Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

Topic 2.1 – Interaction of Heredity and Topic 2.2- The Endocrine System
Environment
1. Define heredity. The passing on of 1. What is the difference between the nervous system and
different physical and mental traits from one endocrine system? The nervous system uses neurons to send and
generation to another deliver messages to localized areas of the body, it uses fast,
2. Describe the role Charles Darwin has in short-lived messages. The endocrine system uses glands to create
the area of heredity and environment? hormones, these messages are slower moving and target larger
Created the theory of evolution which stated broad areas of the body
that evolution happens by natural selection. 2. Explain what homeostasis is. This is the body’s ability to
Traits that would help with a species survival maintain internal stability. Example: Body temperature will stay
would be passed on while undesirable traits around 98 degrees fahrenheit
would die off 3. Explain the role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system.
3. What is heritability? A mathematical Directs different autonomic functions of the body and directs the
measure to estimate how much variation pituitary gland
there is in a population related to genes. It 4. Complete the table below.
shows how much of a trait is genetics and
Gland Location/Function Hormones
how much is from the environment
4. Explain the difference between nature and Pituitary Located at the base of Growth hormones,
nurture. Nature is genetics, biology, heredity Gland your brain. It connects the oxytocin, and
that shapes us as individuals. While Nurture nervous system and vasopressin
is our environment, how we are raised and endocrine system. Also
what we surround ourselves with helps regulate all other
5. Which psychological perspectives learn glands in the body, in
towards the nature side of the debate? response to the
Biological, Cognitive, Evolutionary hypothalamus
6. Which psychological perspectives learn
towards the nurture side of the debate? Pineal Above the brainstem in Melatonin
Psychodynamic, Behaviorism, Sociocultural Gland the middle of the brain.
7. What is the difference between epigenetics Helps regulate sleep
and brain plasticity? Epigenetics is the study cycles
of how the environment and a person’s
behavior affect a person’s genes and how Thyroid & Located in the throat. Thyroid hormones,
they work. Brain plasticity is changes that Parathyroid Regulates the metabolism, parathyroid
happen with the structure of the brain on a gland growth, nervous system, hormones, and
cellular level, in response to what is Helps control calcium and calcitonin
happening in the environment phosphate levels in blood

Adrenal Above your kidneys. Norepinephrine,

glands Helps regulate salt, blood epinephrine,
pressure,and oxygen glucocorticoids,
intake and
Mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone)

Pancreas By the stomach. Insulin and

Regulates sugar levels glucagon

Gonads Ovaries or testes. Testosterone,

Reproduction estrogen,
progesterone

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Topic 2.3- Overview of the Nervous System and the Neuron
1. What is the difference between the central and peripheral nervous system? The CNS is made up of the brain
and spinal cord, it sends out orders to the body. The PNS consists of the different nerves that branch off from the
brain and spine
2. Describe the different parts of the peripheral nervous system. (Sensory & Motor) The sensory division is made
of afferent neurons that pick up sensory information from outside stimuli and send impulses to the brain about
that information. The motor division uses efferent neurons to send impulses from the brain to the muscles and
glands of the body to tell them to move
3. How do afferent neurons differ from efferent neurons? Afferent neurons are sending impulses to the brain
from the body and outside stimuli, while efferent neurons send impulses from the brain to the rest of the body to
control movement and more
4. Explain the difference between the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic
nervous system includes voluntary movements in your skeletal muscles and five senses. The autonomic nervous
system controls involuntary actions, this is what keeps you breathing and digesting food
5. Identify the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic division & parasympathetic division
6. What is the function of the two different autonomic nervous systems? The sympathetic division mobilizes
your body, it makes your heart beat faster, your eyes dilate, and your breathing increases. The parasympathetic
division relaxes your body, it slows your heart rate, increases your digestion, and focuses on saving and storing
energy
7. What is a glial cell? A cell that provides support to the nervous system, providing neurons with nutrients. They
are the most abundant cell in the nervous system

[Link] the table below.

Part of the Name Function
Neuron

1 Dendrites Extensions of the cell body that receive chemical information from
adjacent neurons through receptor sites

2 Nucleus Contains genetic material including information for cell development and
other structures that allow the neuron to function

3 Soma This is the cell body that contains the nucleus and most organelles

4 Nodes of Ranvier Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed, which helps
promote the continuing action potential

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Topic 2.3- Overview of the Nervous System and the Neuron (Continued)

[Link] the table below. (Continued)

Part of the Name Function
Neuron

5 Axon The longest part of a neuron, it carries information away from the soma to
other cells

6 Myelin Sheath Insulating layer that increases how fast the action potential travels down
the axon and protects the axon from damages

7 Axon Terminal or This is at the end of the axon where neurotransmitters are released into
Terminal Button the synapse

8 Schwann Cells Helps produce the myelin sheath

Topic 2.4- Neural Firing

1. What is action potential? This is when a neuron fires an electrical impulse down the axon
2. What must happen for an action potential to occur? An outside stimulus must cause a neuron to cross a
specific threshold (typically 55 -55mV), this causes the neuron to depolarize as positive ions enter the neuron
which causes an electrical signal to be sent down the axon
3. What does permeability mean? This is the ability for some ions to cross the membrane more easily than others
4. Complete the table below.
Term Description

Resting Neuron When there is more positive ions outside the membrane of the neuron, here the neuron
is polarized and will not send a signal (-70mV)

Depolarization When the strong negative charge of the inside of the cell has enough positive ions enter
so that the charge changes from around -70mV to at least -55mV. This will trigger the
neuron to fire an action potential

Repolarization The process in which the neuron goes back to its resting potential, channels will open
up letting more positive ions outside of the cell membrane

Refractory period A time when the neuron can not fire, the neuron is waiting for repolarization to occur.
This prevents signals being sent in both directions down the axon

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Topic 2.4- Neural Firing (Continued)
5. Describe the synapse. A small pocket of space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the
next neuron, less than 1 millionth of an inch
6. What is the difference between an electrical synapse and chemical synapse? Electrical synapses are used for
messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately, one neuron is typically connected to another. Chemical
synapses use neurotransmitters to deliver messages across a synaptic gap, which takes more time than an
electrical synapse
7. What is a neurotransmitter? A chemical messenger sent by a neuron, normally categorized as excitatory or
inhibitory
8. Define the synaptic gap. A narrow space between two neurons, specifically the presynaptic terminal of one
neuron and the postsynaptic terminal of the next neuron
9. Describe the difference between the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic terminal. The ends of neurons that
are connected by a synapse. The presynaptic terminal bud contains neurotransmitters to be released. The
postsynaptic receives the neurotransmitters from the synapse
10. What does reuptake mean? This is when the sending neuron at the presynaptic terminal, reabsorbs
neurotransmitters from the synapse
11. Explain how an excitatory neurotransmitter and inhibitory neurotransmitter impact a neuron. Excitatory
neurotransmitters will increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential, while inhibitory
neurotransmitters will decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential
12. What is hyperpolarization? This is when the inside of a neuron becomes more negative which moves it farther
away from its threshold or intensity needed for an action potential
13. Complete the table below.
Type of Neurotransmitter Description

Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Dopamine Helps with movement, learning ,attention, emotions, known also as a natural drug
because of how it impacts your feelings & emotions

Serotonin Impacts hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

Endorphins Helps with pain control

Epinephrine Same chemical as adrenaline, helps the body respond to high emotional situations
by increasing blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness & helps form memories

Norepinephrine Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness

Glutamate Involved with excitatory messages, helps with long term memory and learning

GABA Helps with sleep and movement, this slows down your nervous system

Topic 2.5- Influence of Drugs on Neural Firing

1. Describe the difference between agonists and antagonists drugs. Agonist drugs will increase the effects of a
certain neurotransmitter, while agonist drugs will minimize the effects of a neurotransmitter or stop them
completely
2. Explain how agonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse. Agonist drugs work by either binding to receptors
that are made for a certain neurotransmitter so that the body will act as though there are more of that
neurotransmitter or will block the normal reuptake so that there are more of that neurotransmitter that will stay in
the synapse available to be used
3. Explain how antagonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse. Antagonist drugs will either block the receptors
on the postsynaptic neuron so that the neurotransmitters are not able to bind to them or will block the release of
the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic axon terminal

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Topic 2.5- Influence of Drugs on Neural Firing (Continued)
4. Describe the difference between agonists and antagonists drugs. Agonist drugs will increase the effects of a
certain neurotransmitter, while agonist drugs will minimize the effects of a neurotransmitter or stop them
completely
5. Explain how agonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse. Agonist drugs work by either binding to receptors
that are made for a certain neurotransmitter so that the body will act as though there are more of that
neurotransmitter or will block the normal reuptake so that there are more of that neurotransmitter that will stay in
the synapse available to be used
6. Explain how antagonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse. Antagonist drugs will either block the receptors
on the postsynaptic neuron so that the neurotransmitters are not able to bind to them or will block the release of
the neurotransmitter from the presynaptic axon terminal
7. Identify an example of an agonist substance and describe its impact on the body. Examples include; 1)
Anti-anxiety medications such as Xanax, which increases the neurotransmitter GABA, which calms the person
down. 2) Prozac, which delays the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin, making it more available and
helping elevate or stabilize the person's mood. 3) Opioids, which act like the neurotransmitter endorphins, which
will help relieve pain and boost happiness. 4) Alcohol, which will bind to GABA receptors, which is why a
person can get tired/relaxed from drinking
8. Identify an example of an antagonist substance and describe its impact on the body. Examples include; 1)
Schizophrenia medication, which blocks the receptors for dopamine because the person is thought to have an
excess amount and will reduce their symptoms. 2) Alcohol, which will block the release of glutamate, which
slows down the body's neural activity, such as slurred speech.
Topic 2.6- The Brain
1. Complete the table below.

Brain Structure: Broca’s Area Brain Structure: Wernicke’s area Brain Structure: Medulla
Oblongata

Description: Responsible for Description: Responsible for the Description: Controls breathing,
controlling the muscles needed to ability to comprehend speech and heart rate, and blood pressure.
speak. (Located in the Frontal create meaningful speech. (Located
lobe) in the Temporal Lobe)

Brain Structure: Pons Brain Structure: Cerebellum Brain Structure: Brainstem

Description: Works with Description: Enables smooth Description: Contains the

cerebellum to coordinate muscle movements, maintains midbrain, pons, and medulla.
movement and helps coordinate equilibrium. Controls basic autonomic functions
sleep. (breathing, heart rate, digestion,
salivation)

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Topic 2.6- The Brain (Continued)
1. Complete the table below. (Continued)

Brain Structure: Reticular

Structure: Spinal Cord Brain Structure: MidBrain Formation

Description: Track of nerve fibers Description: Part of the brainstem Description: A collection of nerve
that connects the brain to the rest of that relays information for the fibers that tunnel through the
the body visual and auditory systems, and brainstem that are involved with
has motor and sensory tracts that alertness and arousal.
go through it. Also contains the
reticular formation and RAS

Brain Structure: Reticular

Brain Structure: Cerebrum
Activating System (RAS) Brain Structure: Cerebral Cortex

Description: The part of the Description: A general term to Description: A thin layer of gray
reticular formation that is describe the brain, not including matter that covers the entire brain
specifically for the brainstem and cerebellum
arousal/alertness/sleep-wake cycles

Brain Structure: Corpus Callosum Brain Structure: Frontal Lobe Brain Structure: Prefrontal Cortex

Description: A tract of nerve fibers Description: One of the four lobes Description: Front part of the
that runs longitudinally down the of the brain, involved in higher cerebral cortex where planning,
center of the brain and connects the level thinking and motor emotional expression, & complex
two hemispheres functions thought occurs(Location: frontal
lobe)

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Topic 2.6- The Brain (Continued)
1. Complete the table below. (Continued)

Brain Structure: Motor Cortex Motor Homunculus Brain Structure: Parietal

Lobe

Description: The part of the cortex Description: A visual representation Description: One of the four
that allows control of voluntary that shows how much brain area is lobes of the brain, involved
movement. (Located in the frontal devoted to the movement of each body in processing sensory stimuli
lobe) part, showing how complex the
movements are

Brain Structure: Somatosensory

Cortex Brain Structure: Occipital
Sensory Homunculus Lobe

Description: Part of the cortex that Description: A visual representation Description: One of the four
processes touch sensations. (Located that shows how much brain area is main lobes, contains areas
in the Parietal lobe) devoted to the sensations of each body that process visual
part, showing how sensitive to stimuli information
they are

Brain Structure: Visual Cortex Brain Structure: Temporal Lobe Brain Structure: Angular
Gyrus

Description: The part of the cortex Description: One of the four lobes of Description: An area of the
that processes the visual information the brain, primarily processes auditory brain involved in reading and
and sends it to be further processed information, also is important in writing. (Located at the
in other visual areas. (Located in the memory formation lower part of the Parietal
Occipital lobe) lobe)

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Topic 2.6- The Brain (Continued)
1. Complete the table below. (Continued)

Brain Structure: Auditory Cortex Brain Structure: Thalamus Brain Structure: Limbic
System

Description: The part of the cortex that Description: A structure on the Description: A group of brain
processes auditory information. (Located top of the brain stem serves as a structures that are involved in
in the Temporal lobe) relay station for impulses from emotion, learning, memory,
the body to areas of the cerebral and some basic drives
cortex

Brain Structure:
Brain Structure: Hippocampus Brain Structure: Amygdala Hypothalamus

Description: A structure that is involved in Description: A structure that is Description: A structure that
the creation of memories and learning. important for emotion, controls the autonomic
(Located in the temporal lobe, and part of threat/fear perception, and functions of the body and
the Limbic system) memory. Located in the works with the pituitary gland
Temporal lobe and part of the to control hormones
Limbic system)

Brain Structure: Nucleus Accumbens

Brain Structure: Basal Ganglia

Description: A structure that mainly Description: A structure that is involved with voluntary
functions in the pleasure/reward circuit movement
and reinforcing behaviors

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Topic 2.6- The Brain (Continued)
2. What are the three major regions of the brain and their locations? 1) Hindbrain, located at the bottom of the
brain 2) Midbrain up from the base of the brain and is surrounded by the forebrain 3) Forebrain is the top of the
brain and is what most people visualize about the brain
3. Explain what brain lateralization is. This is the differing functions between the right and left hemispheres of the
brain
4. Describe what roles the left and right brain are better at due to hemispheric specialization. An individual is not
right or left brained. The left hemisphere is generally better at recognizing words, letters, interpreting language,
and the right hemisphere is generally better at spatial concepts, facial recognition, and discerning direction
Topic 2.7- Tools for Examining Brain Structures and Function
1. Explain what happened to Phineas Gage. He was a railroad worker who was injured by an explosion where a
rod shot clean through his head. He was able to walk and suffered no cognitive defects, but had a severe
personality change. This was because his limbic system was severed and his frontal lobe was damaged
2. What are Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga known for? Split-brain research
3. Why would someone have a split brain procedure done? To treat severe epilepsy
4. Describe what happens to an individual when the corpus callosum is cut. The right and left hemisphere can no
longer communicate. There is no loss of intelligence or change in a person’s personality
5. What happened to a split-brain patient when shown a word in their right visual field? The patient would be able
to say the word, because the word would be processed by the left hemisphere of the brain, which processes
language
6. Explain when lesion studies would be used. This is when doctors or researchers will destroy specific parts of
the brain, with the goal of treating a disorder, or gaining insight into different functions of the brain because they
can isolate a specific area at a time to research
7. Identify two benefits to performing an autopsy on an individual’s brain. 1) Helps understand the extent of a
disease 2) Provides information for an individual’s next of kin 3) Helps understand cause of death
8. Complete the table below.
Neuroimaging technique Description

Electroencephalogram Electrodes are placed on an individual’s scalp. This allows researchers to record
(EEG) electrical signals from neurons firing, which can be used for sleep and seizure
research

Computed tomography A series of advanced x-rays of the brain. Used to locate brain damage, tumors,
(CT) and more.

Positron emission Involves injecting a small amount of radioactive glucose into an individual and
tomography (PET scan) then tracking the usage of glucose in specific regions of the brain.

Magnetic resonance Provides a detailed picture of the brain by using a strong magnetic field to cause
imaging (MRI) molecules to vibrate at different frequencies

Functional magnetic Scan is similar to an MRI, but fMRI scans show the MRI images in real time
resonance imaging (fMRI) while the brain is active.

Topic 2.8- The Adaptable Brain

1. What is neuroplasticity? The ability for the brain to change, modify itself, or repair itself
2. Identify three ways in which the brain can be damaged. 1) Tumors 2) Infections 3) A Stroke 4) Neurotoxins 5)
Genetic factors 6) Head injuries
3. What happens when you learn new information or practice old skills? The brain creates neural pathways and
the more you practice a skill or study information the more developed the path becomes
4. What is an individual’s consciousness? When an individual is awake and aware of their external stimuli and
their own mental activity

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Topic 2.8- The Adaptable Brain (Continued)
5. Explain how Sigmund Frued and William James viewed consciousness. James argued our consciousness was a
stream, that you could not break into parts. Freud believed that our consciousness was made up of the conscious
mind, subconscious mind, and unconscious mind
6. Complete the table below.
Psychoactive Drugs Description

Psychoactive Substances that are used to purposefully alter an individual’s perceptions,

consciousness, or mood

Depressants Drugs that cause drowsiness, muscle relaxation, lowered breathing, or possibly
slurred speech

Opioids Function as a depressant, but are addictive in nature. Give an individual pain relief
(Example: Morphine, heroin, or oxycodone)

Stimulants Drugs that excite and promote neural activity. (Example: caffeine, nicotine, or
cocaine)

Hallucinogens Drugs that cause an individual to sense things that are not there. (Example: Marijuana,
peyote, or LSD)

Topic 2.9- Sleep and Dreaming

1. What is the circadian rhythm? The body’s biological clock, that involves changing blood pressure, internal
temperature, hormones, and regulates the sleep-wake cycle. (repeats every 24 hours)
2. Complete the table below.
Why Do We Sleep?

Restoration Theory We get tired from daily activities and we sleep to restore our energy and resources

Adaptive Theory Sleep allows us to conserve energy so we can save it for when we will need it most.
Focuses on the evolutionary aspects of sleep and how it protects us

Information Focuses on how sleep allows us to restore and build memories

processing theory
3. What type of neuroimaging technique can be used to visualize the sleep cycle? EEG
4. Describe the difference between alpha waves and beta waves. Alpha waves are high in amplitude and slower,
these occur when you are feeling relaxed. Beta waves are low in amplitude and are the fastest brain waves, they
occur when you are engaged in mental activities
5. Describe the difference between theta waves and delta waves. Theta waves are greater in amplitude compared
to beta/alpha waves and even slower in frequency, they are strong during mediation, and periods of relaxation.
Delta waves have the greatest amplitude and slowest frequency, and occur when you are the most relaxed,
oftentimes during your deepest levels of sleep
6. Complete the table below.
Stages of Sleep Description Brain Waves

NREM Stage 1 Very light sleep that only lasts between 5-10 minutes. Here your body will Alpha waves
start to relax and your mind starts to slow

NREM Stage 2 Transitional stage. Normally it only lasts 10-20 minutes. Characterized by Theta waves
k-complexes and sleep spindles

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Topic 2.9- Sleep and Dreaming (Continued)
6. Complete the table below. (Continued)
Stages of Sleep Description Brain Waves

NREM Stage 3 Deepest state of sleep. Normally it lasts around 30 minutes. Here growth Delta Waves
hormones are produced and individuals may experience sleepwalking or
sleep talking

REM External muscles are paralyzed, internal muscles and structures become Beta Waves
active. Normally it lasts for 10 minutes. Here individuals experience
dreams and brain activity is similar to when the person is awake.
7. What are hypnagogic sensations and what stage of sleep would they occur? Sensations that you imagine feel
real. For example feeling that you are falling. This happens in NREM stage 1
8. Complete the table below.
Dream Theory Description

Activation-synthesis model Dreams are our brain trying to make sense of random neural activity that is
happening

Cognitive development theory Dreams are a reflection of our cognitive development, so dreams are more
simple for children then they are for adults

Activation theory Specific areas are activated and depending on which area of the brain is
active, your dreams will have different content

Physiological function Dreams stimulate our neural pathways and allow them to be preserved and
grow
9. Complete the table below.
Sleep Disorder Description

Insomnia When an individual has trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. This could
be caused due to stress, pain, medication, or an irregular sleep schedule

Sleep apnea When an individual struggles with their breathing while sleeping. This
prevents an individual from being able to go into REM

Sleep terrors/ Night terrors When an individual will experience intense fear while sleeping. Causing an
individual to have sleep deprivation and a disrupted sleep schedule

Narcolepsy Individuals may struggle to go asleep at night but uncontrollably fall asleep
during the day. (Very rare)

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