With the punch's drop, the material in between the two cracks is extensively stretched before being

Angular clearance should not be expressed as an overall or included angle value, but rather as the torn and fractured. On the blanking portion, there is a noticeable fracture zone that reduces the

amount of clearance per [Link] punching and die clearance is what the CNC punching machine brilliant zone and increases the burr and taper. The section quality declines as the collapse angle

and CNC turret punching machine refer to as the distance between the punch and the lower die rises (see Fig. 7.51).

when the punch is inserted into the lower die, which is often referred to as the overall clearance.
According to the research above, even if a suitable clearance value is chosen during die design,
The fundamental tenet of choosing the correct blanking die clearance is that the blanking die's
the uniform distribution of die clearance cannot be ensured because of how the die is processed
punch cross section is often smaller than the die hole. The clearance is the appropriate distance
or put together. The optimal section quality and the side with the smallest gap cannot be attained
between the punch and the die (Fig. 7.50).
in the same way. As was already noted, the section feature of a too-small gap will be present, and

According to the analysis of the blanking deformation process, the upper and lower microcracks a too-big gap will be present on the side with a large gap, which is especially noticeable for dies

created at the edge of the punch and die can coincide with one another when the blanking gap is without guide posts. Production must take this into account.
reasonable. This results in a big brilliant band, a small collapse angle, a small burr, a moderate
4.17 Impact of clearance on other aspects
section taper, and a generally flat part surface for the blanking section. According to the specified
regions of Fig. 7.51 below, the quality of blanking parts can produce satisfactory results. (1) Influence of blanking clearance on blanking dimensional accuracy. As mentioned earlier,
elastic deformation and plastic deformation will occur in metal parts during blanking. This means
that there must be elastic deformation when the material is plastic deformation. Because there is
elastic deformation in the material during blanking, the elastic deformation of the material will
recover after blanking. The recovery of this elastic deformation will cause a certain deviation
between the actual size of the blanking part and the edge size of the punch and die. See Fig. 4.52
below.

Figure 4.51: The role of die clearance across the edge of punch and die

If the clearance is too tiny during blanking, two bright bands will develop on the blanking part's
section, and the burr at the top end is also very large. This is primarily caused by the higher
microcrack being located at the punch's edge due to insufficient blanking clearance. To ensure
that the upper and lower cracks cannot be heavier than one line, stagger the die edge where the
lower microcrack appears by a predetermined amount (see Fig. 7.51). As the punch diminishes,
the material wedged between the two cracks will create the second shear, leading in the formation
of a second brilliant band and further extension of the burr, which will lower the section quality.
Figure 4.52: The role of die clearance on elastic recovery of blanking [6]
The upper microcrack will develop at the punch's edge if the clearance is too large during blanking.

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size smaller and the blanking size larger, so the unloading force and pushing force increase. When
The ordinate in the above Fig. 4.52 is the elastic recovery of the blanking part. The abscissa is the
the gap increases, due to the elastic recovery of the material, the punching size increases and the
relative clearance of the blanking part. During blanking, we can find from the size change curve
blanking size decreases, so it saves labor to unload the material from the punch or push out the
of the blanking part that when the blanking clearance gradually increases, the tensile deformation
parts from the die opening. Generally, when the gap (single side) increases to 10% ~ 20% of the
of the deformed metal also increases due to the increase of the tensile stress at the deformed part.
material thickness, the unloading is almost zero.
After blanking, the compressed metal will recover elastically, so as to reduce the size of blanking
parts. This rebound increases with the increase of blanking clearance. When the blanking (4) Influence of blanking clearance on die life. Practice has proved that blanking clearance is
clearance decreases gradually, the size of the blanking part also decreases. When the clearance is the most important factor among many factors affecting die life. In the blanking process, there is
small to a certain extent (point B in Fig. 4.52), the deformation property of the blanking part will fierce friction between the punch and the punched hole, and between the die and the blanking part,
also change. and the smaller the gap is, the more serious the friction is, so too small gap is extremely
unfavorable to the service life of the die. The larger clearance will reduce the friction between the
In addition to shear, there is extrusion deformation in the material, which changes the deformation
side of the edge of the punch and the die and the material, and can slow down the adverse impact
zone from the original tensile state to the compressive state. After blanking, the elasticity of the
of the uneven clearance caused by the manufacturing and installation error of the die, so as to
compressed metal will recover, so that the size of the blanking punch is larger than that of the die
improve the service life of the die.
edge. During punching, the deformation process and elastic recovery principle are the same as
those above, but the measured objects are different. Therefore, the conclusion is opposite to that 4.18 Determination of clearance value
of blanking parts, that is, the size of punching parts increases with the increase of blanking
The so-called reasonable gap means that when this gap is used for blanking, it can obtain
clearance. When the clearance value is less than a certain value (point A in Fig. 4.52), the
satisfactory workpiece section quality, high dimensional accuracy, minimize the blanking force
punching size will decrease, that is, the size of punching hole is less than that of punch. It is
(unloading force and pushing force), and make the die have a long service life. However, it is
pointed out that the dimensional accuracy of blanking parts mainly depends on the design and
impossible to meet many of the above requirements at the same time if the numerical requirements
machining accuracy of blanking die.
of one gap are adopted. Therefore, in production, according to the specific requirements of parts,
comprehensively consider the influence of various factors, and appropriately select an appropriate
The above analysis is carried out under a certain die manufacturing accuracy, and the influence
gap range as a reasonable gap. The upper limit is the maximum reasonable gap and the lower limit
of clearance on the accuracy is much smaller than that of the die itself.
is the minimum gap, that is, a reasonable gap refers to a range value. In the specific design of the
(2) The impact of blanking clearance on blanking force. The smaller the gap, the greater the die, it can be selected according to the following principles according to the specific requirements
compressive stress component in the material deformation zone, the greater the deformation of parts and production.
resistance of the material and the greater the blanking force required during blanking. On the
(i). When there are no special requirements for the cross-section quality of the counter
contrary, the larger the gap, the greater the tensile stress component in the material deformation
cutting part, in order to improve the service life of the die and reduce the blanking force
area, which reduces the material deformation resistance and the blanking force required during
to obtain greater economic benefits, a larger clearance value can be selected.
blanking. However, practice has proved that when the gap (single side) gradually increases in the
(ii). When there are high requirements for the cross-section quality of counter cutting parts,
range of 5% ~ 2% of the material thickness, the reduction of blanking force is not obvious.
the smaller clearance value shall be selected.
(3) Influence of blanking clearance on unloading force and pushing force. The smaller the (iii). When designing the cutting-edge size of blanking die, considering the actual situation
gap, the greater the elastic recovery of the material in the deformation zone, making the punching that the die will be worn in the process of use, which will increase the cutting-edge gap,

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the cutting-edge size should be calculated according to the minimum gap value. sheet into the die. Here the mold for blanking is called as blanking die.
In the actual work, the die industry has accumulated a large number of empirical values for
stamping parts with different thickness of various stamping materials, so the theoretical gap
calculation method is only used as a reference.

4.19 Piercing operation

Punching holes into sheet metal is the process of piercing. Shearing processes include blanking
and piercing. When piercing or punching sheet metal, the material that is removed is scrap, and
the retained material is the real part. Both metal shearing processes are employed to cut sheet
metal. In contrast, when piercing, the punch is made to fit the size of the hole, and room is left in
the die. The following are the main variations: (a) (b)

(i). The material section that is cut out of the sheet is what is needed while blanking. In Figure 4.54: Die & mold tooling in Blanking (a) before (b) after the operation

contrast, when piercing, the sheet section that is punched out is scrap.
4.20 Analysis of blanking deformation process
(ii). The die size determines the blank dimension. The punch's dimension determines
the size of the punctured hole. Figure 4.55 shows force analysis on sheet metal blank during the blanking process. Fig 4.55 (a)

(iii). As a result, while blanking, the die is created to the part's size and the punch is shows the moment developed when the mold and the blank begins to contact and Fig 4.55 (b)

provided the cutting clearance. shows the blank action during the blanking process.

(iv). A sheet is divided into two parts using a mould during the stamping process known
as "blanking," which follows a specific contour shape. Blanking, in its simplest form,
is the separation of the sheets using a mould (Fig. 4.53).

Figure 4.55: Forces in blanking operation in beginning and during the process.

Figure 4.53: Difference between Blanking and Piercing As a result, the punch experiences a sever force variation (Fig. 4.56) due to change in the force of
the blanking during punching stroke. When the mold gap is appropriate, the blanking deformation
The sign of the end of the blanking (Fig. 4.54 (a & b)) shows that the punch passes through the process can be divided into three stages as: Elastic deformation stage, Plastic deformation stage

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and Fragmentation separation stage. die, FL is the transverse force acting on the upper mold, FL ‘is the transverse force acting on the
lower die, μ is the friction coefficient, FH is the horizontal component force received by the plate
from the upper die edge, and FH’ is the horizontal component force received by the plate from the
lower die, FV is the vertical component force received by the plate from the upper die edge, FV ‘is
the vertical component force received by the plate from the lower die, Mg is the bending moment
of the plate, I is the lever arm, and C is the blanking clearance.

4.20.2 Plastic deformation stage

At this stage, due to the continuous downward movement of the upper die, the stress of the plate
increases, and the stress of the material reaches the yield limit, resulting in plastic deformation.
With the increase of the degree of plastic deformation, the tensile stress and bending moment in
the plate continue to increase, the hardening of the material intensifies, and the material near the
Figure 4.56: Force analysis on blanking operation in beginning and during the process.
edge first reaches the strength limit.
Here four things are common as: larger sag angle, Plastic shearing - bright band, Internal stress
4.20.1 Elastic deformation stage
reaches the limit and Micro cracks appear near the edge. The stress state of the plate in this process
At this stage, after the edge of the upper die contacts with the plate, the plate is flattened first, and is shown in Fig. 4.58.
then the edge of the upper die and the lower die are pressed into the plate respectively. Due to the
blanking gap C, the resultant force of the upper die and the resultant force of the lower die are not
collinear, so the plate will receive a bending moment Mg’, which makes the plate slightly bend
under elastic compression. As the upper die continues to descend, the stress on the cutting edge
of the material will reach the elastic limit. The stress state of the plate in this process is shown in
Fig. 4.57.

Figure 7.58: Blanking stress analysis during plastic stage deformation

4.20.3 Fragmentation separation stage

At the last stage, the pressing depth of the upper die continues to increase, and the cracks first
appear on the sides of the upper and lower die edges. At this time, the strain energy stored in the
elastic and plastic deformation stage is released, and it extends to the interior of the material along
Figure 4.57: Blanking Stress Analysis during elastic stage deformation.
the direction of the maximum shear stress. When the main cracks at the upper and lower die edges
coincide, the material is cut off and separated. If the knife edge gap is unreasonable and the two
In the figure, FC is the shear force acting on the upper die, FC ‘is the shear force acting on the lower

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main cracks cannot coincide, a third main crack will appear. This produces a rough and tapered
fracture zone and therefore, burr formation occurs. The stress state of the plate in this process is
shown in Fig. 4.59.

Figure 4.61: Deformation cutting edges location of spindle section (a) the upper and (b) lower

4.20.4 Quality analysis and control of blanking parts

Figure 4.59: Blanking stress analysis during fragmentation stage deformation The quality of blanking parts (Fig. 4.62) refers to: (i) Section quality- vertical, smooth or small
burr (ii) Dimensional accuracy- within the tolerances specified in the drawings (iii) Shape error-
Therefore, while considering no elastic spring back, important conclusion (Fig. 7.43) during the shape meets the drawing requirements and (iv) The surface is straight- that is, the arch is small.
blanking is drawn as: (i) Blanking part size = die edge size and (ii) Piercing part size = punch
edge size. As a result, the punch and die last stage is depicted in Fig. 4.60. The section of the blank part is divided into four component zones under normal clearance (Fig.
4.62 a) as follows: Bright band: plastic shear deformation, which is the area with the best quality.
Collapse zone: the material near the edge produces bending and tensile deformation. Fracture
zone: the formation and expansion of cracks. Burr: the gap is present, the crack is not generated
at the edge of the blade, and the burr is unavoidable. The area where the burr is produced: The
crack is a little above the sides of the punch and die, rather than on the blade's tip (Fig. 4.63). The
brilliant band is of the highest quality (Fig. 4.62 b).

Figure 4.60: Blanking stress analysis during fragmentation stage deformation

The punched deformation zone is generally located in the spindle section of the upper and lower
cutting edges as shown in Fig. 4.61.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.62: Quality of the blanking parts (a) zones and (b) the bright band

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4.21.4 Parting-off

Similar to a cutoff procedure, this. The distinction between parts off and cutting off, however, is
that splitting off results in material waste. Depending on how the contour is shaped, there may be
a large amount of wastage. However, splitting produced two cut paths that can differ and are
therefore helpful in situations when cutting can be done.

4.21.5 Precautions in sheet piercing

Figure 4.63: Quality of the burr is generated
Cutting clearance is a crucial factor in both blanking and piercing. As you are already aware, the
die has a cutting clearance for piercing operations. This implies that the die will be larger and the
4.21 Other piercing techniques
piercing punch will be created to the desired hole size. The type of material to be punched and the
These are many piercing techniques. Although technically speaking the cutting procedure is sheet thickness affect how much cutting clearance is required. Typically, 3% to 10% of the sheet
similar, the finished product will differ. These piercing procedures include: thickness per side clearance is used. Less clearance is needed when the material is softer, while
more clearance is required when the material is firmer. Correct calculation and provision of the
4.21.1 Lancing
necessary cutting clearance quantity is crucial. This is necessary to prevent slug pulling, jamming,
Lancing is a partial cutting procedure in which the same punch is used for both bending and and excessive wear and tear.
piercing. In the example of a rectangular profile, we can state that lancing would be produced by
cutting three of the sides and bending the remaining two. Please take note that there is no slug and 4.21.6 Piercing punch and die material
no material waste during lancing operations. Punch and die materials ought to be ear resistant, compressive strong, and temperature resistant.
Along with the characteristics of the sheet metal that needs to be cut and the quantity needed, take
4.21.2 Shaving
into account these tool material parameters. Tool steels high in carbon and high in chromium are
A little quantity of material is removed from a previously pierced hole as part of the finishing typically utilised. To an HRC of 60–62, the punch and die must be hardened and tempered. HSS
process known as shaving. The hole and finish quality are improved by the shaving process. (high speed steel) is a preferable option for small, quickly breakable punches. Another material
Furthermore, piercing and shaving is the best method for producing precise holes with tight that performs well when numerous parts need to be cut is tungsten carbide. This is due to the fact
tolerances. that carbide can resist higher temperatures while still maintaining cutting edges that are sharp for
a longer period of time.
4.21.3 Cut-off

The portion is cut and separated from the sheet metal in this type of piercing procedure. For These two issues, known as slug stacking and slug pulling, are typically encountered by persons
instance, the cut-off station is frequently the last step in progressive dies, where the stamped result during piercing or pounding.
is cut and removed from the strip.
(a) Slug Stacking or Jamming
Particularly when penetrating soft and thin sheet metals, this is a prevalent issue. The most
common causes of slug stacking are excessive lubricant use, an excessive amount of land length
in the die, and insufficient cutting clearance between the punch and die. One of the alternatives is
to provide the die ample clearance. Use a new, less sticky lubrication or cut back on the amount

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of cutting oil. One can also attempt to shorten the length of the land so that the slug drops freely UNIT SUMMARY
without stacking. As counter-bore relief can result in slug tumbling due to the slug sliding at an
Metal forming is one of the chips less manufacturing processes. These operations are performed
angle from the edge of counter-bore relief, it is also advised to offer angular relief in the die
by the press and press tools. Presses can be classified into different categories depending upon
instead.
their capacity, capabilities and mechanisms used for their operations. Presses can also be
categorized depending upon their construction and frame as straight side, adjustable bed type,
(b) Slug Pulling
open end honing press. Method of transmission of power from the place of its generation to the
The situation with slug pulling is more significant. This is the point at which the punched slug
place of its utilization also serve an important criterion for the classification of presses. In general,
clings to the punch and emerges out the die. Slug pulling can occur for a number of reasons, such
a press is described by its main parts like base, frame, ram, pitman, driving mechanism, controlling
as high clearance, sticky lubricants, the cut profile's form, etc. However, proper methods for slug
mechanism, flywheel, brakes, balster plate all these parts along with their functions are described
pulling include attaching a spring-loaded ejector pin to the punch, using an air blow through punch,
here. Die and punch are the integral part of a press tool system. Die and punch are normally fitted
and giving a shear angle on the piercing punch, among other things. In addition, one can employ
to a press tool system. Punch and die can be fitted to a press by different methods as described in
a suction system and slug retainer die bushes to keep the slug inside the die.
the unit. Different types of dies are also described in the unit, which are used for different types
of workpieces and operations. Accuracy of the operation largely depends on the accuracy of die
and punch. So die and punch should be designed and manufactured very carefully. The important
considerations for designing die set and punch for press tool system are described in details.

EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

Questions for self-assessment

1. The rolling action between engaging gear teeth is due to:

(a) high viscosity lubricants
(b) points of tangency between teeth
(c) the involute curve form
(d) gear rotational synchronization
2. The imaginary rolling circle produced by meshed gears during rotation is called the:
(a) Pitch Circle
(b) Base Circle
(c) Dedendum Circle
(d) Addendum Circle
3. The most common type of gear is the:
(a) spur gear
(b) helical gear

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11. [Link]

12.
Grinding and finishing processes
[Link]
Grinding and finishing processes: Principles of metal removal by Grinding; Abrasives – Natural
&P=0
& Artificial; Bonds and binding processes: Vitrified, silicate, shellac, rubber, bakelite; Factors
13. [Link]
affecting the selection of grind wheels: size and shape of wheel, kind of abrasive, grain size, grade
14. [Link]
and strength of bond, structure of grain, spacing, kinds of bind material; Standard marking
[Link]
systems: Meaning of letters & numbers sequence of marking, Grades of letters; Grinding
15. machines classification: Cylindrical, Surface, Tool & Cutter grinding machines; Construction
[Link] details; Principle of centreless grinding; Advantages & limitations of centreless grinding;
&P=0
16. [Link] Finishing Processes: by grinding: Honing, Lapping, Super finishing; Electroplating: Basic
17. [Link] principles, Plating metals, applications; hot dipping: Galvanizing, Tin coating, Parkerising,
18. Anodizing; Metal spraying: wire process, powder process and applications; Organic coatings:
[Link] Oil base Paint, Lacquer base, Enamels, Bituminous paints, rubber base coating; finishing
&P=0 specifications.

VIDEOS Unit Specific / Learning Objective

Gear making Objective of this unit in to talk about following aspects

[Link]  To introduce significance of Grinding Process and various finishing process function
[Link]  To learning about the importance of grinding methods and finishing operations and their
principles
Press working  To introduce the underlying advantages and applications of Grinding processes and finishing
operations and their types
[Link]
 To introduce various grinding and finishing operations
[Link]
 To understand the significance of various types of Grinding methods, and metal finishing
[Link]
working methods and their significance
 To learn about grinding machines & their specification and metal finishing operations & their
applications

Additionally, few fundamental questions for self-assessment based on fundamentals are also
included in this Unit in form of recall, application, comprehension, analysis and synthesis. There
are further suggested readings and reference for reader’s assistance.

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Rationale manufacturing operations for specific applications.

Grinding is an old art of metal machining at micro level. The grinding quality varies with different
Mapping of learning outcomes and Course Objectives
grinding wheel abrasives used and their working conditions affecting the surface finish of
products. Principles of metal removal by grinding is quite different as compared to conventional EXPECTED MAPPING WITH COURSE OUTCOMES
machining operations that depends on the grind wheel grain size and shape, kind of abrasive used, Unit-5 (1- Weak Correlation; 2- Medium correlation; 3- Strong Correlation)
Outcomes
grade and strength of bond, structure of grain, spacing and kinds of binding material used. Various CO-1 CO-2 CO-3 CO-4 CO-5 CO-6
grinding machines are Cylindrical, Surface, Tool & Cutter grinding etc. Centreless grinding is
U5-O1 1 2 3
unique process of fine finishing. Finishing of metal surfaces are also done with Honing, Lapping
U5-O2 1 2 3
and super finishing operations. Electroplating and hot dipping by Galvanizing, Tin coating,
U5-O3 1 2 3
Parkerising, Anodizing is also used as industrial methods of finishing. Metal spraying using wire
and metal powder process used for hard facing of metal surfaces. Organic coatings such as Oil- U5-O4 1 2 3

based Paint, Lacquer base, Enamels, Bituminous paints, rubber base coating are also very U5-O5 1 2 3
common for Finishing of metallic surfaces. In this section all such topics are discussed in details.

Pre-requisites

A course on Basic Mechanical Engineering (MEPC102)

Learning outcomes

U5-O1: Ability to choose suitable work-piece for grinding job under different processes and their
finishing process jobs.
U5-O2: Ability to choose suitable grinding method/process for fine grinding of metallic surfaces
& fine metal finishing with proper process and machine tools and their operation.
U5-O3: Ability to choose suitable grinding operations and proper grinding wheels for grinding &
finishing of components .
U5-O4: choose suitable working conditions and parameters for grinding and finishing operations.
U5-O5: Ability to predict the behavior of grinding quality and its dimensions after grinding and
finishing of components for various applications.

Course Objectives

 To understand the importance of grinding and finishing processes and equipments.

 To study and recognise various types of grinding methods and finishing methods and
machines, their parts and operations.
 To be able to select, operate and control the appropriate grinding and finishing

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5.1 Introduction to grinding processes The fine grains of abrasive materials used to make the grinding wheels (Fig. 5.1) are held together
by a binding substance known as a "bond." Each distinct grain, which has an uneven shape, serves
To grind means to abrade, to wear away by friction, or to sharpen something. In manufacturing it
as a cutting element (a single point cutting tool). The type of grinding might be either rough or
refers to the removal of metal by a rotating abrasive wheel. Wheel action is similar to a milling
finishing (precision grinding). A typical technique for eliminating superfluous material from
cutter. The cutting wheel is composed of many small grains bonded together, each one acting as
castings, forgings, and weldments is rough grinding. It is also used to remove or snag thin fins,
a miniature cutting point. Therefore, grinding operation is a method of machining workpieces by
sharp edges, burrs, and other undesirable projections from a variety of types of workpieces. When
the use of a rotary abrasive tool, called “grinding wheel” as shown in Figure 5.1. Grinding is a
it comes to generating surfaces on objects with higher dimensional accuracy and a finer surface
unit operation that reduces solid matter into smaller particles.
finish than is possible with other traditional equipment, precision grinding is the primary way.
Since the grits' cutting edges are so thin, it is able to refine surfaces with a significantly higher
degree of polish and dimension precision than with conventional machining techniques. Abrasive
material, grit size, bonding material, wheel structure, which refers to the relative spacing of grains,
and wheel grade, which refers to the wheel's ability to hold on to abrasive grains, are the
parameters of grinding.

5.1.1 Structure of grinding wheel

Figure 5.1: Grinding Process
The quantitative relationship and arrangement of the grains, bonds, and voids (pores) in a wheel
People have been using grinding since the dawn of time, according to ancient technologies. define its structure (or, more simply, the spacing of the grains). The voids or spaces give cutting
Grinding stone tools were utilized as this technology in the Paleolithic epoch. The advancement fluid and chips access to enter and exit cuts, respectively. More grains will fit into the surface unit
of grinding technology was afterwards aided by the introduction of metal equipment. It is yet and there will be fewer pores in a structure that is denser. The tool has more pores and a wider
contemporary, nevertheless, to create a true grinding machine. Early in the 19th century, spacing between the abrasive grains in an open structure. A grinding wheel is harder and more
individuals continued to grind by turning a natural grindstone and allowing it to come into touch durable the denser its structure is. However, when chopped chips accumulate on the wheel face,
with the thing to be processed. In the United States, the first grinder was created in 1864. This the wheel becomes increasingly "clogged" or "laden."
was a tool used to mount a grinding wheel automatically on a lathe's slide tool holder. Twelve
The open design improves cutting efficiency by preventing cut chips from loading or fouling the
years later, in the United States, Mr. Brown created a universal grinder that is similar to modern
wheel face. The percentage of the bond to the overall wheel volume might range from 10% to
grinders.
30%, giving rise to either very close or open abrasive spacing. The structure of the grinding wheels
Artificial grinding stones became necessary with the invention of grinding wheels (1892). is predetermined. According to the amount of abrasive grains in the wheel, the structures are
Humanity has long wished to find a way to create grinding stones that are more wear-resistant designated by numbers ranging from 0 to 12 as follows: (i) Dense structure: 0, 1, 2, 3 (ii) Medium
than natural ones. An American named Mr. Acheson created silicon carbide, a synthetic grinding structure: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 (iii) Open structure: 9, 10, 11, 12. Lapping, final grinding, and polishing are
stone commonly known as C abrasive, in 1892 with great success using coke and sand. Due to the major uses for dense structures with plenty of grain and small pores. When a high standard of
this success, grinding machines are being employed more frequently. The accuracy of the grinding surface finish is required, medium structures 4 and 5 are used in the grinding of hard and brittle
machine is increasing in the future due to the continued development of the bearings and guide materials. Structures 7 and 8 are utilised for soft material surface grinding, while Structure 6 is
rails, and it is moving in a professional direction. used for cylindrical grinding. Although activities can be carried out more productively with open
structures, wheel durability is reduced. They are applied to high-speed grinding.

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Table 5.1: Grain types and their properties

Figure 5.2: Hardness of some of the hardest abrasives

Abrasive gain is marked according to the mesh size of the abrasive or grit, for example, grain
sizes (µm). For instance, D126 stands for Diamond grain of 126 µm, and B46 represents Cubic
Boron Nitride of 46 um. Table 5.1 lists many grain varieties, along with their characteristics and
potential uses. Some of the toughest abrasives utilised in grinding operations are depicted in Fig.
5.2.

The majority of the time, bonds are used to hold together the fine abrasive material grains that
make up wheels. Each distinct grain, which has an uneven shape, serves as a cutting element (a
single point cutting tool). The type of grinding might be either rough or finishing (precision
grinding). A typical technique for eliminating superfluous material from castings, forgings, and
weldments is rough grinding. It is also used to remove or snag thin fins, sharp edges, burrs, and
other undesirable projections from a variety of types of workpieces.
In contrast to other manufacturing techniques, precision grinding is one of the main production
methods for cutting materials that are too tough to be machined by other conventional tools or for
generating surfaces on products with higher dimensional accuracy and a finer surface quality. 5.2 Principles of metal removal by grinding

Since the grits' cutting edges are so thin, it is able to refine surfaces with a significantly higher The mechanics of metal removal regulate the removal of metal via grinding. Let's look at Fig. 5.3
degree of polish and dimension precision than with conventional machining techniques. to better grasp the theory of grinding. A grinding wheel (width W, lenghth lw) is used to grind a
metal workpiece at n rpm (velocity V) and fd feed. It is expected that (i) the work piece is fed into
5.1.2 Grinding ratio
contact with the abrasive wheel as it rotates. (ii) Material is removed as a result of friction between
The volume of material removed from the job per unit volume of wheel wear is referred to as the the abrasive particles and the workpiece.
grinding ratio. It is a very helpful term to characterize a material's "grindability." Utilizing a set
of particular boundary conditions, this ratio is experimentally calculated. The ratio will therefore
change depending on the type of operation, the type of grinding wheel, the type of grinding fluid,
speeds and feeds, and other factors for a given material.

Figure 5.3: Grinding wheel and workpiece interaction

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5.2.1 Chip geometry Let us refer the Fig. 5.4 (b) for one chip geometry. The number of chips removed per unit time n
can be found as:
Let us consider the Grinding chip formation geometry as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a). As with rolling
𝑛 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐
contact length, the chip length can be defined as: 𝑙 = √𝐷. 𝑑 . Where, D is grinding wheel
Where c = number of cutting edges (grains) per unit area (typically, 0.1 to 10 per mm2), and V is
diameter and d is the depth of cut as shown.
the peripheral wheel velocity.

Combining the above, MRR can be obtained as:

𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑑𝑏 = 𝑛𝑉𝑜𝑙 , i.e.

1
𝑣𝑑𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 𝑤𝑡𝑙
4
Since,𝑙 = √𝐷. 𝑑 and w = r t
1
𝑣𝑑𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 𝑟𝑡𝑡√𝐷. 𝑑
4
4𝑣𝑑
Therefore, 𝑡 =
𝑉𝑐𝑟√𝐷𝑑
And so, the Chip thickness (t) is evaluated as:
(a) (b)

4𝑣 𝑑
Figure 5.4: (a) Grinding chip formation geometry and (b) one chip geometry 𝑡=
𝑉𝑐𝑟 𝐷
5.2.2 Material removal rate (MRR)

If v is the workpiece velocity, d is depth of cut and b is width of cut, the material removal rate 5.2.3 Specific grinding energy
(MRR), can be obtained as:
MRR = v d b The specific grinding energy, u, consist of chip formation, plowing, and sliding. Therefore,

As shown in Fig. 5.4 (a & b) (enlarged view in circle), the chips have a triangular cross-section, 𝑢=𝑢 +𝑢 +𝑢
and ratio (r) of chip thickness (t) to chip width (w) can be found as:
Total grinding force. This force is important for grinding and it can be evaluated. For this one
𝑤 may get the total grinding force from power calculation as:
𝑟 = ≈ 10𝑡𝑜20
𝑡
Therefore, the average volume per chip can be evaluated as: 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑢 × 𝑀𝑅𝑅

1 1 1 Therefore, 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉 = 𝑢 × 𝑣𝑑𝑏

𝑉𝑜𝑙chip = − 𝑤 𝑡𝑙 = + 𝑤𝑡𝑙
2 2 4

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𝑣.𝑑.𝑏
Thus total grinding force, 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑢 ×
𝑉
𝐾1 4𝑉 𝑑
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = . 𝑟.
2 𝑉. 𝑐. 𝑟 𝐷
Since, from empirical results, as t decreases, the friction component of u increases, i.e.

𝑢𝛼 or 𝑢 =𝐾 . 𝑣. 𝑟. 𝑑
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾1.
𝑉. 𝑐 𝐷
Where 𝐾 is temperature constant, thus substituting

1 𝑣. 𝑑. 𝑏 Grinding temperature. If 𝑲𝟐 be the room temperature, the grinding temperature rise (∆𝑻) goes
𝐹 =𝐾. .
𝑡 𝑉 with energy delivered per unit area. i.e.

Total grinding force after substituting for t,

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
∆𝑇 = 𝐾 .
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑟
1 𝑣. 𝑑. 𝑏
𝐹 =𝐾. .
𝑉
4𝑣 𝑑
𝑉𝑐𝑟 𝐷
𝑢 × 𝑏. 𝑙. 𝑑 1
∆𝑇 = 𝐾 . = 𝐾 .𝐾 . .𝑑
𝑏. 𝑙 𝑡
Rearranging the same,
1
. . . ∆𝑇 = 𝐾 . 𝐾 . 𝑑.
The Totalgrindingforce , 𝐹 = 𝐾 .𝑏 √𝐷𝑑
4𝑣 𝑑
𝑣𝑐𝑟 𝐷
5.2.4 Force on a grain

Rearranging the above, the grinding Temperature rise (∆𝑇 ) can be written as:
The force per grain can be calculated as:

𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑉𝑐𝑟

∆𝑇 = 𝐾 𝐾 𝑑 √𝐷
1 𝑣𝑐4𝑣𝑟
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢 × 𝑤𝑡
2
Generally, the grinding temperatures can go up to 1600°C for a short period of time.
Since,𝑤 = 𝑟𝑡, 𝑢 = 𝐾 . ,

Therefor,
5.2.5 Demonstration
1 1
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐾1 . × . 𝑟. 𝑡𝑡 Let us take an examples to demonstrate this.
𝑡 2
Substituting for t, and rearranging, the Force on a grain, 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 becomes, Example 1. If one is grinding a steel, which has a specific grinding energy (u) of 35 W-s/mm3.
The grinding wheel rotates at 3600 rpm, has a diameter (D) of 150 mm, thickness (b) of 25 mm,

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and (c) 5 grains per mm2. The motor has a power of 2 kW. The work piece moves (v) at 1.5 m/min.
1 1 2
The chip thickness ratio (r) is 10. Determine the grinding force and force per grain? Determine the Fgrain = u × 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡 = 35. . 10. (1.32 × 10−3 )
2 2
temperature (the value of K2 is 0.2°K-mm/N and room temperature is 20°C.

𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 3.05 × 10−4 𝐽|𝑚𝑚

Solutions:

First we need to calculate the depth of cut, d. We can have this from the power, i.e. For the temperature, we need K1 and K2. Since, K2 is given, so we need to calculate K1.

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑢 × 𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑢. 𝑣. 𝑑. 𝑏 1 1 1 1
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢 × 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡 = 𝐾1 . × . 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡 = 𝐾1. . 𝑟. 𝑡
2 𝑡 2 2

𝑊−𝑠 𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1
2000𝑊 = 35 . 1.5 . 𝑑. 25𝑚𝑚 × 10 × 3.05 × 10 𝑁 = 𝐾 . . 10.1.32 × 10 𝑚
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚 60 sec 2
𝑁
𝐾1 = 46.2 × 103
i.e. 𝑑 = 91.4 × 10 𝑚 𝑚
Substituting, K1
Now for the total grinding force, 1
∆𝑇 = 𝐾 . 𝐾 . . 𝑑
𝑣. 𝑑. 𝑏 𝑡
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑢 ×
𝑉
Therefore,

𝑚𝑚
𝑊 − 𝑠 1500𝑚𝑖𝑛 91.4 × 10−3 . 𝑚𝑚. 25𝑚𝑚 Km 𝑁 1
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 35 × . ∆T = 0.2 . 46.2 . 91.4 × 10 𝑚 = 640°𝐾
𝑚𝑚3 3600 𝑟𝑒𝑣 . 150𝜋 𝑚𝑚 . 𝑚 N 𝑚 1.33 × 10 𝑚
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣 1000𝑚𝑚
𝑇=𝑇 + ∆𝑇 = 20 + 640 = 660℃
i.e. 𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 70.7𝑁
The above exercise shows the role of temperature in grinding.

Next, the force per grain can be evaluated as: 5.3 Abrasives

1 Abrasives are finely crushed materials that can be found as fine grains and powders made from
𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑢. 2 𝑤𝑡 and 𝑤 = 𝑟𝑡
crushed synthetic or natural materials. Grain size and form, hardness, toughness, resistance to
Therefore, one need t as: attrition, and friability are the major attributes of abrasive materials. A grain must be friable after
attrition in order to shatter into pieces and create fresh, sharp edges. Abrasives come in two
. . × varieties: synthetic and artificial, or artificial and natural.
𝑡= =
. . . . . .
Natural abrasives. Sandstone or solid quartz, emery (50 to 60% crystalline Al2O3 + Iron oxide),
corundum (75 to 90% crystalline Al2O3 + Iron oxide), and natural diamond are the natural abrasive
= 1.32 × 10 𝑚𝑚 minerals. The "borts," or abrasive grains, that make up natural diamonds are created by crushing
undesirable gem stones to the proper particle size. Due to the cutting faces' propensity for dulling
Substituting,

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and glazing, their use is restricted. Natural abrasives have mainly been supplanted by synthetic Al2O3, silicon carbide of both forms is harder. SiC is not suggested for grinding hard
manufactured abrasives because they lack the consistency of characteristics and dependability. materials because of its severe brittleness. Cast irons, non-metallic materials, and non-ferrous
metals can all be ground using silicon carbide wheels.
Artificial abrasives. Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, diamond (which is a form of pure carbon),
5.3.4 Green silicon carbide
boron carbide, and cubic boron nitride are some of artificial abrasives. The hardness, toughness,
and type of structure of the manufactured abrasives are well defined and under strict control. Tungsten Carbide tools are ground using this type of SiC catting tool material. The only effective
These abrasives are given below. abrasive for tools with carbide tips is this material, which is specially developed for this kind of
operation.
5.3.1 Aluminium oxide
5.3.5 Diamond
Al2O3, or aluminium oxide, is marketed under the names "Alundum" and "Aloxite." Crystalline
aluminium oxide makes up the majority of the aluminium oxide abrasive. In an electric furnace, In order to sharpen carbide tools, truing and dressing other grinding wheels, and processing glass,
it is produced by melting minerals high in this oxide (bauxite ore, which mostly contains ceramics, and stone, synthetic diamonds (a type of pure carbon) are frequently employed.
aluminium hydroxide). Impurities are combined with and removed using coke and iron chips. A
5.3.6 Boron carbide
"pig" is the huge lump of refined aluminium oxide that is produced when it exits the furnace. It
undergoes crushing and rolling into tiny grains, magnetic treatment to remove ferrous impurities, The compound boron carbide is composed of boron and carbon (B4C). It is produced as a grayish-
and washing. Silicon carbide is harder than aluminium oxide. It is therefore strong and does not black powder with a grain size of no more than 120 m. Sharp faces and a greater capacity for
fracture readily. As a result, it is frequently used for grinding materials with high tensile strengths, abrasion are characteristics of the grains. Grinding and lapping extremely hard metals, hard alloys,
including most steels, H.S.S., ferrous alloys, and non-ferrous cast iron. glass, and gems are the major uses for boron carbide (ruby, topaz).

5.3.2 White aluminium oxide 5.3.7 Cubic boron nitride

Boron and nitrogen are combined to form cubic boron nitride. It is employed for grinding
It has a very high concentration of Al2O3, making it the most polished form. For cool and precise
workpieces made of hard high alloy steels and a variety of hard tool and die steels.
grinding, where heat must be kept at a low temperature, this cutting tool material is advised.
Particularly for jobs in the tool room, it is advised. For surface grinding as well as tool and cutter
5.4 Bonds and bonding materials
grinding, this material is very ideal.
Abrasive grains are sustained or held together by a bond in a grinding wheel. To withstand the
5.3.3 Silicon carbide
strains of the high-speed rotating grinding wheel, all bonds must be suitably robust. They must be
The chemical combination of silicon and carbon is known as silicon carbide. Quartz sand and able to firmly hold the abrasive grains while not being too dense to obstruct the cutting operation.
coke powder are fused together in an electric furnace to create it. The mixture also includes salt The abrasive tool's operational parameters, including grinding speed, pressure on the tool, heat
and sawdust. Silicon carbide is created when carbon from coke and sand mix at a temperature of production in the grinding zone, and cooling conditions, determine the bond to use. Non-organic
about 2300°C. Sawdust burns and develops pores that allow gases to escape. Impurities are and organic bonds are different types of bonds. Non-organic bonding include metallic, vitrified,
removed by the salt. The furnace is cooled after the procedure is complete. Individual grains are and silicate bonds. Organic bonds include those in retinoid, rubber, shellac, and oxychloride.
separated from the centre of the loosely linked silicon carbide crystals. There are two varieties of Followings are the discussion of these bonds.
silicon carbide: pure silicon carbide in the green variety and black or grey. Since green silicon
carbide is harder and hence more brittle and friable, it is generally a better material. Compared to

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Vitrified bond. The vitrified connection is the most prevalent. Refractory clay, feldspar, and operations. They are resistant to water and are not softened by alkaline cooling drinks. However,
quartz are the main ingredients. When heated, it becomes more like glass (the word "vitrified" the wheel gets soft (dull) at temperatures above 150° and needs cooling and dressing. These
literally means "to be transformed into glass by the action of heat"). The benefits of vitrified bond wheels are also used as control wheels for centerless grinding.
include its strength, high porosity, heat resistance, excellent chemical stability (unaffected by
Shellac bond. Like resin and rubber, this relationship is likewise organic. In a heated solution,
water, oils, or acids), high cutting capability, and effective heat removal. Wheels made of vitrified-
the abrasive substance is combined with shellac. After that, it is rolled and compressed into the
bonded material can be employed at speeds up to 35 m/s. The brittleness of vitrified-bonded
desired forms. At roughly 150°C, baking is done for several hours. With the help of this
wheels is a drawback. Bonds made of vitrified material are the toughest and strongest.
connection, robust, flexible wheels can be created. These wheels are used to grind parts like mill
Silicate bond. This bond is made of zinc oxide, lime, and various fillers combined with water rolls and camshafts because they create a high surface polish. These wheels are occasionally used
glass (NaSiO3). When heated to roughly 260°C, it becomes harder. Because self-dressing to slice wheels that are thicker than 0.80 mm.
(crumbling out of dull grains) occurs more frequently, the relationship is not as strong as the
Oxy-chloride bond. For disc grinding wheels in particular, this organic connection is utilised.
vitrified bond. When exposed to dampness, the wheels become brittle. The softest wheel is one
Compared to vitrified-bond wheels, these wheels are less brittle and less susceptible to side loads.
made of silicate. Silicate bond is utilised for face grinding when a significant portion of the wheel
Additionally, other than the silicate bond, the temperature during grinding is lower than with other
is in touch with the workpiece as well as for grinding heat-sensitive goods like cutters and
bonds. These wheels' shortcomings include being vulnerable to acidic solutions, moisture, and
precision tools.
abrupt temperature fluctuations. With prolonged storage, these wheels' strength is also reduced.
Bakelite or resinoid bond. A synthetic resin or plastic is used to bond bakelite or resinoids. The
Metallic bond. The cubic boron nitride and diamond grains are joined by metallic bonds. As
porosity of resinoid-bonded grinding wheels is smaller than that of vitrified-bonded wheels, yet
bonding materials, copper, tin, aluminium, and their alloys are employed.
they are nevertheless exceedingly strong, springy, and highly stable under varying loads. Due to
growing demands for higher quality and longevity, bakelite bonded grinding wheels are quickly 5.5 Types of grinding wheel
taking over as the preferred option for grinding and finishing processes in the automotive,
The Grinding wheels are available in different shapes and sizes to suit with the different machine
aerospace, and other specialised domains of industry. Surface roughness is reduced by the
operation as shown in the Fig. 5.5 below.
polishing action of resinoid. Resinoid-bonded wheels are utilised for high speed activities like
cutting off or fettling and operate at a surface speed of 35 to 40 m/s. It provides an extremely
Straight side grinding wheels. These are used for the cylindrical, center-less, and surface
quick stock removal rate. These wheels' drawbacks include a loss of hardness at temperatures
grinding operation like Straight Disc wheel, Straight both side recessed, Straight one side recessed
between 200 and 250 °C and a lack of adequate resistance to alkaline coolants (it becomes
and Straight cup wheel
soaked). To boost their flexural strength, these wheels can easily be strengthened with steel rings,
fibreglass, or other fibres. Cylindrical wheel. Used for producing a flat surface

Rubber bond. With vulcanizing additives and fillers, synthetic rubber makes up the majority of Tapered wheel. Used for grinding thread, gear teeth, etc.
it. The abrasive material is combined with rubber during the creation of the wheels, and then Saucer wheel. Used for sharpening of circular and band saws
sulphur and other ingredients are added. When heated to 150°C, rubber hardens while maintaining
Segmented wheel. Used for the vertical spindle, rotary, and reciprocating table surface grinders
its suppleness, and is then pushed into heated moulds. The resulting grinding wheels may rotate
at higher rotational rates and are stronger. These wheels, which are just slightly elastic and are Dish wheel. This is used for tool room work
less than 8 mm thick, are utilised for finishing grinding as well as slitting and cutting-off
Flaring cup wheel. This is used for tool and cutter grinding and

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Mounted pointed wheel. These are used for grinding the special contours and Sharpening saws.
Grade of bond. The grade describes the force or tightness with which the bond secures the
grinding wheel's abrasive grains in place. The English alphabet from A to Z denotes the Grade.
A stands for Sofest, and Z for Hardest Grade. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, and
Z are examples of soft grades. Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, and Z are examples of hard grades.

Structure. The structure describes how far apart the grinding wheel's abrasive grains are spaced.
The number of cutting edges per unit area of the wheel face and the size of the void spaces
between the grains serve as indicators. The structure is known as a Dense structure
(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) if it has many cutting edges per unit area rather than an Open structure
(9,10,11,12,13,14,15).

Kind of bond material- V-Vertified, B-Resionid, R-Rubber, E-Shellac, S-Silicon, O-

Oxychloride

Figure 5.5: Types of grinding wheels [6] Function of grinding wheel. The primary purpose of a grinding wheel is to remove material

5.6 Factors affecting the selection of grind wheels from the surface in the form of tiny chips and to make it as smooth as possible. A surface
finishing tool, a grinding machine uses grinding wheels as the tool to polish the surface. Even
The selection of a grinding wheel is based on the following factors: grinding wheels come in a variety of designs and are used for a variety of workpieces.
Size and shape of wheel. The mean abrasive grain diameter and the screen or sieve number are
roughly connected as follows: The average abrasive grain diameter is 15/mm of grit size. The Other factors. wheel speed, work speed, materials to be ground and general condition of the
size of the grains can be broadly categorised as follows: coarse-sized grains (up to 24) are machine
typically employed for roughing, which entails the removal of heavy materials. For finishing
The general guide lines for selection of grinding wheel, are given as below:
procedures where there is less material to be removed, finer grits (70 to 180) are utilised. For
example, when grinding threads, grain sizes between 220 and 600 and even finer (up to 1000) a) The best abrasive for grinding steel - both hardened and unhardened- malleable iron, and
are employed to produce very high surface finishes. When stock removal and finish are required, soft bronzes is aluminium oxide. Cast iron, bronze, aluminium, and cemented carbides can
such as during routine grinding and tool grinding, medium large grains (30 to 60) are utilised. all be ground most effectively with black silicon carbide abrasive. Sharpening carbide-
tipped cutting tools involves the use of green silicon carbide.
Kind of abrasive. Natural (Al2O3, SiC and diamond) or artificial (Alundum, Aloxite, CBN, art. b) The wheel should be softer the harder the metal being ground, and vice versa, as the harder
diamond) the metal being ground, the more quickly the wheel's grains will wear out and break off,
exposing fresh, sharp grains. A hard-grade wheel should be used for soft materials and a
Grain size of abrasive particles. The standard grain sizes are: (i) Coarse: 10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24 soft-grade wheel for hard [Link] wheels (a large grit abrasive) are used in
(ii) Medium: 30, 36, 46, 54, 60 (iii) Fine: 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180 (iv) Very fine: 220, 240, grinding ductile and soft metals to avoid rapid loading of the wheel; fine-grained wheels
280, 320, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000. are used for brittle and hard metals.

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c) The wheel's grain should be coarser the more surface area it will have in touch with the 51 - A - 36 - L - 5 - V - 23
work. In other words, select a coarse grit for maximal metal removal and a fine grit for
Where figures stand for:
optimum finish.
d) Harder wheels should be more coarse-grained to prevent breaking down since, under
51 - Manufacturer’s symbol indicating exact kind of abrasive, (use optional),
similar circumstances, the stress placed on the grain of a coarse-grained wheel is greater
A - Abrasive type: A for Al2O3, C for SiC and D for diamond, 36 - Grain size, L - Grade, 5 -
than that of a fine-grained wheel. The longer the arc of contact with the work, the less the
Structure, V - Bond type (V: Vitrified, S: Silicate, R: Rubber, B: Resinoid, E: Shellac, O:
grain depth of cut, and the greater the tendency to load the wheel and overheat the surface
Oxychloride, BF: Reinforced resinoid, RF: Rubber reinforced) and 23 - Private marking to
being ground. Therefore, the longer the arc of contact, the softer the wheel should be.
identify wheel (use optional).
e) With regard to the wheel's construction: For finish and form grinding, choose wheels with
a dense structure since they hold their shape effectively. For grinding hardened steel parts, 5.8 Grinding Methods
honing cutting tools, cylindrical, centerless, and internal grinding, as well as surface
grinding with the wheel's periphery, use wheels with a medium-density construction.
There are several distinct grinding techniques, including creep feed grinding, centerless grinding,
When surface grinding soft and ductile metals with the face of a cup, cylinder, or segmental centred grinding, surface grinding, and vertical grinding. Each one must be chosen based on the
wheel, wheels with an open structure are utilised. application and level of surface finish required.
f) Select a vitrified bond for the highest rate of metal removal and a resinoid, rubber, or
shellac bond for a good finish. Method of Grinding Representative figures

Table 5.2: Surface speeds of grinding wheels

Horizontal grinding: A spindle is for
grinding with an axis parallel to the table.
The grinding wheel spins slowly
constantly or sporadically. The
workpiece's radial feed is accomplished
during the horizontal feed movement
until the grinding achieves the required
size. The smooth surface is created when
the wheel's periphery (flat edge) comes
5.7 Standard marking systems into contact with the workpiece.

Every grinding wheel has a mark. On the flat surface of the wheel, markings in the shape of
conventional designations are painted with an indelible paint. The labelling gives information
about the producer, the abrasive substance, its grade, structure, bond type, etc. Below is a common
wheel marking style:

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Method of Grinding Representative figures Method of Grinding Representative figures

Cylindrical grinding: Either a universal

Vertical grinding: The work piece is
grinding machine or a cylindrical grinding
supported by a rotary table machine with machine is employed. The cylindrical
continuous or indexed rotation, or a workpiece is rotated together with the wheel,
reciprocating table that can be adjusted and its outer rim is machined. Straight
depending on the task. An axis of the cylindrical, taper, end face, and complete
grinding spindle in this instance is shape grinding are a few of the several ways

perpendicular to the table. On a flat of grinding. It is a generic grinding technique

that is popular and similar to surface
surface, a wheel's face, whether it be a
grinding.
cup, cylinder, disc, or segmented
wheel—is used. Wheel-face grinding is
Internal grinding: The inner surface of
frequently used to quickly remove
the fixed workpiece is machined using
material, however some machines are
the rotating axle wheel. Taper and end
capable of performing highly precise
face grinding are part of the grinding
work.
process. An internal grinding machine,
cylindrical grinding equipment, or
Surface grinding: Surface grinding
internal grinding equipment connected to
employs a square table or a circular table,
a universal grinding machine are used to
a straight type wheel or a cup type wheel,
complete the task.
and either a vertical axis grinding or a
horizontal axis grinding for grinding. To
Centered grinding: Between the
execute grinding, the workpiece is
centres, the workpiece is secured. The
mounted to a table and the wheel is turned
spinning grinding wheel is used to
quickly. The most typical grinding
machine the workpiece's exterior. A
technique, surface grinding, is utilised in
cylindrical grinding machine or a
a variety of industries.
universal grinding machine is used to
complete the task.

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Method of Grinding Representative figures worktable or the swivel table (upper table) with T slots for securing the head stock and tailstock
is mounted on the sliding table.

Centreless grinding: In this instance, the

workpiece is held between two grinding
wheels that are revolving at various
speeds in the same direction. In order to
apply downward force to the workpiece,
one grinding wheel spins around a fixed
axis.

Creep feed grinding: When compared to

reciprocating or pendulum grinding, Figure 5.6: External cylindrical grinding machine [6]

creep feed grinding is characterized by The workpiece is mounted and driven by the headstock while being held either between centres
lower workpiece speeds and deeper or in a chuck. An electric motor housed in the headstock's upper section powers the work spindle.
depths of cut, resulting in a longer arc The workpiece held between centres is rotated similarly to how a centre lathe works. The tail
length of contact between the grinding stock serves as support for the back of work that is mounted between centres. It has an
wheel and workpiece. advance/retract spindle. Commonly, a spring device is used to advance and clamp the tailstock
spindle with the centre. The tail stock can be moved along the worktable's slots to accommodate
different workpiece lengths, and it can be held in place using bolts or an eccentric clamp. On the
5.9 Grinding machines and their classification
spindle of the wheel head, which moves crosswise at the back of the base, the grinding wheel is
An abrasive wheel-equipped machine tool known as a grinding machine is used to produce fine
mounted and clamped. A motor located at the top of the helmet propels the wheel at up to 1500
finishes or make slight cuts in metals and other materials. Machines for industrial grinding come
revolutions per minute.
in many different varieties. There are five different types of grinding machines: cylindrical,
internal, centerless, surface, and special. Trip dogs that can be adjusted are set up to reverse the sliding table at the conclusion of the stroke
by clamping them into longitudinal holes that are provided at the side of the table. One can
5.9.1 Cylindrical grinding machines manually or hydraulically shift the wheel head in a transverse direction to feed the wheel after
The broad category of grinding machines that use centres to mount the workpiece to be ground is each stroke of the table. Chucking type cylindrical grinders are manufacturing tools used for quick
referred to as "cylindrical." The most popular external cylindrical grinding machine is the plain grinding of relatively short items, including ball-bearing races. Cylindrical grinding is done using
grinder, a multipurpose production tool for grinding axles, shafts, splines, and other components. a variety of techniques. Plunge-cut grinding, full-depth grinding, and traverse grinding are the
Figure 5.6 shows a simple grinding device. On the base, which also houses the drive mechanisms three that are most frequently utilised as given below.
and the hydraulic drive, are all the machine's components. The hydraulic drive reciprocates the
sliding or traversing table (lower table) to get the longitudinal feed at a speed ranging from 0.08
to 10 m/min, or it can be manually moved by a hand wheel through a gearing system. The

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5.9.2 Internal cylindrical grinding machines

When other, more productive ways of finishing correct holes, such as precision drilling, honing,
etc., cannot be used, internal grinding is primarily used to complete accurate holes in hardened
objects. Internal grinding can be done in one of two ways: (i) with a revolving workpiece, or (ii)
with the workpiece held still. The first technique is used to grind holes in relatively tiny
workpieces, primarily bodies of rotation, such as the inner surfaces of ball bearing rings and gear
Figure 5.7: Methods of cylindrical grinding [6]
bores. The workpiece is rotated in the same way as a lathe by being held in a chuck or other
appropriate fixture (Fig. 5.8 (a)). A straight-type grinding wheel is rotated while receiving two
Traverse grinding. In traverse grinding or infeed grinding (Fig. 5.7 (a)), the grinding wheel is
feeds: intermittent cross feed (radial feed) at the end of each pass, which controls the depth of cut,
moved into the work. The desired surface is then produced by traversing the workpiece across the
and longitudinal feed along the wheel axis, which reciprocates back and forth over the length of
wheel on vice-versa. This method is used to grind workpieces of considerable length.
the hole. A grinding head holds the grinding wheel. In a different machine design, the workpiece
Plunge cut grinding. In the plunge-cut grinding (Fig. 5.7 (b)), the grinding wheel is radially is slowly rotated and moved back and forth while the grinding wheel rotates in a fixed location.
supplied into the work while the latter circles around centres. It is comparable to lathe form
cutting. The technique is applied on brief workpieces where the wheel's width overlaps the length
that needs to be ground. By using this technique, short, stiff workpieces can be ground.

Full depth grinding. In the full depthe grinding (Fig. 5.7 (c)), the entire allowance is ground off
in one or two lengthwise passes after the wheel is trued to create an entry taper or step. The
technique is typically used on relatively short surfaces of workpieces with inflexible shafts. Center
Figure 5.8: Internal grinding [6]
type cylindrical grinders are effective for grinding tapers. By rotating the worktable to the desired
angle with regard to the axis of the grinding wheel, adjustments of up to 10 degrees can be
When grinding tiny holes, the wheel's peripheral speed is 10 m/s or less. The speed rises as the
performed.
hole's diameter increases, reaching 30 m/s for sizes greater than 30 mm. The wheel spindle's

As required, the complete grinding process can be carried out manually, semi-automatically, or comparatively low stiffness places a restriction on the depth of cut (infeed per stroke). For rough

automatically. The tiniest pieces can be handled by plain grinders up to 0.9 m in diameter by 4.8 grinding steel and cast iron, infeeds range from 0.005 to 0.02 mm, and for final grinding, they

m in length, with the lengths being proportionate to each machine's swing capacity. In very large range from 0.002 to 0.01 mm per stroke. For holes with a large length-to-diameter ratio and holes

grinders, the wheel is reciprocated across the workpiece held and rotated between centres, because with a diameter less than 40 mm, lower infeed rates are used. Internal grinding calls for an over-

of the massiveness of the work. travel at each end of the stroke that is equivalent to 1/3 of the wheel width. For grinding holes in
large, bulky workpieces (housing-type parts) that are difficult or impossible to clamp in a grinder's
Universal cylindrical grinders. These grinders include a swivelling headstock and a swivelling chuck, employ the second method of internal grinding. They are set up on the planetary grinding
wheel head in addition to the advantages supplied by conventional grinders. This makes it feasible machine's table (see Fig. 5.8 (b)). The wheel spindle of this kind of machine revolves not only
to grind taper at any angle, which is far more than is achievable with conventional grinders. There about its axis but also in a planetary motion about the axis of the hole being ground. The
are machines that can handle items that need swings up to 450 mm and an 1800 mm centre longitudinal feed is produced by the wheel's axial motion.
distance.

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Internal grinding is fundamentally different from cylindrical (external) grinding in that it is carried the regulating wheel face for the same purpose. This approach is utilised for uninterrupted parallel
out using a wheel that is significantly smaller, often 0.7 to 0.9 of the hole diameter. The life of work of any length. A magazine feeding system can be installed to automate the grinder.
internal grinding wheels is naturally lower than for other types of grinding because of their small
According to Fig. 5.9 (a), the centre of the workpiece is typically held above the line joining the
diameters. Since the angle of contact with the surface being ground is much larger and the
centres of the grinding and regulating wheels. This will guarantee that the piece has a correct
workpiece may be heated to a high temperature during grinding, wheels of a lower grade (softer
cylindrical surface. This distance is equal to 0.125 to 0.25 times the diameter of the workpiece.
wheels) should be chosen for internal grinding than for identical conditions in cylindrical
The ground surface might not be circular if it is too small, but instead resemble an equilateral
(external) grinding.
triangle with arcs for sides. Vibrations and chatter will happen if it is too big. No more than 10 to
5.9.3 Centreless Grinding 12 mm should be present.

On workpieces that lack centres or cannot have centres, such as pistons, valves, rings, tubes, balls,
wrist pins, drills, bushings, drill rods, shafts, and balls and rollers for bearings, etc., centerless
grinding is used. Internal and external surfaces can both be ground without a centre.

[Link] External centreless grinding

There are three methods as (i) through feed, (ii) infeed and (iii) end feed methods for External
centreless grinding.

(i)Through Feed Grinding. Fig. 5.9 (a) provides an illustration of the through feed centerless
grinding [Link] workpiece travels between the grinding wheel and the regulating wheel
while resting on the workpiece rest blade. By moving axially past the grinding wheel, the
workpiece extends the grinding operation throughout its entire length. The regulating wheel
gives the workpiece its traverse motion. The controlling wheel is made of rubber-bonded
abrasive and rotates the work at its own rotational speed thanks to its frictional properties. The
Figure 5.9: External centreless grinding[6]
controllable speed of this wheel ranges from 0.6 to 1.0 m/s. By tilting the regulating wheel
downward at the feeding end, at a 45-degree angle, the work is moved axially past the grinding (ii)Infeed Grinding. In case of Fig. 5.9 (b), infeed centerless grinding is used when the workpiece
[Link] tilt causes the regulating wheel's peripheral speed to be divided into two components: has a stepped or uneven profile and cannot be moved between the wheels. Here, the regulating
(i) the rate of longitudinal feed (flg=Vrw μsinɑ) and (ii) the speed of work rotation (Vwk=Vrw cosɑ) wheel is retracted before the workpiece is set on the workrest blade. The workpiece is then fed
, where μ is the co-efficient (μ= 0.94 to 0.98) that takes into consideration the work slipping in toward the grinding wheel as the regulating wheel is then moved closer to it. The regulating
relation to the grinding wheel. The angle ɑ is typically measured between 1 and 5 degrees; the wheel is pulled back out after the grinding is finished, and the final workpiece is expelled. The
larger the angle ɑ, the faster the rate of feed, and vice versa. The grinding wheel removes a layer axes of the grinding and regulating wheels are strictly horizontal because there is no requirement
of metal in one pass, reducing the workpiece's diameter by 0.02 to 0.3 mm. for longitudinal feed of the workpiece in this approach.

To increase contact between the regulating wheel and the work, its perimeter is somewhat concave (iii) End Feed Grinding. This process (Fig. 5.9) produces tapered workpieces because both the
rather than cylindrical. The work rest blade features a 30° angled top face to retain work against grinding and the regulating wheels are tapered. Up until it encounters the stop, the workpiece is
fed from one side. With this approach, the taper and size are precise.

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[Link] Advantages of centreless grinding

i. Its high productivity, which is far higher than cylindrical grinding between centres, is the key
benefit.
ii. The operator must possess less expertise.
iii. There is no noise or deflection of the work, and it is firmly supported.
iv. The work's size is reasonably manageable.
v. Less grinding stock is needed since a real floating state obtains during the grinding process.

[Link] Disadvantage of centreless grinding

i. Keyways and work with flats cannot be ground.

Figure 5.10: Internal centreless grinding[6]
ii. Work with various diameters is difficult to handle.
iii. There is no guarantee that the exterior diameter and internal diameter of hollow work will be A wheel positioned on spindle 6 is used to grind the hole. The friction force between the grinding
concentric. work and the regulating roll causes the grinding work to rotate. The pressure roll is rolled outward
iv. Changing over a centerless grinder to grind different diameters takes a lot of time. As a result, to load and unload the workpiece. Centerless grinding allows for the maintenance of extremely
it may be used to large lot production more quickly. high precision. On centreless machines, internal tapered surfaces are ground by rotating the
housing and the workpiece to the taper angle.
[Link] Internal centreless grinding

Internal centerless grinding machines can be used to mill the holes in ring-type parts (Fig. 5.10). 5.9.4 Surface grinding
The work-piece 1 is loaded into the grinding zone and is held between three steel rollers installed Surface grinding machines are used to grind flat surfaces. Heavy workpieces are held in fixtures
in housing 5: support roll 2, pressure roll 3, and regulating roll 4. The workpiece is held against or secured to the table using pads, strap clamps, and other tools. A magnetic chuck typically holds
the support and regulating rolls by the lever-mounted pressure roll 3, which applies a little pieces of work. The surface grinders come with either a reciprocating table or rotating table,
predetermined force. The workpiece is rotated by the regulating roll, which is connected to the as well as either a horizontal spindle or a vertical spindle.
workdrive, at a speed that ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 m/s. The regulating wheel axis's approximate
1/2° inclination causes an axial force to apply on the workpiece, holding it axially with one end
face up against a roller stop.

Figure 5.11: Surface grinding methods [6]

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The perimeter of a straight wheel is used to grind in horizontal-spindle reciprocating table grinders active sides (on the spindle side) are in planes tangent to the involute curvatures of two gear teeth.
(Fig. 5.11 (a)), and at each full stroke of the table, in addition to its rotating motion, the grinding To do this, truing the wheels at an angle equal to the pressure angle of the gear being ground is
wheel also undergoes a crossfeed action (back and forth). The infeed of the wheel, in which it is necessary. The gear generates a complicated rolling motion when it is grinding. When grinding
fed to the depth of cut, is the other motion. The edges of the grinding wheel are likewise used by gears with formed wheels, as shown in Fig. 5.13 (b), the contour of the wheel is trued by a specific
horizontal-spindle rotary-table grinders (Fig. 5.11 (b)), but the workpieces are held, often by a fixture so that it matches the profile of the tooth gaps on the gear. The adjacent flanks of two teeth
magnetic chuck, on a rotating table. The wheel has rotation, a cross feed that is parallel to the are ground simultaneously.
surface being ground, and infeed here, same like before.
[Link] Thread grinding
Wheels made in cups, cylinders, or segments are used by vertical-spindle machines. They might
Machines for thread grinding are used. The only way these machines differ from traditional
be either the rotary table (Fig. 5.11 (d)) or the reciprocating table (Fig. 5.11 (c)). The work moves
cylindrical grinding machines is in the type of grinding wheel, which might have one or more
in grinding with the wheel's end face are identical to those in grinding with the wheel's perimeter.
ribs. The piece is fixed in place between centres and rotated at a set speed. A separate drive rotates
The vertical feed of the wheel along its axis provides the depth of cut while wheel revolution
the ribbed grinding wheel, which is positioned on the wheel head spindle. The wheel also has a
about its vertical axis provides the principal rotational action. Typically, trued form wheels are
longitudinal (axial) movement that corresponds to one thread pitch every work rotation (Fig.
used to grind contoured surfaces. The main purpose of reciprocating grinders is to create long,
5.13).
straight surfaces that can be flat or have shaped sections. The main application of rotary-table
machines is the quick fabrication of flat surfaces on tiny and medium-sized items, either singly or [Link] Cam grinders
constantly. Vertical machines can handle work up to 2400 mm in diameter and segmented wheels
Fig. 5.14 depicts an arrangement for grinding a camshaft's cams. The grinding wheel is set up to
up to 1050 mm in diameter when equipped with a 1500 mm magnetic rotary table chuck. Multiple-
move radially in conjunction with the rotation of the workpiece, either toward or away from it. A
spindle types of vertical-spindle rotary table machines are also available for rough, semi finish,
master cam gives the workpiece the appropriate radial movement in relation to the grinding wheel.
and finish grinding in a single pass with automatic size, wheel advance, and gauging.
Throughout operation, the grinding wheel is continuously in contact with the cam surface. For a

5.9.5 Special grinding machines smooth surface finish, the camshaft simultaneously oscillates and rotates while also moving
axially.
The cylindrical kind of grinders also includes form grinders, tool and cutter grinders for
sharpening tools, cam grinders, gear grinders, thread grinders, grinders for rolling mill rolls, tool [Link] Tool post grinder
post grinders, and so on.
On a lathe, a tool post grinder is employed for various small grinding tasks. The grinding wheel

[Link] Form grinders is supported by the tool post and fed across the job using either a normal or compound rest feed.
The truing of lathe centres is a typical use for tool post grinders.
Depending on the type of workpiece to be machined, formed surfaces are polished on cylindrical
or surface grinding machines. The grinding of bed ways with intricate cross-sections is another [Link] Tool and cutter grinders
job in this category (Fig. 5.12).
Tools and cutters are ground in specialised tool grinding fixtures equipped with diamond and

[Link] Gear teeth grinding abrasive wheels of the proper sizes and shapes.

On gear grinding machines, the teeth of gears are ground either through the generating process or
by a forming process that employs formed wheels. The two saucer-shaped grinding wheels used
in the producing grinding method are shown in Fig. 5.13 (a), and they are positioned so that their

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specialty cutters, are sharpened using the universal machines. Fig. 5.15 depicts a universal tool

and cutter grinder. The machine features a substantial box-type base that gives it stiffness and

stability. The base's top is directly supported by the saddle. On the bottom table, which slides

longitudinally on the saddle, the upper table (work table) can be rotated. The saddle provides cross

movement and is moved by ball bearings on hardened ways. The work table contains "T" slots

for attaching various accessories and work holding devices (vice, head stock, tail stock, and so

on). The work (for instance, arbour type cutters) is held between the centres by the head stock and
Figure 5.12: Form grinding
tail stock, which are positioned on either side of the table. On the machine's base at the back is

fixed the column that supports the wheel head. For different arrangements, it can be rotated to

either side of the column and moved up and down.

Figure 5.13: Grinding of gear teeth

Figure 5.15: Universal tool and cutter grinder[6]

Figure 5.14: Cam grinding
[Link] Rolls
[Link].1 Types of tool grinding machines
are hefty, large-diameter workpieces used in rolling mills. For grinding them, specialised
There are three types of tool grinding machines like 1. standard 2. General; 3. Machines that are cylindrical grinding machines are used. When installed on a solid basis, such workpieces can

specialised (for instance, drill sharpeners). Ordinary equipment is used to perform basic rotate more rigidly. These huge workpieces may be turned in bearings that fit previously machined
cylindrical surfaces rather than supported between centres. By moving the grinding wheel and its
sharpening operations on basic instruments, such as emery sharpeners with a tool rest. A wide
stand back and forth along the length of the roll, the cylindrical surface of the roll is ground.
range of cutting tools, including counterborers, reamers, milling cutters, specialty drills, and

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[Link] Disk grinders workpiece and the specifications specified for the grinding operation's output also affect the length
of the abrasive belt. The more grains that participate in the cutting process during one belt
The crucial equipment among the production surface grinders is the disc grinder. They come in
revolution, the longer the belt is (for the given belt width). In actual use, coated abrasive belts
single or opposing spindle horizontal-spindle variants. The available single vertical spindle
range in width from 10 to 3000 mm and in length from 500 to 7000 mm.
machines are mostly utilised for flat area surfacing without preserving certain specifications.
Horizontal single or opposing spindle machines with large, solid abrasive discs or cylinder wheels The ways that the belt is forced on the surface to be crushed vary among abrasive belt grinding
can produce parts with parallel, flat faces using oscillating, reciprocating, rotary, or through feeds. techniques. Various techniques are shown in Fig. 5.16. The surface can be ground using either the
On several versions, automatic work sizers are offered, and operation is frequently completely portion of the belt that is not supported, with a portion supported by the driving contact wheel, or
automatic. In opposing wheel grinders with wheels up to 750 mm in diameter, work pieces up to with a portion supported by an intermediate contact roller whose shape the belt follows. The
350 mm in length can be ground. abrasive belt's unsupported section, which has a larger area of contact and covers the majority of
the workpiece surface, has the maximum production capacity when used for grinding. All types
5.10 Coated abrasives
of surfaces can now be ground, with the exception of cylindrical and curved surfaces with a tiny
The coated abrasives typically comprise of flexible backing materials like paper or cloth and radius of curvature.
abrasive granules. They have been applied to low-speed surface finishing. However, "Coated
belts" have developed into significant production tools as a result of the development of stronger To achieve the same output when grinding with a portion of the belt supported by a contact wheel,

adhesives and backings. They work with high metal removal rates (usually 200 cm3/[Link] a substantially higher pressure is needed. In this scenario, the output is inversely proportional to

width) and operate at high speeds (up to 60 m/s). In large-scale manufacturing, abrasive belt the contact wheel's diameter. However, using wheels with a diameter of less than 150 mm is not

grinding has replaced turning, planing, and milling (for example, in machining the gasket surfaces advised. Occasionally, two supports placed at the workpiece's two sides will be more effective

of engine blocks and cylinder heads). than a contact wheel. They widen the region of contact and, as a result, the angle of contact with
the workpiece. Idlers can change the tension of an abrasive belt. For steel and cast iron, the contact
In addition to polishing surfaces of rotation, abrasive belt grinding is also used to finish flat and pressure between the abrasive belt and the surface to be ground should ideally be between 0.05
curved complicated shaped surfaces, such as those found on turbine blades, crankshaft journals, and 0.2 N/mm2, and > 0.04 for non-ferrous alloys and aluminium. Cutting rates vary depending
and other metal and non-metal parts. By placing grains on an adhesive layer that has been placed on the material of the workpiece, the type of operation being done (roughing or finishing), and
to a backing consisting of cloth (for instance, twill), abrasive belts can be created. This is known other elements.
as "making coat." A second layer keeps the grains in place (size coat). In order to avoid stripping
of brand-new grains while enabling release of worn grains, bond strength is adjusted. Electrostatic The recommended cutting speed is 25 to 30 m/s for rough abrasive belt grinding of external

alignment of grains with sharp edges and elongated forms produces cutting edges with low surfaces of rotation on workpieces made of steel with a tensile strength of less than or equal to

negative rake angles that are positioned roughly ten times further apart than in grinding wheels. 800 N/mm2, 15 to 20 m/s for cast iron and bronze workpieces, and 45 to 50 m/s for grinding

The glue could be hide glue, for example. Steel, malleable iron, and bronze are ground using aluminium. In abrasive belt grinding operations, cutting fluids include mineral oils, kerosene,

aluminium oxide abrasive grains, whereas grey cast iron, brass, and aluminium alloys are ground emulsions, and fatty oil pastes.

with silicon carbide.

Due to manufacturing challenges and high cost, multi-layer coated abrasive belts are rarely used.
Normally, the belt's thickness doesn't go above 2 mm (including the layer of abrasives). The belt's
width is chosen based on the length of the surface to be ground. As an illustration, the belt width
and shaft length are equivalent when grinding surfaces of rotation (shafts). The size of the

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5.10.2 Grinding points

While grinding wheels are not appropriate, grinding tips [Fig. 5.17] are used for internal grinding
and to clean up difficult-to-reach areas when manufacturing moulds and dies. These tips are glued
to a unique stem and lack through holes. The diameter of grinding tips varies from 3 to 40 mm.

Figure 5.17: Grinding points [6]

Figure 5.16: Abrasive belt grinding[6] 5.10.3 Grinding segments

5.10.1 Advantages of coated abrasive belt The several abrasive segments that make up a segmental grinding wheel are held in some way in
a chuck. The length of the segments ranges from 125 to 300 mm. Fig. 5.18 depicts some of the
1. The abrasive belt's working area is significantly larger than the grinding wheel's, which shapes of the grinding segments. Wheels with segments are used for surface grinding. A
encourages heat dissipation during grinding. This increases belt life and virtually eliminates segmental wheel's key benefit is that a damaged segment may be easily replaced without having
workpiece deformation. to toss the entire wheel. The gaps between the segments make it easier to dispose of chips and
worn-out wheel fragments as well as to deliver cutting fluid to the grinding zone. The workpiece
2. The belt's surface is more uniform when compared to a grinding wheel because the
gets heated less when grinding with a segmental wheel because of the reduced area of contact
electrostatic field approach evenly distributes the abrasive grains so that they are vertically
with the wheel.
orientated and embedded in the glue-coated backing.

3. More abrasive grains per unit area than on the grinding wheel, which increases grinding
capacity and output.

4. Lack of vibration and impact loads guarantees a higher class of surface finish.

5. The machine and tool are cheap and of simple manufacture.

Figure 5.18: Shapes of grinding segments[6]
6. 6. The belt's cutting power may be altered by choosing a contact roller with the right hardness
and geometry. 5.10.4 Abrasive sticks

7. Quick and simple abrasive belt replacement. For hand fitting tasks as well as honing and super-finishing tasks carried out in specialised
equipment for micro-finishing, abrasive sticks are employed. Fig. 5.19 depicts the various designs
8. Operational safety.

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of the abrasive sticks. Sticks with square (first), flat (second), and special flat (last) honing forms 5.12 Balancing of grinding wheels
that are mounted in specific heads are used for honing and super-finishing.
A mounting technique for a grinding wheel is shown in Fig. 5.20. Two flanges, one on either side,
hold it firmly against the spindle. Thick compressible washers (0.5 to 3 mm thick), made of
cardboard, rubber, leather, etc., should be positioned between the flanges and the wheel.

Figure 5.19: Abrasive sticks

5.11 Grinding process variables

There are many process variable like speed, stock removal rate etc.[6]

Wheel Speeds. When employing appropriate grinding-wheel speeds, which have been fairly well
established, the majority of machines can be changed to reach the desired cutting efficiency. Since
it was difficult to achieve the proper peripheral wheel speeds in the past, internal grinding
presented significant challenges. However, high-cycle, direction-driven wheel heads are quickly
Figure 5.20: Mounting of grinding wheel[6]
displacing older varieties of wheel heads today. Effective peripheral wheel speeds are typically as
follows, in accordance with manufacturers' specified maximum speeds for certain wheels: Internal High speeds are used to revolve the grinding wheels. Any wheel that is out of true and out of
grinding (10.0 - 30.0 m/s speed), Surface grinding (20.0 - 25.0m/s speed), Diamond wheels (25.0 balance will therefore generate significant imbalanced forces and cause excessive vibrations. Poor
- 32.5m/s speed), Resinoid (27.5 - 60.0 m/s speed), Vitrified (27.5 - 32.5 m/s speed), and workpiece surface polish and shorter wheel life will result from this. Each wheel with its sleeve
Cylindrical grinding (30.0 - 50.0 m/s speed). should therefore be balanced before installing on the grinding wheel spindle. Once the wheel face
has been trued up, the test should be conducted. The wheel is fixed in the middle of an arbour that
Work speeds. To obtain the desired finish and the maximum stock removal compatible with long
is exactly round and straight. The assembly is subsequently supported by the balancing machine's
wheel life, certain work rates are necessary. Except for internal centerless grinding, the work and
roller rests or straight knife-edged ways, as shown in Fig. 5.21. A wheel that is not balanced
abrasive wheel move in opposite directions when they pass the cutting line. The material being
properly will not stay still. The heavy side will be underneath when it finally comes to rest. By
ground at this point should decide the work speed. This range includes soft steel (0.15- 0.25 m/s
removing some lead from the bush's heavy side, the wheel is balanced.
speed), hard steel (0.35- 0.50 m/s speed), cast iron (1.00- 2.00 m/s speed), and aluminium (0.50
m/s speed), with the low end utilised for rough cuts and the high end for finishing.

Stock removal. The most efficient way to remove stock is with coarse-grit wheels, which also
allow for the maintenance of commercially acceptable dimensional accuracy despite a
substantially coarser surface quality. Therefore, choosing a surface finish carefully is essential for
maximising manufacturing efficiency. Comparative rates for stock removal per pass are shown
for the following grinding operations: rough grinding (0.05 to 0.50 mm), semi-finish grinding
(0.025 to 0.25 mm), and finishing. However, these rates will vary significantly depending on the
type of material being ground (0.0125 – 0.125 mm). Figure 5.21: Static balancing device[6]

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Moving three evenly distributed weights into the wheel sleeve's annular groove is another way to 5.14 Abrasive machining
balance the wheel (or mounting flange). By tightening the screws, these movable parts can be
As a finishing procedure, ordinary grinding has a very low rate of metal removal. Such grinding
fixed around a circle at any location.
processes are categorised as "abrasive machining" when metal removal rate is the primary factor
and surface quality and accuracy are secondary. It covers all processes where choosing between
5.13 High speed grinding
grinding and other machining techniques is mostly based on cost. Increased process variables
Traditional grinding is essentially a finishing technique. It is used to attain high geometric and
(feed and/or depth of cut) can be used to increase the metal removal rate. The method compares
dimensional accuracy in order to produce a smooth surface. As a result, compared to turning and
favourably to other machining techniques like milling, turning, and broaching, among others. The
milling operations, the metal removal rate (MRR) in typical grinding processes is quite low. High
surface quality and geometric tolerances attained are on par with those attained by these
speed grinding can boost MRR to levels comparable to turning and milling processes while also
machining procedures.
producing precision and surface polish on par with conventional grinding. High speed grinding,
also known as high efficiency grinding, varies from conventional grinding in that the grinding However, abrasive machining consumes about three times as much electricity per unit MRR as
wheel speeds are significantly higher (often 60 m/s and more, up to 80 m/s), as opposed to roughly milling does. However, it is far less than the standard grinding process. Abrasive machining is
30 m/s for traditional grinding. Since there is less force on the work, the work speeds and rates currently competitive with other machining processes, nonetheless, for the reasons listed below:
are really comparable higher (from the power, force, and velocity relationship).
a) Work surface conditions do not negatively affect the procedure, according to this statement.
On conventional grinding machines, increasing the wheel speed is not enough to achieve high b) Both rough and finishing cuts can be completed in a single step.
speed grinding. Wheel speed, work speed, and infeed rate must be compatible with operating c) Handling costs are significantly decreased since there is no need to alter the machine setup
factors such machine condition, wheel structure, coolant application, necessary surface quality, for rough and finish cuts.
and work material hardness. The grinding equipment used for high speed grinding needs to be d) Work-holding devices and fixtures can be reduced or deleted in comparison to other
sturdy (i.e., have vibration-free structures), have increased machine and spindle stiffness, strong machining techniques like milling.
wheel and work drives, and suitable and effective safety guards. e) Abrasive machining requires less machining allowance than other machining techniques.
Thus, there is a start-up saving (in material).
Al2O3 is the abrasive utilised to create high-speed grinding wheels, and either a unique, high-
strength vitrified bond or a polyurethane bond is used for the bond. The wheel construction must
The above procedure can be used to machine any material, including metals, ceramics, refractory
be relatively open due to the higher rate of metal loss. Wheel loading is less of an issue with an
alloys, and superalloys.
open structure. With an open construction, coolant feeding is also more effective. A high pressure
coolant system with a specific nozzle is employed to guarantee proper cooling of the contact. 5.15 Dressing / conditioning
Also, using oil coolant in place of an emulsion will considerably boost the metal removal rate. To
The term "conditioning" can be used to describe any technique that aids in the production or
present a full layer of material for each rotation, the infeed rate must be increased correspondingly
regeneration of the grinding capabilities of grinding tools. Profiling, sharpening, and cleaning are
with the wheel speed in order to increase the metal-removal rate.
subordinate chores that are part of conditioning. In other words, conditioning is done when the

It is evident from the information above that high speed grinding causes (i) a reduction in the grinding wheel's shape, measurements, profile, concentricity, and axial runout are no longer

thickness of the chip removed by each abrasive grain, resulting in a reduction in grinding forces, accurate enough. The grinding tool has a tendency to pinch and uses more power if the surface

(ii) an increase in MRR, (iii) increased grinding ratio and (iv) better surface polish. topography of the grinding wheel is in an unfavourable working range as a result of abrasive wear.
On the surface of the grinding tool, material from the work piece welds. In this situation, it is also
necessary to condition or dress the grinding tool. Dressing must always be done in a controlled

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environment to provide a reproducible outcome. There is a distinction between "rotary" and Burning causes the ground surface to become discoloured in this sort of error, and subsequent
"stationary" dressing tools. The following are some of the stationary dressing tools: Plate dressers, grinding causes the ground surface to develop cracks with incredibly fine lines. Possible reasons
Disc wheel dressers, Single-grain dressers, Multi-grain dressers, Dressing sticks, and Diamond of this inaccuracy include: I excessive heat buildup during the grinding operation; (ii) blunt
dressing rollers and drum dressers are rotary dressing tools. grinding wheels; and (iii) blunt dressing tools. The following are some potential fixes: I lower
peripheral speed; (ii) speed up the workpiece; (iii) change dressing parameters; (iv) optimise
5.16 Cooling lubricant for grinding
cooling lubricant supply (e.g., nozzle); and (v) use a grinding wheel with a slightly coarser grade.
The cooling lubricant's job is to dissipate heat in order to lower process temperatures. The grinding
5.18.2 Surface irregular and uneven
wheel's surface is also cleaned and freed of any clinging chips at the same time. The two main
categories of cooling lubricants are emulsions and grinding oils, respectively. Errors of this kind are caused by irregular surfaces and fluctuations in dimensions and evenness.
It could be caused by I an inaccurate machine and (ii) dirt in the coolant and the clamping region
5.16.1 Grinding oils
for the work piece. The following are some potential fixes: I inspect the machine and make any
Even after very good lubrication, it is frequently discovered that they have subpar cooling necessary adjustments (ii) reduce the grinding depth (iii) dress more frequently (iv) adjust the
abilities. Grinding oil is typically utilised in these circumstances with materials that are less wheel to be a little softer and more open.
sensitive to heating up. Emulsions are made up of 94–98% water and 2–6% oil. Ultra-fine oil
5.18.3 Wheel wear too great / loss of profile
particles are spread throughout the water. Emulsions have a limited ability to lubricate but very
good cooling qualities. They are consequently mostly employed when cutting materials that are This type of error occurs when the grinding wheel loses too much contour and profile, which
susceptible to heat. The design of the process parameters is always based on the cooling lubricant affects the work piece's dimensions and profile. It could be caused by a grinding wheel that is too
being utilised. The process parameters completely change when switching from oil to emulsion soft. The following are potential remedies: (i) Increase the observe maximum permissible working
and vice versa. In order to get the cooling lubricant into the chipping zone, the supply of the speed (ii) Choose a tougher wheel with a denser structure (pores) and a finer grade (iii) Reduce
lubricant is crucial. The nozzle should be pointed tangentially toward the surface, and the outlet feeding speed and grinding depth.
speed of the cooling lubricant should be set to the grinding wheel's peripheral speed. This occurs
when the grinding wheel partially engulfs the cooling lubricant jet. A significantly worse cooling
effect is produced by cooling lubricant speeds that are either low or too high.

5.17 Manufacturing of grinding wheel

A grinding wheel is made using a skilled procedure, as shown in Fig. 5.22, which calls for raw
material grains, a bonding agent, and a wetting agents.

5.18 Common process errors

Grinding process mistakes cause surfaces to be of poor quality. There are three main type mistakes
as follows:

5.18.1 Burning and grinding cracks

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exchanger tubes conduct heat more effectively when they are slightly rough as opposed to well
finished. Surface roughness of some kind is best for clutch plates, brake drums, etc. The surface
irregularities must be small enough (smooth surface) so that they do not penetrate the oil film
under the harshest operating circumstances, yet, if a film of lubrication must be maintained
between two moving parts.

Such examples include seal surfaces, machine ways, helical and worm gears, bushings, cylinder
bores, piston pins, and bushings. To ensure quiet operations, gears also need smooth surfaces.
Sharp irregularities operate as stress raisers for components that experience load reversals, making
them the biggest potential source of fatigue cracks. Because of this, exceptionally smooth finishes
are applied to the surfaces of components that are subjected to significant stresses and load
reversals.

Figure 5.23: Profile of surface irregularities

5.19.1 Evaluation of surface roughness

The B.I.S. (Bureau of Indian Standards) classifies it as Ra after calculating its Center Line
Figure 5.22: Process diagram showing manufacturing of a grinding wheel Average (CLA) or Arithmetic Average (AA). The average value of the ordinates from the centre
line (the centre line AB is positioned such that the sum of the areas above the line is equal to the
5.19 Introduction to finishing processes
sum of the areas below the line) is referred to as the arithmetic average or the centre line average.
Whatever the manufacturing technique, it is impossible to produce a surface that is completely The algebraic sign of the ordinates is not taken into account, so,
flat and smooth. The machine parts or components still have surface flaws from the manufacturing
1
process. The outside border of a part is its surface, and the surface irregularities are the 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐶𝐿𝐴 = 𝑅𝑎 = ‖𝑦(𝑥)‖𝑑𝑥
𝐿
innumerable tiny valleys and wedges that depart from the surface's hypothetical nominal surface
(Fig. 5.23, shows a surface on a highly magnified scale). Where L is Roughness width cutoff or the sampling length. This is the maximum width of surface
irregularities that is included in the measurement of roughness height.
The appearance of a surface and its suitability for a component's intended application are greatly
∑ | |
influenced by these imperfections. The phrases surface finish, surface roughness, surface texture, Approximately, Ra= , where n = number of vertical ordinates
or surface quality are typically used to describe these surface abnormalities. The surfaces of heat

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i.e. Ra =
⋯.
=
⋯…
=
∑ 5.20 Finishing by grinding

Diamond turning, grinding, Honing, Lapping, Super finishing etc. are various methods used for
finishing the surfaces of a parts.

5.20.1 Diamond turning and boring

Light alloys, bronzes, and tin alloys with metal are frequently turned or bored using diamond tools
with geometric controls of approximately 0.0125 mm or below and with surface roughness
measurements of between 0.075 and 0.125 m when the application calls for it (AA). Fine finishing
using diamond tools is largely limited to materials that cut cleanly with a distinct chip and don't
include any hard or abrasive particles that would chip or harm the stone. The cutting edge is
Figure 5.24: Surface roughness quickly lost to materials that come away as an abrasive powder, which increases the cost and
unpredictability of using diamond tools. The equipment used for precision turning and drilling
must clearly be in excellent condition, with all ways, guides, bearings, and spindles operating
5.19.2 Units of surface roughness
flawlessly with the least amount of clearance and no vibration.
Microns or micrometres are used to quantify surface roughness or finish; 1 micron is equal to 10-
3 mm or 10-6 metres. The traditional metal machining techniques used in secondary manufacturing 5.20.2 Grinding

are all finishing operations. Table 5.3 lists the variety of surface finishes that can be created using
The most common method of finishing steel is grinding, but it takes a high level of competence
these techniques for typical applications. Other surface finishing techniques, like lapping, honing,
to repeatedly produce a limited grade of surface finish to precise geometric tolerances. Finishes
buffing, and super finishing, are used to provide higher surface finishes. This chapter will cover
in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 m (AA) are frequently produced in operations involving the production
these procedures. Table 5.3 lists the usual surface finish ranges that can be obtained using these
of hardened components with tolerances of between 0.05 mm and 0.025 mm, but it should be
techniques.
noted that producing finishes finer than the aforementioned values significantly increases the risk

Table 5.3: Typical range of surface finish, Ra value in µm of surface burning and cracking. The machinery used for fine gridding needs to be in excellent
condition, with all ways and guides straight and true, and special care needs to be given to wheel
balancing.

The preparation of the wheel surface is crucial. It has been discovered that the cleanliness of the
coolant has a direct impact on the quality of the surface created, hence it is crucial to have an
adequate flow of chip- and granule-free coolant. The material being cut and the desired finish will
influence the choice of wheel grit, speeds, and coolants. Although grinding is practical and
reasonably cost-effective for generating fine surfaces, it has a number of drawbacks.

An unavoidable side effect of grinding is the formation of an incredibly thin layer of decarburized
material due to the high temperature created at the work and wheel contact line. This material has
a significant impact on the initial effectiveness of a surface as a bearing and must frequently be

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removed before truly satisfactory bearing conditions are attained. High temperatures also cause Parts can be produced by commercial lap operations with a maximum tolerance of 0.000625 mm.
the surface to burn and can cause grinding cracks to emerge that are large enough to reduce a Because it removes metal so slowly, it is only used to remove scuff marks from honing or
component's fatigue strength. On cylindrical components that have been ground, especially those grinding, or to create extremely flat or smooth surfaces for gauge blocks or liquid-tight seals in
that have been centerless ground, chatter is also noticeable. applications involving high pressures. It is possible to lap materials of practically any hardness.
However, as the abrasives have a propensity to become entrenched, lapping soft materials is
5.20.3 Lapping
challenging. Thus, lapping is done to (i) to produce geometrically true surface (ii) to correct minor
Lapping is a surface-finishing technique used on cylinder-shaped or flat surfaces (mainly imperfections is shape (iii) to obtain fine dimensional accuracy to provide a very close fit between
external). Lapping is the process of abrading a surface using a lap that is charged with tiny abrasive the contact surfaces and (iv) to secure a fine surface finish.
particles and is made of a softer substance than the surface being lapped. The fine abrasive
Lapping may be done by hand or mechanically with the help of special lapping machines by the
particles become buried in the softer lap when they are pushed against each other between the lap
following methods.
and the work surface. After that, it serves as a holder for the tough abrasive. The hard particles on
the surface of the charged lap remove minute amounts of materials from the harder surface when [Link] Hand lapping for flat work
it is rubbed against it. Because the abrasive particles embed themselves in the surface of the soft
The lap in this instance is flat, like a surface plate. In order to gather extraneous abrasive and
lap rather than moving over it, it is the abrasive that actually cuts and the soft lap is not worn
chips, grooves are typically carved over the surface of a lap. With one hand holding either the lap
away. When lapping, the abrasive is typically transported in a vehicle between the lap and the
or the workpiece while the other performs an erratic rotational motion, the two surfaces in contact
work.
can be abraded to complete the work surface. The work is often turned in order to achieve
The cutting action is somewhat controlled by the vehicle or lubrication, which also prevents homogeneous cutting activity. Press work dies, dies and metallic moulds for castings, surface
scoring the work and abrasive caking. Kerosene combined with a tiny amount of machine oil, plates, engine valves and valve seats, gauge blocks, and piston rings, among other items, are
greases, fine sperm oil for fine work, olive oil, lard oil, spindle oil, and soapy water are a few of lapped using this technique. By hand lapping, piston rings are often produced parallel and with
the vehicles used. The laps are cleaned with naphtha. Almost any substance that is soft enough to extreme precision. The final level of dimensional accuracy and parallelism for gauge blocks, with
hold the abrasive grains in place can be used to create laps. They could be made of wood, leather, a finish of 0.025 to 0.050 m and a tolerance of 0.000025mm, is achieved by manual lapping.
soft steel, brass, copper, lead, or soft cast iron. Cast iron with fine grain is the most typical lap.
[Link] Hand lapping for external cylindrical work (ring lapping)
Copper is a common material for lapping diamonds and is used rather frequently. Cloth laps are
used to lap hardened metals for metrolographic inspection. Fig. 5.25 depicts an exterior lap for external workpieces (round). It has a saw-cut split in it, and
one or more screws can be tightened to close it up. The hole is naturally bored before the saw cut
Artificial corrundum is used as an abrasive for preliminary lapping and once more in a finished
is performed, and its diameter is the same as that of the piece to be lapped. Expanding internal
state for finishing on steel surfaces. Cast iron and alumina both respond well to silicon carbide
laps are designed. Over the surface of the work piece, the ring lap is repeated. The technique is
when used for fine lapping. Diamond dust or boron carbide with the smallest grain sizes work
typically applied to gauges that are produced in limited quantities or with stepped plugs.
well for lapping tiny components. Other abrasives used include crocus powder, green rough
(chromium oxide Cr2O3), and rough (ferric oxide, Fe 2O3). From 120 grit to the smallest powdered [Link] Machine lapping
grains, the abrasive particles range in size. A paraffin lubricant is employed in almost all
Mechanical lapping is a high production technique that, for example, removes 0.05 to 0.075 mm
circumstances. The use of soluble oil or water lubricants while working with soft materials is the
of material from gudgeon pins that are 25 mm in diameter and 75 mm in length, with an accuracy
exception. The average amount of material removed during lapping is less than 0.025 mm, while
limit of roundness, straightness, and size within 0.025 mm. The work holder is positioned on the
harsh lapping can remove as little as 0.0025 mm of material.
lower table of mechanical lappers, which are vertically constructed and oscillate. While the lower

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lap rotates at around 60 rev/min, the upper lap is still and floating. For lapping rounded surfaces, spindles, roller bearings, taper rollers, worm and worm gears, crankshafts, camshafts, ball bearing
additional types of lapping machines are available. Small parts like ball bearing races, piston pins, raceways, etc.
and other components are created to be lapped using a particular kind of centerless lapping
When considering the lapping process's specialty, it has developed into a typical manufacturing
machine. Fig. 5.26 depicts a general-purpose machine for lapping both cylindrical and flat
method due to the necessity for hardened surfaces with only a few micrometres of surface finish.
surfaces.
However, because it removes metal at such a slow rate, it is unavoidably expensive and is not
Between the top and lower laps, a number of workpieces with previously flattened surfaces are economically viable unless working conditions make such surface finishes absolutely necessary.
positioned. The axes X-X of the workpieces are positioned in slots in a work holder so that they Lapping and polishing are different in that polishing is intended to produce a shining surface, but
are not perfectly radial. The workpieces' shape will determine the slots' shape. The work holder a lapped surface typically lacks a visibly dazzling sheen. Lapping obviously eliminates metal from
is described as oscillating with an amplitude of approximately 25 mm while the two laps are the surface it is applied to, although polishing typically does not remove much metal. Lapping, as
rotated. Workpieces are gradually lapped to size by feeding a stream of vehicle into the centre of opposed to polishing, enhances the body's geometrical contour. While polishing entails creating
the laps and letting it flow outward while carrying fine abrasive flour suspended in it. A pressure a sort of plastic flow of the surface crystals so that the high places are made to cover the low spots,
of 0.007 to 0.02 N/mm2 for soft materials and up to 0.07 N/mm2 for tougher materials is sufficient lapping is really a cutting procedure. Lapping is typically used for exterior surfaces, as stated
for machine lapping. Lapping can be done with mechanical lapping machines: (i) External above. But it can also be applied to inside surfaces.
cylindrical surfaces, and (ii) Flat surfaces.
5.20.4 Honing

A method of abrading or grinding is honing. There is very little material removed from it. This
procedure is generally used to eliminate tool or grinding marks that have been left on the surface
from earlier operations. Abrasive sticks (made of silicon carbide or aluminium oxide) set on a
mandrel or fixture provide the cutting action. There is a floating action between the tool and the
job, causing any pressure applied to the tool to be applied and transferred equally on all sides.
Honing rates range from 15 to 60 mpm as a result of giving the honing tool a slow reciprocating

Figure 5.25: External lap motion while it turns. By quickly removing the stock, this motion also creates a surface that is
straight and round.

Figure 5.26: Machine lapping

Lapping is used to manufacture a variety of components, including: aircraft piston pins,

automotive wrist pins, diesel engine injector-pump parts and spray nozzles, plug gauges, specific
dies and moulds, gauge blocks, refrigerator-compressor parts, oil-burner parts, micro-meter
Figure 5.27: Vertical spindle Honing Machine

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This procedure can fix flaws left behind from earlier operations such a tiny eccentricity, a wavy while the workpiece is kept in place on the left. These machines can produce hone holes up to 1
surface, or a tiny taper. Only 0.025 mm or less of material is removed while honing parts for the m in diameter and have stroke lengths of up to 22.5 m.
finish. However, values up to 0.50 mm reflect standard procedure when certain mistakes need to
A clean finish with a distinctive cross hatch appearance results from all honing. The use of
be addressed. To maintain temperatures consistent and flush out tiny chips, coolants are crucial
different pressures, speeds, and types of abrasives can alter the depth of these hone marks. The
to the operation of this process. Most often, lard oil blended with kerosene or sulphurized mineral
use of automatic size-controlled tools in conjunction with honing can preserve precise dimensions.
base is utilised. Additionally, paraffin is employed. The majority of honing is done on interior
Honing is frequently used to finish rifle barrels, ring gauges, piston pins, and automotive engine
surfaces or holes, such those in car cylinders. External surfaces can be honed in a few different
cylinders, flange faces and shafts. For primary honing and secondary honing, abrasive sticks are
ways. The surface must be cylindrical, but the parts might be of any shape. It is possible to hone
made of material with a grit size of 80 to 180 and 300 to 500, respectively. Honing can produce a
almost any material. Due to the application of bonded abrasive, soft materials that cannot be
surface polish on the order of 0.05 µm R.
lapped can be honed. You can hone cast iron, both hard and soft, steel, carbides, bronze,
aluminium, brass, and silver, as well as glass, ceramics, and some plastics.

In general design, honing machines resemble vertical drilling machines. Fig. 5.27, however
typically hydraulic means are used to reciprocate the spindle. A hydraulic motor or gearing may
be responsible for the rotating motion. The work finish is influenced by the speed ratio of two
motions, which can vary throughout the process or for various materials. For cast iron, the
rotational and reciprocating speeds vary from 60 to 150 mpm and 15 to 21 mpm, respectively. For
steel, the equivalent rotational and reciprocating speeds are 45 to 60 mpm and 12 mpm,
respectively. The sticks' whole length is worn evenly by the reciprocating motion, which also
keeps the bore cylindrical. Automobile cylinder bore finishing is done using vertical-type semi- Figure 5.28: Vertical Honing Machine

automatic honing equipment. For this operation, both single- and multi-spindle machines are 5.20.5 Buffing
employed. The honing tool has the abrasive stones installed on it. The conical wedge is adjusted
A rotating cloth buffing wheel that is often loaded with a very fine abrasive is used to buff the
in relation to the honing tool in order to stretch the abrasive stones outward to fit the hole that
workpiece as part of the polishing process. Fig. 5.29. When a polishing medium like "rouge" is
needs to be polished.
employed, the cloth buffing wheel turns into a carrying vehicle for the fine abrasives, which is
Fig. 5.28 depicts the general layout of a vertical honing machine. If honing is necessary, the very similar to the polishing process in lapping. The abrasive removes some metal from the
abrasive sticks (up to 8 in number) are enlarged using micrometer-controlled mechanical or workpiece during this motion, erasing the scratch lines and creating an extremely smooth surface.
hydraulic methods. The honing tool or fixture must be free to float since it will follow the axis of There is some indication that a small amount of metal flow may occur when softer metals are
the original hole. To do this, universal joints are used, as seen in the picture. As a result, it is no polished, especially without the use of an abrasive, which helps to eliminate the high spots and
longer essential to properly align the hole and sharpen the axes since the honing tool becomes provide a high polish.
self-centring. Up to 500 mm diameter work can be done on vertical machines.

Large, long gun barrels and related tasks are the only things that are honed using horizontal honing
machines. The tool is rotated and reciprocated by the head on the machine's right end of the bed

Figure 5.29: Buffing

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Fabric discs such as linen, cotton, broadcloth, and canvas are used to make buffing wheels. The
quantity of stitches used to bind the layers of material together determines how solid they are.
There may be no stitching on buffing wheels used for very gentle polishing or for polishing into
interior corners since the centrifugal force created by the wheel's spin will hold the layers of cloth
in place. The speeds of buffing wheels range from 32.5 to 40 m/s. There are numerous varieties
of buffing rouges. The majority of them contain a soft form of binder and predominantly ferric
oxide.

Only extremely small scratches, oxide, or other similar coatings that may be present on the work Figure 5.30: Barrel tumbling

surface should be removed with buffing. Usually, the job is done by hand while being held against
A cheap cleaning technique is tumbling. Slug materials can come in a variety of forms. Since
the rotating wheel. Because of the cost of labour, this operation is likely to be somewhat
forms must be provided that will reach into all areas and corners that need to be cleaned, multiple
expensive. There are semi-automatic buffing machines on the market that feature a number of
shapes may be combined in one load. Although it occasionally happens, tumbling is typically
independently operated buffing wheels that can be positioned to buff various areas of the
done dry. Any one of the following uses for tumbling is possible: Deburring, cleaning, improving
workpiece. The workpieces are secured in fixtures and moved past the buffing wheels on a
micrometre finish, finishing high precision work to a high shine, finishing gears and threaded
spinning circular worktable. Such equipment can produce extremely excellent results and
parts without causing damage, finishing parts free of fins, flashes, and scales, and removing paint
inexpensive buffing costs if the workpieces are not too complex in shape.
or plating are all examples of deburring. To avoid corrosion, the parts must be properly cleaned
The following goods are examples of products that use the buffing technique to produce a mirror- after tumbling, dried using sawdust or infrared lamps, and then oiled.
like finish: items used on mobile homes, cars, motorcycles, boats, bicycles, sporting equipment,
5.20.7 Barrel rolling
tools, retail fixtures, business and residential hardware, and domestic utensils and appliances.
Similar to tumbling, barrel rolling uses an appropriate cutting abrasive to reduce the surfaces
5.20.6 Barrel tumbling
rather than cleaning them (Fig. 5.31). The barrel is only around 40 to 60% full while barrel rolling.
The procedure of barrel tumbling involves rotating a workpiece in a barrel with abrasive and water Either open slanted barrels or small horizontal barrels are used for rolling.
in order to produce a high shine or to remove burrs. A standard tumbling barrel has eight sides, is
coated with wood, measures 1.2 metres in diameter and 1.8 metres long. It spins at roughly 24
rpm. There could be one to six sections in the barrel. Depending on the task, the time commitment
could range from 1 to 4 hours. The barrel or drum is almost completely filled with parts before
being loaded with slugs, stars, jacks, or other abrasives like sand, granite chips, or aluminium
oxide pallets. After that, the barrel is turned. A fine cutting motion is produced by the movement
of the components as they roll and tumble over one another and the associated impingement of
the slug or abrasive against the pieces, as shown in Fig. 5.30. Delicate pieces must not move about
Figure 5.31: Barrel rolling
during tumbling, and in some circumstances, they must be fastened to racks inside the barrel to
prevent them from colliding. The barrel is filled with the workpieces, abrasive, water, or diluted acid solutions so that as the
barrel rotates, the mass will be carried about 3/4 of the way up the side before rolling over and
falling to the bottom. Slag, cinders, sharp sand, granite chips, broken glass chips, and

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carborundum are the most often used abrasives. The abrasives range in size from roughly 5 mm Automobile cylinders, brake drums, sewing machine parts, computer memory drums, bearings,
to 25 mm and vary in shape from round to triangular. Since no cutting action will take place unless piston rods and pins, axles, shafts, clutch plates, tappet bodies, guide pins, and automotive brake
the abrasive's sharp edges travel over the surfaces to be polished, the rolling action needs to be drums are few examples of products that use super-finishing.
such that there is relative motion between the work and the abrasive particles.
5.21.1 Burnishing
Rolling is typically done while wet because it produces a faster cutting action. However, dry
By rubbing and contacting the surface of a hard tool (such as a punch and/or die, rollers, or balls),
rolling is also used to polish small parts, typically using an abrasive and sawdust mixture. A
the burnishing procedure produces a smooth and shining surface. It is a procedure of strengthening
variety of finishes can be achieved by employing the right abrasive. For non-ferrous items, rolling
and finishing. In essence, burnishing is a sort of cold surface plastic deformation. Cold working
takes 10 minutes; for steel, it takes 2 or 3 hours. It is easy and very cost-effective because it is
surfaces increases surface polish and creates surface compressive residual stresses, which extends
typically done in batches. Although the finished surface is very consistent, rolling must first be
component fatigue life.
used to remove deep scratches.
Figure 5.33 depicts the sizing operation using a punch or mandrel and a die to burnish the bush's
inside and outside surfaces. The bush's internal surface is burnished when the mandrel is driven
through it, and the bush's exterior surface is polished when the bush is forced through the die.
Burnishing also enhances the surface polish of the gear's two components. The tooth surfaces are
subjected to a surface rolling action by means of a specific hardened gear-shaped burnishing die.
With this technique, burnishing gear that has been precisely shaped and hardened rolls the gear
under pressure. Any high spots on the tooth surface are plastically bent during this cold working
procedure to provide an exact and final tooth profile. The two key burnishing techniques are now
Figure 5.32: Supper finishing explained in the following sections.

5.21 Super-finishing processes [Link] Barrel burnishing

A regulated surface condition on items is produced by the micro finishing technique known as Barrell burnishing frequently yields results that are almost identical to those attained by buffing.
"super-finishing," which is not possible with any other technique. Scrubbing a stone against a Similar to barrel rolling, but with medium balls, shots, or round pins placed to the work in the
surface to generate a fine quality metal finish is an activity known as "microstoning." The barrel instead of an abrasive medium. Burnishing does not involve cutting. As opposed to this,
procedure entails cleaning chatter marks, broken, or smear metal from a dimensionally finished the slug material produces peening and rubbing action on the rough work surface, dispersing the
part's surface. Some manufacturing applications allow for the efficient removal of up to 0.03 to tiny surface irregularities to an even surface. Burnishing will typically provide a smooth, uniform
0.05 mm of stock, although the procedure is most cost-effective when the metal removal is kept surface and reduce the porosity in surfaces that are to be or have been plated, but it won't typically
to less than 0.005 mm. remove obvious scratches or pits. Typically, parts that will be barrel burnished first need to be
rolled with a fine abrasive. Typically, barrel burnishing is done wet with water that has cleaning
The technique involves pushing a soft-bonded fine grit stone against a rotating round workpiece
or lubricating chemicals like soap added. No more than half of the barrel should be filled with
while rapidly reciprocating it, as shown in Fig. 5.32. The stone swiftly ages and takes on the shape
work and shot. There should be around two volumes of shots to one volume of components since
of the workpiece. A cutting fluid is flooded onto the workpiece and tool to remove heat, metal
the rubbing action between the work and the shot material is crucial.
shavings, and abrasives. In about 15 to 50 seconds, parts can be super-finished to a smoothness
of 0.075 um. However, it can take two or three minutes longer to achieve a superior finish.

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It is important that the ratio prevent the workpieces from rubbing against one another. To prevent 5.21.2 Powder coating
the workpieces from being thrown out of the mass as they reach the top position and roll down
In powder coating, the surface to be coated is covered with an appropriate plastic formulation in
the sloped surface, the barrel's rotational speed should be regulated. To ensure that the material
the form of finely ground powder. The surface is then heated after that. The powder undergoes a
can contact inside corners and other recesses that need to be rubbed, it is typically required to
plasticization process that enables it to flow and bond into a continuous, uniform coating. For
employ a variety of sizes and forms of shot material. Commonly used objects include balls with
coating, both thermo-setting and thermo-plastic resins are utilised. Other plastics used include
a diameter of 3 mm to 6 mm, pins, jacks, and ball cones. By attaching them in racks inside the
nylon, PVC, and thermo-plastic polyester in addition to the aforementioned thermo-plastic resins.
barrel, parts that cannot be permitted to brush against one another can be polished satisfactorily.
The thermo-setting resins category comprises acrylic, polyester, and epoxy. Thermo-plastic resins
After that, the shot material is added, and burnishing is done as usual. Barrell burnishing is
enable the creation of thicker coatings. The major applications for thermo-setting resins are thin
affordable and creates surfaces suited for further painting or plating when the right conditions
paint-like surface coats. For epoxy resin, the baking temperature should be between 120°C and
have been met.
135°C, and the baking period should be between 20 and 30 minutes. Both for this film's
ornamental coating and for thick coating (functional end applications), it is used. "Fluidized bed"
technology is employed for thermo-plastic resins. Here, a heated component is submerged in a
bed of fhuidized powder. The temperature of the heated component and the length of time it
spends submerged in the powder bed will determine the coating's thickness.

The "Electrostatic fluidized bed" process is another frequently used coating technique. Above the
powder bed, a cloud of charged powder particles is produced. The cloud has a covering over the
elements (hot or cold). Powder is deposited on the components' surface as a result of an electrical
field of attraction that forms between the powder particles and the components. Epoxy, polyester,
acrylic, polyethylene, and polypropylene are some of the resins utilised in this process.
"Electrostatic spraying" is the technique for powder coating that is most frequently utilised. A
Figure 5.33: Roller burnishing powder feed unit, powder sprayers, a spray booth, an electrostatic voltage source, and a powder

[Link] Roller/ ball burnishing recovery unit are among the equipment.

Figure 5.33 shows how to burnish flat, cylindrical, or conical surfaces (internally or externally) 5.21.3 Polishing
using hardened steel or cemented carbide rollers or steel balls set in a holder. By using rollers
A part is polished to provide a smooth and shiny surface finish. An abrasive (Al 2O3 or diamond)
with a radius edge, fillets and grooves are burnished (Fig. 5.33(c)). The burnishing pressure should
paste is applied on soft/resilient polishing wheels made of felt, cloth, wood, or coarse calico, etc.,
be raised when strengthening is the treatment's goal. The machining accuracy is, however, a little
and these wheels are used to polish surfaces. The method is based on the concurrent activity of
less due to this circumstance. Multi roller tools are used to burnish holes on drill presses, automatic
the instrument (polishing wheel) and the pastes' surface-active ingredients. Surface roughness is
lathes, turret lathes, horizontal borers, unit constructed machines, and lathes. The surface becomes
decreased to 0.032-0.012 m Ra. Polishing, unlike lapping, does not increase machining accuracy.
20 to 50% harder and 1.5 to 2 times more resistant to wear after burnishing. Ballizing, also known
as "ball burnishing," is the practise of using balls to polish internal surfaces. In order to push There are three types of polishing operations: roughing, dry fining, and finishing. Dry wheels are
smooth balls or mandrels through the length of the hole, they must be somewhat larger than the used for roughing and dry fining processes, with the abrasive grain sizes being 20 to 80 for
bore diameter (see Fig. 5.33(d)). Hydraulic system components, seals, valves, spindles, and shaft roughing and 90 to 120 for dry fining. In finish polishing, the grain size is fine (150), and pastes
fillets are a few examples of products that commonly use roller burnishing (Fig. 5.33 (d)).

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are made from oil, tallow, or beeswax. It produces a lovely finish. It is challenging to polish parts often employed as the cathode in an electrolytic bath during the plating process. Acidic or alkaline
with irregular shapes, pointed corners, deep depths, and sharp projections. plating solutions may also contain complexing agents like cyanides.

5.22 Electroplating Let's use an illustration of a copper plating to help you comprehend the idea more clearly (Fig.
5.35). In this case, metallic jewelry is to have a layer of copper electrodeposited on it to improve
The process of electroplating (Fig. 5.34) involves running an electric current through a solution
its beauty. Typically, the copper plating is attached to the circuit's anode (the electrode that is
to deposit a desired metallic coating over a surface (or substance). A chemical mixture containing
positively charged), while the jewelry is kept at the cathode (-ve charged electrode). Both are
the metal's ionic form, an anode (positively charged), which may be the metal itself (a soluble
maintained submerged in an advanced electrolytic bat (solution). At this point, the copper ions
anode) or an insoluble anode (typically carbon, platinum, titanium, lead, or steel), and finally a
are oxidized and dissolved into the solution by the anode receiving a DC current.
cathode (negatively charged), where electrons are supplied to create a film of non-ionic metal.

An important industrial process known as electroplating is used to restore worn-out parts or

improperly machined components as well as to impart functional properties like corrosion
resistance, wear and abrasion resistance, tarnish resistance, heat resistance, electrical conductivity,
bearing surface, and solderability. It is a very popular technology with a wide range of
applications. The coating could be made of a single metal, an alloy, or even a metal-polymer or
metal-ceramic composite.

Figure 5.35: Electroplating of copper

Copper dissolved ions are reduced at the cathode and applied to the jewelry as plating. However,
a number of important elements affect the final plating. These comprise: the voltage and current
levels, the bath's temperature and chemical makeup, the distance between the cathode and the
anode and the duration of the current. A single metal or a mix of metals can be electroplated onto
an object. To increase strength and conductivity, many manufacturers prefer to layer metals, such
as copper and nickel. Brass, Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Gold, Iron, Nickel, Silver, Titanium,
and Zinc are materials that are frequently used in electroplating. Nearly any material, including
plastic, stainless steel, and other metals, can be used to create substrates. Both soft fabric ribbons
Figure 5.34: Electroplating process and organic objects like flowers have been electroplated by artists. It's crucial to remember that
before being electroplated, non-conductive substrates like plastic, wood, or glass must first be
Electroplating is the electrochemical technique of depositing a thin protective layer, often
converted into conductivity. A layer of conductive paint or spray can be applied to a non-
metallic, onto a prepared metal surface. Pee-treatment (cleaning, degreasing, and other
conductive substrate to achieve this.
preparation processes), plating, rinsing, passivating, and drying are all steps in the procedure.
Depending on the metal surface to be plated, the cleaning and preparation processes employ a In terms of applications of electroplating, besides improving the substrate's aesthetics, there are
variety of solvents (typically chlorinated hydrocarbons, whose use is forbidden), surfaces tripping many more uses for it. The primary use is to maximise a material's corrosion resistance. The fact
agents, including caustic soda, and a range of strong acids. Since there are water-based solutions that the plated layer frequently acts as a sacrificial coating shows that it degrades before the basic
available, it is not essential to degrease with halogenated hydrocarbons. The item to be plated is material The following are some additional frequent uses of electroplating: (i) Increasing wear

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resistance; (ii) Increasing metal surface thickness; (iii) Increasing electrical conductivity, such as 5.22.3 Types of metals for plating
by plating a copper layer on an electrical component; (iv) Reducing Friction; and (v) Improving
Some of the common metals that can be electroplated with their benefits and limitations are listed
surface uniformity. Therefore, electroplating is a procedure that is added on to assist an item or
in Table 5.4.
accessory last longer. Although the object is coated to shield it from dirt or the elements,
electroplating various objects has a variety of other purposes as well. Here are only a few of them
Table 5.4: Common metals for electroplating
such as: to reduce friction, increase electrical conductivity, protect against radiation, improve
aesthetics, and prevent corrosion. Thus, electroplating has advantages and disadvantages of its Copper coatings are both excellent electrical conductors and highly
Copper plating
own. aesthetically pleasing. Hardness can range between 90 HV and more than
200 HV depending on the additives. A copper layer is frequently coated by
5.22.1 Benefits of electroplating another metallic layer in functional applications.
Excellent heat and electrical conductivity can be found in copper layers. By
Advantages,
Numerous advantages of electroplating include improved strength, longevity, and conductivity of
altering the deposition circumstances, an extremely broad range of
disadvantages
parts. These advantages are utilised by engineers, producers, and artists in various ways.
characteristics can be obtained. Copper plating is a crucial stage in the
& Limitations
Electroplating is a common technique used by engineers to improve the durability and strength of
creation of printed circuit boards and is easily accomplished on a wide
various designs. Different parts can have their tensile strength increased by having metal coatings
variety of metals and polymers. A metallic or organic top layer is required
like copper and nickel applied to them. For outdoor or corrosive applications, one can cover parts
because copper can tarnish in the presence of air or when touched.
with a metallic skin to increase their resilience to external conditions including chemical exposure
Nickel layers are resistant to corrosion and wear in addition to being
Nickel plating
and UV light. Electroplating is frequently used by artists to maintain the natural. An efficient
attractive. The deposit can have hardness values between 150 and 500 HV,
method for adding decorative metal finishes to consumer goods, sculptures, figurines, and works
depending of the organic additives. The internal stress and ductility of the
of art is electroplating. Electroplating can be used to improve performance on electrical parts,
metal layer might vary. Bright nickel is frequently covered with a top layer
antennas, and other items.
made of chrome or gold since it tarnishes fast and appears yellowish in the
sunlight.
5.22.2 Limitations of electroplating
Ornamental layer that looks nice, wear- and corrosion-resistant Applications
Advantages,
Although electroplating has many advantages, it is constrained by how difficult and dangerous
for different bath mixes can be very different. Widely applicable to a range
disadvantages
the process is. If suitable safeguards aren't taken, electroplating workers may become exposed to
of substrate materials, a suitable base layer for additional surface finishes,
& Limitations
hexavalent chromium. A properly ventilated office is crucial for employees. Self-electroplating
Use of a top layer is required due to the discoloration of nickel in air; for
resin parts is possible, however inexperienced users may encounter difficulties. The fundamental
electronics, a final gold coat may be required. Allergies to nickel may result
explanation is competence and quality. DIY electroplating techniques typically result in lesser
in cutaneous responses.
laminate adhesion strength than services provided by a professional plating company. It is very
Tin is very helpful in the production of many different electrical parts since
Tin plating
challenging to reliably do structural plating, which calls for lengthy plate duration, numerous
it has a high level of conductivity. It is also extensively employed in the
baths, and compatibility between metals.
food manufacturing sector.
Resistant to wear from adhesive and corrosion favourable solderability.
Advantages,
After tin is deposited, resistance welding is possible, solid electrical
disadvantages
characteristics, used with approval in the food industry (FDA-approved),
& Limitations

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Hydrogen embrittlement is susceptible to high-strength steel. Heat treatment 5.22.4 Inspection of electroplated parts
is required for some substrates to prevent brittleness, in certain
To ensure high plating quality, finished electroplating items are put through a series of testing.
circumstances, the tin layer may start to produce whiskers, which could lead
Typical examples of these tests include: (i) Adhesion: Using tape, bake, or twist (ii) Appearance:
to electrical contact short circuits.
both microscopic and visual (to the level of magnification contractually agreed on) Solderability
Due to their superior corrosion resistance, low electrical contact resistance,
Gold plating (iii) and Bondability (iv) For instance, ultrasonic wire bonding (v) Porosity: Techniques like nitric
and outstanding electrical and heat conductivity, gold layers have a wide
acid immersion or vaporisation, electrolysis, gas, and (vi) Thickness: Microsection or X-ray
range of technical uses. With the use of an intermediary copper or nickel
Fluorescence (XRF).
layer, gold coatings can be applied to a wide range of substrates, including
metals, polymers, ceramics, and natural materials (such as leather and 5.23 Hot dipping
wood).
The hot dipping method involves coating steel with a protective layer of zinc to boost steel's
Outstanding heat conductivity, good solderability, good chemical and
Advantages,
endurance, which is essential for shielding steel from all types of corrosion and called as
corrosion resistance, excellent electrical conductivity, High price, which
disadvantages
Galvanizing.
varies throughout the year, Unalloyed metal's malleability.
& Limitations
Silver is frequently utilised in electrical and electronic applications because 5.23.1 Galvanizing
Silver plating
of its excellent electrical conductivity.
The galvanization method involves coating steel with a protective layer of zinc which is essential
Excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, tarnishes easily in air under
Advantages,
for shielding steel from all types of corrosion. This is essentially the technique for galvanising
certain circumstances and when sulfur-containing compounds are present.
disadvantages
steel that is most frequently employed. The base metal in this case, steel, is immersed in a bath of
& Limitations
molten zinc during this operation. Since the procedure involves completely submerging steel in
Palladium works effectively for plating tasks when it's important to avoid
Palladium molten zinc, both the inside and the outside must be completely covered. As a result, the protection
oxide development. It is less expensive (per ounce troy) than gold and has a
plating is full even if the steel to be galvanised is hollow. Preparing the surface of the steel to be
higher melting point of 1554°C. Palladium is a superb gold alternative in
galvanised is the most crucial step in the hot dip galvanization process. The steel that will be hot-
the majority of ordinary electronics applications.
dip galvanised must be entirely clean in order for the molten zinc to develop a strong and full
Plating that is reasonably priced compared to other precious metals, It has a
Advantages, metallurgical bond with the steel, which is of the utmost importance. The steps that are stated
natural resistance to oxidation and is roughly as resistant to corrosion as
disadvantages below make up the entire procedure for cleaning and preparing the surface of steel.
gold. It is harder than gold while being regarded as a softer metal, which
& Limitations
helps it resist impact and denting. Palladium is a great coating for copper  Pickling. In this stage, hydrochloric acid at the proper temperature is used to remove scale
objects because it is diffusion-resistant; copper diffuses quickly through and rust off the steel's surface. This procedure is essential for removing scale and rust from
gold but not palladium. Excellent solderability, decrease in thermal the surface of the steel that will be hot-dip galvanised.
resistance; Due to its lower melting point than gold, palladium is more prone  Rinsing. Following the completion of the chemical cleaning procedure, the steel that will
to deformation in extremely hot conditions. not acid-resistant; Palladium be galvanised is thoroughly rinsed in water to minimise the transmission of acid residues
can only be employed in a limited number of applications due to its to the subsequent steps of [Link].
sensitivity to strong acids. More prone to breaking; due to its hardness,
palladium is more likely than gold to crack when put under stress.

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 Fluxing. Flexing is the final step in the preparation of the steel surface for the hot dip from one another since they each contain unique elements that should never be combined. A
galvanising process. Fluxing eliminates all oxides and prevents their further production, solvent solution that has been created for a particular substance with impurities is kept in the first
which is essential for promoting the strongest bond between the zinc coating and the steel. tank. This is used to clean the work piece's surface of any contaminants. A phosphoric solution,
also called the parkerizing solution, is included in the second tank. The solution is heated in this
After the entire process of steel's surface preparation is finished, it is immersed in a bath of molten
tank as well using a heating element, which operates at a constant high temperature. The only
zinc that is around 830o Fahrenheit in temperature and contains about 98 percent pure zinc.
component in the third tank that is rotating and flowing normally is clean water. In order to finish
Following the removal of the coated steel and thorough cooling, the hot-dip galvanised steel is
the procedure, the work item is cleaned of the parkerizing solution using this tank. The following
then suitably prepared for usage. Other coatings techniques that can be utilised to further enhance
is a thorough explanation of the parkerizing procedure:
the surface characteristics include:
1. First clean the surface of metallic parts that need to be coated through the parkerizing
5.23.2 Caustic cleaning
method. Cleaning is required to remove dirt, grease, oil and other contaminants from the
The stage of caustic cleaning is the first in the process of steel surface preparation. As implied by material surface. Usually this preparation process is done by using a soft brush which removes
the step's name, it entails using a hot alkali solution to remove a variety of organic impurities from all contaminants from the material surface.
the surface of the steel, including dirt, grease, and oil. Mechanical methods are used to remove all 2. The Parkerizing procedure begins with the work piece being submerged in hot water for
other undesirable substances like asphalt vinyl, epoxies, or welding slag. three to five minutes. The metallic components are then taken out of the hot water rinse and
dipped into the parkerizing solution. At a constant operating temperature of between 190 o F
5.23.3 Titanium nitride (TiN) coating
and 195o F, this is done for 3–10 minutes. By soaking once again for 5 to 10 minutes at a
This coating is friction-reducing, inert, and resistant to wear. Use it to extend tool life two to ten temperature set between 68o and 92o F, this procedure can be improved even more.
times or more over uncoated tools on cutting tools, punches, dies, and injection mould components. 3. Lean the parkerized components by completely cleaning them with a sharp brush and the
TiN coating is used by producers of medical devices to prevent galling between sliding parts, keep running water from a rinse tank, which also stops the parkerizing process on the surface. To
surgical instruments' edges sharp, and set their products apart from the competitors. Coating your allow extra solution to flow back into the tank once the part has been taken from it, it is left
equipment with titanium nitride is a fantastic place to start if you're serious about optimising your hanging on a rack above the tank. Remove it off the rack once this task is finished, inspect it,
production processes. Tool steels can simply have their TiN coating removed. This makes TiN a and then begin packing and storing it. Parkerizing has several distinct uses, some of them
perfect covering for processes involving pricey tooling, such injection moulding and shaping. are as follows:

5.23.4 Parkerising i. The parkerizing process, which adds additional protection against corrosion and
Parkerizing provides further corrosion protection for ferrous metals including wrought iron, cast normal wear and tear, is arguably best known for usage with guns products.
iron, steel, and alloy steel. Non-ferrous metals including copper, brass, aluminium, and plastic ii. It is also applied to car parts to prevent rust or corrosion on unfinished metal
products are not appropriate for this technique. By applying a surface coating, it can also be components.
utilised to increase the wear resistance of materials. This method is utilised in the business world iii. This kind of procedure is typically employed to safeguard ferrous metals, particularly
to increase surface roughness, corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and protection against dents those utilised in the production of military weapons.
and scratches. Other names for the procedure include "phosphating," "phosphatizing," iv. The Marine Corps extensively use the process of parkerizing to shield various pieces
"bonderizing," and "phosphate coating." of equipment from corrosion.
v. The process of parkerizing is frequently used to give sections of aircraft and
Three tanks make up the equipment utilised in the parkerizing procedure. They are totally distinct

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spacecraft improved resistance to wear and rust. more time components spend in the acidic solution, the thicker their aluminium oxide layer
becomes and the deeper their pores get. Anodized coatings have a thickness range of 8–16 µm or,
5.23.5 Anodizing
when hardcoated, up to 35–50 µm. It should be noted that anodizing uses the same general
An important process in producing aluminium CNC machined parts is anodizing. Anodizing is an principles as many other finishing techniques.
electrochemical technique that adds an oxide surface layer to a metal object to give it better
In actuality, one should proceed as follows: prepare the surface, Anodize, wash the components,
durability and a more appealing appearance. Although anodizing is most frequently done on
Colorize while sealing the pores. For instance, submerge the part in a solution of metallic salts to
aluminium, it is also possible to do it on titanium and magnesium substrates. Anodizing
give it a bronze or black finish. These interact with the surface to fill the pores with a chemical
guarantees that a part can withstand corrosion, long-term use wear and tear, and environmental
substance that is either black or bronze. It is known as electrolytic colouring.
abrasion while maintaining its aesthetic appeal. Similar to when you need heat treatment,
tempering, or electroplating, manufacturers frequently send components to third-party service
5.24 Dip colouring
providers who specialise in anodizing. Type I (Chromic Acid Anodize), Type II (Sulfuric Acid
Which fills the pores with a dye solution, might be used if someone wants a different colour. Place
Anodize), and Type III, often known as Hardcoat, are the three most popular methods of anodizing.
the component in warm DI water after dipping it in the dye to stop any additional reactions. Dip
Every method of anodizing has particular manufacturing requirements and is best for particular
colouring is the least resilient of the colouring techniques described here since the colour may
materials. Despite the unique benefits and downsides of each type, they all function largely in the
deteriorate over time if exposed to UV light. The tiny pores on the part's surface must then be
same way.
sealed in order to stop future corrosion and enhance performance. Anodized parts may feel tacky
An electrical component's positive terminal, also known as an anode, must be connected in order to the touch if the pores are not sealed. Additionally, dirt, pollutants, and stains can gather in open
to anodize a part, which must then be immersed in an acidic electrolyte bath solution. Chemical pores. These three methods are frequently used to close pores:
elements in this solution, including sodium phosphate, flood the bath with positive and negative
(i) Hot DI sealing. With this technique, you submerge the component in deionized water that has
ions. Apply the negative end of the circuit, or cathode, to a metal electrode in the bath once the
been heated to nearly boiling. Boehmite, or hydrated aluminum oxide, is created when the water
component has been immersed and fastened to a hanger so it won't move. When one send voltage
reacts with the component. Compared to aluminum oxide, boehmite fills the pores and takes up
through the circuit, the negative electrode attracts positive ions (cations) from the part, and the
more space. It is straightforward to standardise this procedure. It can, however, result in dye
aluminum part attracts negative O2 ions (anions) from the solution. When positive aluminum ions
bleed and colour leakage on dyed materials and has a significant energy cost.
leave the part’s surface, it becomes porous, reacting with the negative O2 ions to grow a layer of
aluminum oxide.
(ii) Mid-temperature sealing. This technique, which uses metal salts in solution like salts of
The steps in the anodizing process are as follows: I apply a positive charge to the part, making it nickel, magnesium, or cobalt to react with the surface and fill the pores, requires less energy
an anode; (ii) apply a negative charge to the metal plates, making them the cathode; (iii) immerse than heat sealing. This technique lessens sealing smut or surface mineral deposits and is
both in an acidic bath; (iv) apply voltage; (v) remove aluminium ions from the part, causing pores; preferable for coloured components. However, it's more challenging to control and challenging
(vi) attract oxygen ions to the part's surface; and (vii) the reaction creates to repeat with the same accuracy.

Time, Voltage, Electrolyte Composition, Current Density, Temperature, Anodizing Regime, and (iii) Cold or room temperature sealing. Cold sealing chemistries frequently use nickel-fluoride
Pre-treatment are the parameters and characteristics of the anodizing process. The following formulations that interact with the porous aluminum oxide layer to generate a sealed fluoro-
material attributes can be altered by anodizing after these parameters are set: hardness, colour, aluminate layer that is then deposited on the surface. The surface is etchered during this process
porosity, thickness, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility (e.g. for medical implants). The to improve performance and adherence.

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5.25 Metal spraying flame (90% efficiency for self-fluxing alloys). very quiet surroundings accelerates and cools
particles using compressed gases. Manual spraying is possible with a light spray pistol.
A procedure known as metal spraying or metallizing involves applying molten metal or softened
particles to a prepared surface (substrate) with spray equipment to improve its qualities (hardness,
5.25.2 Flame wire spraying
anti-corrosion, wear, dielectric, restoring dimensions etc.). The technique has a wide range of
In the common gas spraying technique known as "flame wire spraying," wires are successively
modifications. Additionally, it is applied on corroded machine parts, tools, and structural steel
fed into a gas flame, such as one made of oxy-acetylene or oxy-propane, where they melt and are
frames. In order to offer softer metals additional resistance to wear and strain, it is also used to
then sprayed with compressed air to create coatings.
hard-face them. Cobalt, nickel with a small quantity of chromium, and manganese chrome are
some of the common hard-facing compounds used in metal spraying.

In comparison to other coating methods like electroplating, physical and chemical vapour
deposition, thermal spraying can produce thick coatings (approximate thickness range is 20
micrometres to several millimetres, depending on the process and feedstock). Metals, alloys,
ceramics, polymers, and composites are among the coating materials that can be thermal sprayed.
There are many benefits to metal spraying, including higher tensile strength, altered electrical
characteristics, improved or worsened corrosion protection, improved or worsened friction,
improved wear resistance, and additional defence for materials that have been injured.

5.25.1 Flame powder spraying Figure 5.37: Flame wire spraying diagram

This type of spraying involves feeding a powder material into a spray cannon through a powder
The process's characteristics are as follows: (i) using tools that are portable and appropriate for
pump, where it melts and forms a coating after being heated in a high-temperature flame. There
on-site building (ii) base metals undergo little to no thermal deformation (iii) range of thickness
are primarily three ways to feed powder into spray guns: by connecting the powder pump directly
adjustment (0.1–10 micrometres) (iv) a large selection of materials and (v) high coating wear
to the sprayer, by utilising a separate powder pump, and by employing an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen).
resistance. Zinc, aluminium, carbon steel, stainless steel, and molybdenum are just a few of the
metals that can be used in this spraying process to create wires having a wide range in thickness,
from 0.1 to 10 micrometres.

5.25.3 Flame rod spraying

This technique uses an oxide ceramic rod as the coating material and operates on the same
principles as flame wire spraying. An oxy-acetylene flame is used to heat and melt the ceramic
rod, which is then finely split by compressed air and solidified to produce a coating on a base
metal. Since it makes use of ceramics, this technique is appropriate for spraying on corrosion
prevention or wear management, which increases heat resistance near hot places.
Figure 5.36: Flame powders spraying diagram
A wide range of materials, including metals, alloys, polymers, and ceramics, are available for use
in the process. Excellent adhesive strength is provided by materials with a long melting time in a

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Two or four times faster spraying is one of the characteristics of the method. It can produce fine
coatings. Less oxidation takes place in the process. It calls for finer particles. It can lead to spray
gun blockage. The process is ultrasonography done and it must be completed in a solitary and in
soundproof space.

5.25.5 Arc spraying

In this common form of electric spraying, two metal wires produce an electrical arc discharge,
melt, and are supplied at a rate that matches the melting velocity. The melted metals are then
Figure 5.38: Flame rod spraying successively moulded onto a base metal, creating a coating, after being finely separated by
compressed air. It performs far better than approaches that use flame spraying. A coating material
Only totally molten particles are sprayed when the method is used that provides superior particle has exceptional adherence to a base material because it can be totally melted at high temperatures.
binding and creates very cohesive coatings. The speed of powder spraying is three to four times However, only electrically conductive materials can be used as coatings.
faster for heat resistant compared to plasma spraying. However there are fewer options for
covering materials (limited to oxide ceramics).

5.25.4 High velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) flames spraying

This process creates coatings by applying a powerful spray impact caused by a faster spray rate.
It is separated into HVOF (High Velocity Oxy-Fuel), which uses a fuel and oxygen mixture, and
HVAF, which uses a fuel and air mixture, and uses the same fuel gas as flame spraying. It operates
on the premise that combustion takes place inside a tube. Through a nozzle, a combustible gas is
sprayed at a high rate of speed. A coating is created when powder is heated until it becomes molten
and then sprayed at a high rate of speed.
Figure 5.40: Arc spraying diagram

The Characteristics of the process are: (i) fast spraying (two to four times faster than flame
spraying) (ii) high adhesive strength and coating strength (iii) using different types of materials,
can form alloy coatings and (iv) low operating costs.

5.25.6 Detonation thermal spraying process

Essentially, the detonation gun is a long, water-cooled barrel with powder and gas inlet valves.
The barrel is fed with oxygen, fuel (acetylene is most common), and a charge of powder. The gas
mixture is ignited with a spark, and the ensuing detonation warms and accelerates the powder
down the barrel to supersonic speed. After each explosion, the barrel is purged with a pulse of
Figure 5.39: HVOF flame spraying diagram nitrogen. Many times every second, this process is repeated. When heated powder particles collide
with a substrate, their great kinetic energy causes an extremely dense and durable coating to form.

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typically carried out at room temperature. Both normal and increased temperatures can be used
for polymerization, which involves a polymer chain building mechanism. Heat is used to
accelerate polymerization. Production uses for radiation curing, which uses an electron beam to
quickly polymerize the coating, have been discovered.

5.26.1 Coating types and systems, coating composition

A carrier and a pigment make up the two main parts of an organic coating. The car is constantly
Figure 5.41: Schematic diagram of the detonation thermal spray process
present. It includes the substances necessary for the coating to change from a mobile liquid to a
5.25.7 Uses of metal spray coating solid film. Additionally, it serves as the pigment's transporter and suspending agent. The colouring
agents are pigments, which may or may not be present. Pigments also provide a number of other
These include wear resistance, dimensional restoration, corrosion resistance, thermal barriers,
crucial qualities.
abradables, abrasives media, dielectrics, conduction, RFI/EMI shielding, medical implants, and
undercoat for paints and powder coatings are just a few of the uses for metal spray coating.
Based on the types and combinations of vehicle and pigment employed in their composition,
organic coatings are frequently categorised into around a dozen major categories. They are
5.26 Organic coatings
dispersion coatings, emulsion coatings, latex coatings, varnishes, lacquers, enamels, and paints.
In general, organic coatings are additive-style finishes that are applied to practically all kinds of
However, due to the intricacy of contemporary formulations, it might be challenging to distinguish
materials. These can be two or more layers thick or monolithic, consisting of just one layer or
between the many varieties. Organic finish systems often consist of multiple layers or coats, and
coat. Coating systems' overall thickness varies greatly. Some are thinner than 1 mil. Others may
these layers are frequently divided into three categories: primers, intermediate coats, and finish
reach a thickness of 10 or 15 mils. More than 10 mil thick coatings are typically referred to as
coats.
linings, films, or mastics. Organic coatings' potential to serve as a barrier against corrosion and
oxidation is mostly dependent on their chemical inertness and impermeability. However, some [Link] Primers
coatings also offer protection by using inhibitory pigments that passivate surfaces, especially
These are the initial surface coatings that have been applied (except for fillers, in some cases).
metal surfaces. Additionally, some coatings include metallic pigments that protect metals
Primer coatings may frequently be unnecessary where chemical pretreatments are utilised. There
electrochemically.
are two sorts of primers for industrial or production finishing: baking-types and air-dry types. The
air-dry varieties are typically referred to as paints and have drying oil vehicle bases. They might
Brush, spray, dip, roller, flow coat, knife, tumble, silk screen, and electrostatic processes are
or might not have resin modifications. They aren't as often used as baking-type primers, which
frequently used to apply organic coatings. The slowest of these is brush application; all the others
have varnish or resin vehicle bases and mostly dry by polymerization. Some primers, referred to
are production techniques. One or more of the following processes can cause an organic coating
as flash primers, are applied by spraying and dry within 10 minutes as a result of solvent
to dry or cure: (1) solvent evaporation or loss, (2) oxidation, and (3) polymerization. After
evaporation. The pigments in almost all primers give the primer the majority of its anti-corrosion
application of the coating, the volatile ingredients, which are almost always present in at least a
qualities and, combined with the vehicle, decide how well the primer adheres to the base metal.
small amount, evaporate. Some finishes, like lacquers, cure completely as the solvents evaporate.

[Link] Intermediate coats

Coatings that do completely dry through evaporation remain semifluid after evaporation and need
to undergo oxidation, polymerization, or a mix of the two processes in order to take on their These include surfacers, fillers, and sealants. They can be used before or after the primer, but
ultimate form. The most time-consuming of the three techniques is drying by oxidation, which is they're frequently used after it and occasionally after the surfacer layer. Their purpose is to cover

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up significant surface abnormalities or little flaws. They typically resemble putty and are made of [Link] Drying oils
various materials. Their primary requirements are that they: I harden with the least amount of
In industrial finishes, oil-only vehicles are mainly utilised in small amounts. The most popular oil
shrinkage; (ii) have strong adhesion; (iii) have good sanding properties; and (iv) function readily
is undoubtedly linseed oil. There are numerous types that vary in drying speed as well as features
and smoothly.
like water resistance, colour, and hardness.

Surfacers frequently resemble primers and have the same chemical makeup as the priming coat
[Link] Tung oil or china wood oil
with the exception of the presence of additional pigment. After the priming coat, surfacers are
When property treated, excels all other drying oils in speed of drying, hardening, and water
used to smooth out any small surface imperfections. Typically, sealers are applied either on top
resistance. Oiticica oil is similar to tung oil in many of its properties. Dehydrated castor oil dries
of fillers or surfacers. The main purpose of sealers is to stop the finish coats from "striking in" by
better than linseed oil, but slower than tung oil. Some of its advantages are good color and color
filling up the pores of the undercoat. The entire coating system tends to become stronger as a
retention, and flexibility. The oils from some fish are also used as drying oils. If processed
result of this filling-in of the porous surfacer or sealer. The sealers are often made with the same
properly, they dry reasonably well and have little odor. They are often used in combination with
kind of pigment and vehicle as the final layer when applied over surfacers.
other oils. Perilla oil is quite similar in properties to fast-drying linseed oil. Its use is largely
[Link] Finish coats dependent upon its price and availability. Soybean oil is the slowest drying in the drying oil classes,
and is usually used in combination with some faster-drying oil such as linseed oil.
Typically, the aesthetic or practical component of a paint system is the finish or top coat. But they
frequently also serve a defensive purpose. Although the pigments used in primers are enough for
5.26.3 Resins
preventing corrosion of the metal, they are typically insufficient as top coats, therefore the primer
Although both natural and synthetic resins can serve as organic coating vehicles, today the natural
coats may need to be protected against service conditions. Their physical durability or colour
types, such as rosin, have been largely replaced by plastic resins. Nearly all the plastic and resins
retention after weathering may be subpar. There are one-coat treatments as well, where the finish
both thermosets and thermoplastics as well as many elastomers can be used as film formers, and
coats are placed directly to the surface of the base material and serve as the only protective layer.
frequently two or more kinds are combined to give the set of properties desired. Typical
5.26.2 Vehicles thermoplastics used in vehicles are acrylics, acetates, butyrates, and vinyls. Commonly used
thermosets for vehicles include phenolics, alkyds, melamines, ureas, and epoxies.
Vehicles are made of film-forming components as well as a variety of additional ingredients, such
as thinners (volatile solvents), which regulate viscosity, flow, and film thickness, and driers,
5.26.4 Pigments
which simplify application and enhance drying properties. The primary area of concern is the
Pigments are the second of the two principal components that make up most organic finishes.
vehicle's film-forming component, as it is this component that largely dictates the nature and
They contribute a number of important characteristics to a coating. They, first of all, serve a
quality of an organic finish. It establishes the potential methods for applying the finish, how the
decorative function. The choice of color and shades of color by use of one or combinations of
"wet" finish will cure to a hard film, allows for adherence to the metal surface, and typically
pigments is practically unlimited. Closely associated with color is the hiding power function or
affects the finish's longevity.
their ability to obscure the surface of the material being finished. In many primers the principal
Oil, resin, and varnish are the three basic categories into which automobiles can be divided. The function of pigments is to prevent corrosion of the base metal. In other cases they may be added
straight drying oil types of cars are the most basic and among the oldest. Resins as a class can be to counteract the destructive action of ultraviolet light rays. Pigments also help give body and
utilised to create varnish-like vehicles or as standalone vehicles when combined with drying oils. good flow characteristics to the finish. And, finally, some pigments may give to organic coatings
Resins, drying or nondrying oils, as well as the necessary amounts of thinners and driers, make what is termed package stability; that is, they keep the coating material in usable condition in the
up varnish vehicles. They are frequently utilised by themselves as a complete organic finish. container until ready for use.

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Pigments can be conveniently divided into three classes as follows: (i) white hiding pigments, (ii) 5.26.6 Lacquers
colored pigments, and (iii) extender or inert pigments. White pigments are used not only in white
The raw material for lacquer is lac resin, which serves as the foundation for ordinary shellac. One
paints and enamels, but also in making white bases for the tinted and light shades. Colored
of the first lacquers used for centuries was lac resin soaked in alcohol. Spirit lacquer is the name
pigments furnish the finish with both opacity and color. They may be used by themselves to form
given to shellac in modern times. It is just one of several different types of lacquers; all of them,
solid colors, or in combination with whites to produce tints, and often provide rust-inhibitive
with the exception of spirit lacquer, are named after the main component that forms the film. The
properties. For example, red lead, certain lead chromates, zinc chro-mates, and blue lead are used
most popular ones are cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, ethyl cellulose, vinyl, and
in iron and steel primers as rust inhibiters. There are two general classes of colored pigments (a)
nitrocellulose. The fact that lacquers dry through the evaporation of the solvents or thinners in
earth colors, which are very stable and are not readily affected by acids and alkalies, heat, light,
which the vehicle is dissolved makes them distinct from other coatings. Contrast this with oils,
and moisture, and (b) chemical colors, which are produced under controlled conditions by
varnishes, or resin-based finishes, which mostly undergo oxidation or polymerization to produce
chemical reaction.
a hard film. The difference between lacquer and synthetic-type varnishes is smaller as time goes
on due to the high resin content in many modern lacquers, until one reaches modified synthetic
The metallic pigments can also be included within this class. Aluminum powder is perhaps the
air-drying varnishes. They may primarily dry through polymerization or oxidation.
best known. The chief functions of extender pigments are to help control consistency, gloss,
smoothness, and filling qualities, and leveling and check resistance. Thus, particle size and shape,
At room temperature, lacquers typically take just a few minutes to harden and become dust-free.
oil absorption, and flatting power are important selection considerations. Extender pigments are
The practise of forced drying is common in assembly line operations. Therefore, a multicoat
for the most part chemically inactive. They usually have little or no hiding power.
project can be completed without losing time between coats. Lacquers are typically not applied
by brush due to the speed at which they dry as well as the fact that they are always soluble in the
5.26.5 Enamels
solvents used for application. Common applications involve spraying or dipping.
Enamels are a close-knit dispersion of pigments in a varnish, resin, or a mix of the two. Enamels
can either dry by polymerizing at low or high temperatures, or by oxidising at ambient temperature. Lacquers come in an almost infinite variety of colours and can be either pigmented or clear and
They come in many hues and tones and differ greatly in composition, colour and appearance, and transparent. Lacquers naturally have good colour retention, although occasionally the use of
characteristics. Even though they often have a high-gloss surface, some of them can also have a pigments, altering resins, and plasticizers can have a negative impact on this quality. They resist
semi-gloss, eggshell, or flat finish. As a group, enamels are strong and durable and provide good marring and are tough. They don't naturally adhere well on metal, but contemporary lacquer
mar and abrasion resistance. They can be designed to withstand the majority of chemical agents formulations have greatly enhanced their adhesive capabilities. A wide range of substances,
and corrosive environments. including water and moisture, alcohol, gasoline, vegetable, animal, and mineral oils, as well as
mild acids and alkalis, can be manufactured to be resistant to lacquers. The volatile solvents in
Enamels are likely the most utilised organic covering in industry due to their extensive range of
lacquers make them combustible both in storage and when applied, which can occasionally restrict
beneficial qualities. Coating home goods like washing machines, stoves, kitchen cabinets, and the
their use.
like is one of their main uses. For instance, artificial baking enamels are used to finish a significant
number of refrigerators. Since these appliance enamels are often white, they must retain their Lacquers are frequently used to protect and decorate items that can be dipped, sprayed, roller-
colour and gloss to a high degree when exposed to heat and light. Automobile products, railroad coated, or flow-coated due to their quick drying times. They are particularly useful for coating
equipment, office supplies, toys and sporting goods, industrial equipment, and novelty items are toys, metal hardware and fixtures, and other items that must quickly dry hard enough to handle
some more items coated with enamels. and transport due to volume production. When repainting cars and commercial vehicles, lacquers
are frequently utilised since they dry quickly without the need for baking equipment. For coating
metal stampings and castings, particularly die castings, lacquers compete with enamels.

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5.26.7 Varnishes 5.27 Other organic coatings

The components of varnishes are drying or nondrying oils and thermosetting resins. They can be These include:
used alone as a coating because they are transparent and unpigmented. However, their primary
function in industrial finishing is as a carrier for pigments, which creates various kinds of organic 5.27.1 Dispersion and emulsion coatings
coatings. Varnishes all have the same fundamental drying mechanisms. Depending on the nature
Because many of these coatings are primarily made of finely chopped components, such as plastic
of the resin and oil, any volatile solvents that are present first evaporate, followed by drying by
resins, fillers, and pigments, suspended in water, they have recently earned the name "water-base
oxidation and/or polymerization. Naturally, polymerization is more likely at high temperatures.
paints" or "coatings." There could also be an organic media component. Water-base coatings come
Therefore, varnishes can be designed for either air drying or baking drying. Varnishes can be
in three different varieties. Emulsions are aqueous dispersions of high-molecular-weight resins,
applied using a brush or any of the available production techniques.
often known as latexes. In a strict sense, emulsion coatings are suspensions of an oil phase in
water, whereas latex coatings are dispersions of resins in water.
It is clear that varnishes have a wide range of features and characteristics due to the wide diversity
of raw ingredients available and the infinite number of combinations that are feasible. They are
Emulsion and latex coatings offer low gloss, high resistance to weathering, and strong impact
translucent and lack any discernible amount of opacity. Their colours range from an almost clear
resistance. They are clear to milky in appearance. Composition affects the resistance to chemicals
white to a deep gold. Japan is an outlier, a hard-baked, dark-looking varnish. Because there is
and stains. Ultrafine, fine, insoluble resin particles dispersed colloidally in an aqueous solution
carbon and carbonaceous particles present, it is opaque.
make up dispersion coatings. They are crystal clear, or nearly so. The gloss, durability, and
weathering characteristics are comparable to those of traditional solvent paints. Clear finishes that
Oil-modified alkyd varnishes have some different characteristics from the other varieties. Alkyds
are water-soluble and contain low-molecular-weight resins can be designed to have high gloss,
that have been treated with oil typically have superior gloss, colour retention, and weather
fair to good chemical and weathering resistance, and high toughness. They behave and flow the
resistance. They dry quicker and generate a tougher, more durable film. However, they are less
most like traditional solvent coatings of the three varieties.
resistant to alkali than the other varnishes. There is no obvious distinction between adhesion and
rust inhibitiveness, for example. Food storage containers, bottle caps, and other types of bandings
5.27.2 Plastic powder coatings
are the main uses of varnishes as coatings in and of themselves. A clear finish coat applied over
Several methods for applying plastic powder coatings have been developed. The most common
lithographic coatings is another significant application.
method involves preheating fluidized bed parts before immersing them in a tank of finely divided
5.26.8 Paints plastic powders that are held suspended by a rising current of air. When the powder particles come
into contact with the heated part, they fuse and adhere to form a continuous, uniform coating.
Sometimes, the term "paints" is used to refer generally to all forms of organic coatings. However,
Electrostatic spraying is another process that works on the principle that oppositely charged
a paint is a dispersion of a pigment or pigments in a drying oil vehicle by definition. As industrial
materials attract each other. Powder is fed into a gun, where an electrostatic charge is applied in
finishes, they are hardly used today. Primer use is their main application. At normal temperature,
the opposite direction to the part to be coated. When the charged particles exit the gun, they are
paint dries by oxidation. They dry more slowly than enamels and lacquers, are relatively brittle,
drawn to the part and cling to it until they fuse together as a plastic coating.
and have a propensity to chalk with time.

Although the aforementioned methods can be used to apply many different plastic powders, vinyl,
epoxy, and nylon are most frequently employed. Epoxy and vinyl both offer good electrical
insulation and good weather and corrosion protection. The main reason nylon is chosen is due to
its exceptional wear and abrasion resistance. Other plastics that are widely used in powder coating

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are fluorocarbons, cellulosics, polycarbonate, acetal, chlorinated polyether, and polycarbonate. UNIT SUMMARY

In this unit, Grinding and finishing processes have been presented. The principles of metal
5.27.3 Hot melt coatings
removal by Grinding including Natural & Artificial abrasives, the Bonds and binding processes
These are made of thermoplastic materials, which after melting on the metal surface, harden.
of grinding wheels are discussed. There are several Factors affecting the selection of grind wheels
Either the plastic is sprayed on or flow coated while still molten, or it is first deposited in solid
including size and shape of wheel, kind of abrasive used, grain size, grade and strength of bond
form before being melted and applied to the surface. Thick single coatings are achievable because
used, structure of grain, spacing and kinds of binding materials are also explained in details.
there isn't any solvent involved. Hot melt processes are also frequently used to apply bituminous
Standard marking systems of grinding wheels is explained. There are different types of grinding
coatings.
machines as Cylindrical, Surface, Tool & Cutter grinding machines are all presented with their
constructional details. Special process of Centreless grinding is explained with the Advantages &
5.27.4 Lining and sheeting
limitations of it. Surface Finishing methods by Honing, Lapping, Super finishing processes such
To provide corrosion and abrasion resistance, different plastics and elastomers are employed as
as Electroplating of metals, Hot dipping such as Galvanizing, Tin coating and Parkerising,
sheet, film, and tapes that are glued to material shapes and components. Typically, thicknesses
alongwith Anodizing processes like Metal spraying by covering wire process, powder process and
fall between 3.2 and 12.7 mm. Neoprene, polyethylene butadiene-styrene rubber, and polyvinyl
their applications are explained. Important surface coating processes like Organic coatings
chloride are the materials that are utilised the most frequently.
including Oil base Paint, Lacquer base, Enamels, Bituminous paints and rubber base coating as
finishing process is also discussed in details. Various Finishing specifications are also explained.
5.27.5 Specialty finishes

There are practically countless speciality or novelty finishes to choose from. The majority of them EXERCISES
are actually lacquers or enamels to which unique additives or processing techniques have been
Multiple Choice Questions
added to create the desired results.
Questions for self-assessment
5.27.6 Most common types
[Link] wheel is specified as “A 46 K 5 B 17”. Grain size of a wheel will be
Those that have a roughened or wrinkled appearance; this effect is produced by utilising high
a) Coarse
concentrations of driers, which cause wrinkles when the finish is baked. Crystalline effects are
b) Medium
produced by yet another class of specialised finishes. By keeping the combustion byproducts in
c) Fine
the oven while the coating cures, these are enamels in which contaminants are consciously added
d) Very Fine
throughout the baking process. Instrument panels, office equipment, and a range of other
industrial and consumer devices frequently have the wrinkling and crystalline finishes. In order
[Link] wheel is specified as “C 8 K 5 B 17”. Grain size of a wheel will be
to give lacquers a stringy or "veiled" appearance when sprayed by spraying, certain additives are
added to create other odd finishes. Unique finishes with colourful effects have also been produced a) Coarse
b) Medium
by using the silk-screen method to polish metals organically.
c) Fine
d) Very Fine

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KNOW MORE [Link]

[Link]
Explore the historical grinding processes work in aluminum, copper, and steel using different
[Link]
methods. See finishing and superfinishing processes as an old practices of grinding and polishing
[Link]
action or similar operation in your near vicinity. Identify similar grinder making and finishing
[Link]
machines and processes around your locality and try to find how it is evolved with time as one
[Link]
could see the modern grinding and finishing operations today. One should observe it carefully.
[Link]
SUGGESTED RESOURCES FOR FURTHER READING/ LEARNING [Link]

Reference books & websites referred

1. Manufacturing technology – P N Rao, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications Spraying
2. Elements of workshop Technology (Volume I & II) – S. K. Hajra Chaudary, Bose & Roy,
[Link]
Media Promoters and Publishers Limited.
[Link]
3. Production Technology (Volume I & II) – O. P. Khanna & Lal, Dhanpat Rai Publications.
[Link]
4. Fundamental of metal cutting and machine tools– B. L. Juneja, New age international
[Link]
limited.
5. Manufacturing Technology, Metal Cutting & Machine tools– P. N. Rao, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publications
6. A Text book of Production Technology: Manufacturing processes –P.C. Sharma, S.
Chand & Com. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
7. Production Technology – R.B. Gupta, Satya Prakashan, New Delhi
8. Fundamentals of Design & Manufacturing- G K Lal, Vijay Gupta, N. V. Readdy,
NarosaPub. House, ND

VIDEOS

Grinding

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Polishing & finishing

[Link]

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