ELL-401: Research Methods & Term Paper Writing

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE AND MIXED METHOD RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is a mode of inquiry that seeks to explain phenomena by collecting
numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in particular
statistics).

QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

Experimental design
Experimental design seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. The
researcher assesses this by providing a specific treatment to one group (experimental
group) and withholding it from another group (Control group) and then determining how
both groups scored on an outcome.

What is the difference between a Control group and a Treatment group in

experimental research?
A control group in a generally performed experimental research refers to a group that does
not receive the treatment or the experimental manipulation that the treatment group
receives.
Explanation
An experimental group is the group that receives an experimental procedure (or a test
sample).This group is exposed to changes in the independent variable being tested. The
values of the independent variable and the result on the dependent variable are recorded.
An experiment may include multiple experimental groups at one time.
A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment such that the
independent variable being tested cannot influence the results. This isolates the
independent variable's effects on the experiment and can help rule out alternate
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explanations of the experimental results.

While all experiments have an experimental group, not all experiments require a control
group. Controls are extremely useful where the experimental conditions are complex.
Experiments that use control groups are called controlled experiments.

Types of Experimental design

• Pre-experimental design
• Quasi experiments
• True experiments
• Single subject design
With pre-experimental designs, the researcher studies a single group and provides an
intervention during the experiment. This design does not have a control group to compare
with the experimental group. In quasi-experiments, the investigator uses control and
experimental groups but does not randomly assign participants to groups (e.g., they may
be intact groups available to the researcher). In a true experiment, the investigator
randomly assigns the participants to treatment groups. A single-subject design involves
observing the behavior of a single individual (or a small number of individuals) over time.

Pre-Experimental Designs
Pre-experimental designs are so named because they follow basic experimental steps but
fail to include a control group. In other words, a single group is often studied but no
comparison between an equivalent non-treatment groups is made. Following are the two
most commonly used kinds of pre-experimental design:
• One-Shot Case Study
This design involves an exposure of a group to a treatment followed by a measure.
• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
This design includes a pretest measure followed by a treatment and a posttest for a
single group.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
A quasi-experiment is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an
intervention on its target population without random assignment. Quasi-experimental
research specifically lacks the element of random assignment to treatment or control.
Quasi-experiments are subject to concerns regarding internal validity, because the
treatment and control groups may not be comparable at baseline. With random
assignment, study participants have the same chance of being assigned to the intervention
group or the comparison group. With quasi-experimental studies, it may not be possible to
convincingly demonstrate a causal link between the treatment condition and observed
outcomes. Following are some of the kinds of quasi-experimental designs:
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• Nonequivalent (Pretest and Posttest) Control-Group Design

In this design, a popular approach to quasi-experiments, the experimental Group A and the
control Group B are selected without random assignment. Both groups take a pretest and
posttest. Only the experimental group receives the treatment.
• Single-Group Interrupted Time-Series Design
In this design, the researcher records measures for a single group both before and after a
treatment.
• Control-Group Interrupted Time-Series Design
This design is a modification of the Single-Group Interrupted Time-Series design in which
two groups of participants, not randomly assigned, are observed over time. A treatment is
administered to only one of the groups (i.e., Group A).

True Experimental Designs

A true experimental design is one in which the researcher manipulates the Independent
Variable (or variables) to observe its effect on some behavior or cognitive process (the
dependent variable) while using random assignment of participants to groups in order to
control external factors from influencing the results. Without both manipulation of the
independent variables and random assignment of participants, one cannot have a true
experimental design and, as a result, cause and effect cannot be established. Mentioned
below are some of the traditional true experimental designs:
• Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
A traditional, classical design, this procedure involves random assignment of participants
to two groups. Both groups are administered both a pretest and a posttest, but the
treatment is provided only to experimental group.
• Posttest-Only Control-Group Design
This design controls for any confounding effects of a pretest and is a popular experimental
design. The participants are randomly assigned to groups, a treatment is given only to the
experimental group, and both groups are measured on the posttest.
• Solomon Four-Group Design
This procedure involves the random assignment of participants to four groups. Pretests and
treatments are varied for the four groups. All groups receive a posttest.
• A-B-A Single-Subject Design
This design involves multiple observations of a single individual. The target behavior of a
single individual is established over time and is referred to as a baseline behavior. The
baseline behavior is assessed by providing the treatment and then withdrawing the
treatment.
Non- Experimental Quantitative Research
Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot
control, manipulate or alter the predictor variable (Alternative term for independent
variable) or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation, observation or interactions to
ELL-401: Research Methods & Term Paper Writing

come to a conclusion. Typically, this means the non-experimental researcher must rely on
correlations, surveys or case studies, and cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-effect
relationship. Mentioned below are some of the types of non-experimental designs:

• Causal Comparative Research (or Ex-Post Facto Research)

Causal-comparative research is often referred to as ex-post facto (Latin for “after the fact”).
In causal comparative research, the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason
for the pre-existing differences in groups of individuals. In other words, it is observed that
groups are different on some variables and the researcher attempts to identify the main
factors that had led to the difference.
Example:
A researcher might hypothesize that participation in pre-school education is the major
contributing factor for differences in the social adjustment of first graders. To examine this
hypothesis, the researcher will select a sample of first graders who had participated in
preschool education and a sample of first graders who had not, and then compare the social
adjustment of the two groups. If the group that did participate in preschool education
exhibited a higher level of social adjustment, the researcher’s hypothesis would be
supported. Thus the basic causal comparative research starts with analyzing an effect,
and thereby analyzing possible causes.
• Correlational Research
Correlational research is sometimes treated as a type of descriptive research, primarily
because it does describe an existing condition. However, the condition it describes is
distinctively different from the conditions typically described in survey or observational
studies. Correlational research involves collecting data in order to determine whether and
to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The
degree of relationship is expressed as a correlation coefficient (Statistical measure of
the linear relationship (correlation) between a dependent-variable and an independent
variable). If a relationship exists between two variables, it means that scores within a
certain range on one variable are associated with scores within a certain range on the
other variable.
Example:
For example there is a relationship between intelligence and academic achievement;
persons, who score highly on intelligence tests, tend to have high grade point averages, and
persons who score lowly on intelligence tests tend to have low grade point averages.
(The purpose of correlational study is to determine relationships between variables or to
use these relationships to make predictions). Correlational studies provide a numerical
estimate of how related two variables are. The investigator uses correlational statistics to
describe and measure the degree of relationship or association between two or more
variables. Clearly, the higher the correlation, the more the two variables are related and the
more accurate are the predictions based on the relationships.
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• Survey Research (Descriptive Research)

Survey Research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or
opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-sectional
and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection—
with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population. Surveys may be used to
obtain descriptive information about a target population, (e.g. to measure levels of literacy
in a region), or to examine relationships between various factors (e.g. to explain the
differences in mathematical competency of students in terms of their age, gender, exposure
to the mathematics curriculum, and amount of time spent in class learning mathematics).
It may also seek to explain the nature of an issue.

Examples of Survey Research Topics:

• Descriptive Studies
Q. What is the average length of time teachers use to prepare lessons in ESL context?

• Relationship Studies
Q. Is there a relationship between teachers’ attitudes toward discipline and students’
efficiency with regard to written skills?

• Explanatory Studies
Q. Why are students in school X performing better in volunteer activities than students in
school Y?

Cross Sectional Vs. Longitudinal surveys in a survey based research.

Cross-sectional surveys are used to gather information about present conditions in a

population at a single point in time or during a single, relatively brief period, and then
comparisons are made across the variables of interest. Generally, the purpose is to describe
situations and estimate frequencies rather than to establish causal patterns.
In longitudinal surveys, the data are collected at more than one point and the researcher
is interested in making comparisons across time. The data can be collected from one or
multiple groups. Repeated observation for at least two points in time is the key
characteristic of the longitudinal method since this enables the educational researcher to
study the processes and patterns of change and stability in the educational field. The logic
of longitudinal studies is that educational researches are concerned with the process of
change, and the study of change requires that observations are made for at least two points
in time. Time is significantly related to causal influence, since earlier events usually
influence later events.
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding
of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or
helps to develop ideas, predictions, or theoretical foundations for potential quantitative
research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, to
dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured
or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group
discussions), individual interviews, and observations. In qualitative researches the sample
size is typically small. The overall nature of qualitative research is unstructured and flexible
in terms of its procedural details.

THE METHODS AND TYPES OF APPROACHES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

• Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which the

researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide
stories about their lives (Riessman, 2008). This information is then often retold by the
researcher into a narrative chronology. Often, in the end, the narrative combines views
from the participant’s life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative
(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). A number of data collection methods can be used, as the
researcher and the research subjects work together in this collaborative dialogic
relationship. Data can be in the form of field notes; journal records; interview transcripts;
one’s own and other’s observations; storytelling; letter writing; autobiographical writing;
documents such as school and class plans, newsletters, and pictures. To this list, one should
add audio and video recordings, as these are also useful data in narrative research.

• Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy and

psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon as described by participants. This description culminates in the essence of
the experiences for several individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. This
design has strong philosophical underpinnings and typically involves conducting in-depth
interviews (Giorgi, 2009; Moustakas, 1994).
In phenomenological strategy of inquiry, the researcher identifies the essence of human
experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants. Phenomenological method
attempts to study subjects through extensive and prolonged engagements to develop
patterns and relationships of meanings. In this process, the researcher seeks to set aside
his/her own experiences in order to understand the experiences of participants in study.
Phenomenology is based on the works of German philosopher Edmund Husserl (who
established the school of phenomenology). An assumption underlying this philosophy is
that there exists in every experience, a true essence or structure.
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Phenomenologists explore how people construct their meanings and how their individual
meanings shape group or cultural meanings. Phenomenology always involves retrospective
reflection on an experience. A phenomenologist may ask “What is the essence of grief”?
“What does grief feel like”? “How is grief remembered / shared with others”?
Phenomenologists claim that reality resides in the interpretation/ consciousness of an
experience. The goal and the role of researcher is to get into the experiences of participants
and see them as they see them; in this sense, the researcher and the research participants
are co-researchers. These days, the virtual communities on internet (through blogs, online
diaries etc) share their experiences thus making phenomenological research easy.

• Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher

derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views
of participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the
refinement and interrelationship of categories of information (Charmaz, 2006; Corbin &
Strauss, 2007). There are two primary characteristics of this design:
• Constant comparison of data with emerging categories
Theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize similarities and differences of
information.
A researcher might look at the first wave of data from a study, develop a tentative theory
based on that data, and then collect more data to test the theory. If the current version of
theory fits new data, the researcher proceeds to the next wave of data. If it does not fit new
data, the researcher modifies the theory to fit it against the original and new data and then
checks it against more new data. The process continues till there is no revision to the theory
and no more new data. The goal is to build a generalizable theory that fits every set of data.
The method of data analysis from grounded theory in which the researcher constantly
compares new data with the data already placed in existing categories to help develop and
define those categories and decide if a new category should be created, is called Constant
Comparative Method.

Note: Grounded Theory was first outlined by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in their
ground breaking book The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967).

• Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in

which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time. Data collection
often involves observations and interviews. The research process is flexible and evolves in
response to the realities encountered in the field setting.

Sub genres of ethnographic research:

• Internet Ethnography/Cyber ethnography/Virtual ethnography
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• Autoethnography
• Institutional ethnography
• Critical ethnography

Internet ethnography/Cyber ethnography or Virtual ethnography has emerged from the basic
principles of ethnography but takes up sites on internet as its focus. Researchers describe
themselves as full participants in visual worlds and take World Wide Web as socially constructed.
The researchers describe themselves as “true participants” or “natives” on the sites. There are many
ethical issues concerning virtual ethnography (e.g. : How fully informed the participants are? Is it
ethical to use texts on blogs without blogger’s content?
Does the blog exist in virtual worlds after a specific time? )
Autoethnography includes an array of description (e.g. critical autobiography, ethnobiography,
ethnographic poetics, emotionalism, evocative narratives, and first person accounts to name a few).
It is a hybrid approach which draws on personal narratives. This inquiry mode is somehow linked
to socio-communication strategies and phenomenology. The focus is on the self and personal
experiences. In auto-ethnography, a researcher can reference his own actions (researchers as doers).
In other cases, the researcher’s subjects reference their own actions which are studied by researcher
(participants as doers). Diverse rhetorical devices, poems, auto-ethnographies, personal reflections,
and other personal narratives can be used as means.
Institutional ethnography seeks to understand and explore the social structures that shape
everyday lives, primarily in organizational and institutional settings (e.g. how larger social forces
shape behaviors in a workplace?). Empirical observation lies at the heart of institutional
ethnography.
Critical ethnography is grounded in critical and post critical assumptions. It pursues the radical
change of oppressive social structures (examining issues of power and oppression in social
structures). It primarily investigates class, race, and gender based hierarchies. The theoretical
framework for critical ethnography revolves fundamentally around critical theories.

Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in
which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over
a sustained period of time (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2012).
In case studies, the researchers use interviews, observations, and document analysis to
explore the phenomena. The case according to researchers is a specific, complex, bounded,
and integrated system. The example of system may include an organization, a corporation,
an ongoing support group, etc. A system as a case is characterized by a sense of wholeness,
interdependence of parts, and harmony. A system is bounded by time (e.g. year 2018) space
(e.g. an educational institute) and purpose (e.g. exploring specific educational issues). It is
important to mention that a researcher in a case study needs to define a “sampling
rationale” for the case selected for analysis. In case studies, the researcher’s voice is more
prevalent than in an ethnographic researches or phenomenological studies. The outcome
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of case study is a description/interpretation/exploration of “the context of a case” (e.g.

social, historical, cultural, economic, or geographical).

MIXED METHOD RESEARCH

Mixed method research involves combining or integrating qualitative and quantitative
research and data in a research study. Qualitative data tends to be open-ended without
predetermined responses while quantitative data usually includes closed-ended responses
obtained through questionnaires or psychological instruments.

The methods and types of approaches in mixed method research (in social
sciences):

• Convergent parallel mixed method is a form of mixed methods design in which

the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a
comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator typically
collects both forms of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the information
in the interpretation of the overall results.

• Explanatory sequential mixed method is one in which the researcher first

conducts quantitative research, analyzes the results and then builds on the results to
explain them in more detail with qualitative research. It is considered explanatory because
the initial quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data. It is
considered sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative
phase. This type of design is popular in fields with a strong quantitative orientation.

• Exploratory sequential mixed method is the reverse sequence from the

explanatory sequential design. In the exploratory sequential approach the researcher first
begins with a qualitative research phase and explores the views of participants. The data
are then analyzed, and the information used to build into a second, quantitative phase. The
qualitative phase may be used to build an instrument that best fits the sample under study,
to identify appropriate instruments to use in the follow-up quantitative phase, or to specify
variables that need to go into a follow-up quantitative study. Particular challenges to this
design reside in focusing in on the appropriate qualitative findings to use and the sample
selection for both phases of research