ASSIGNMENT NO 02
SUBMITTED TO:
SIR ASAD MUNIR
SUMITTED BY:
ANDLEEB ASHRAF
SU72-BSZGM-F22-016
PROGRAM:
BS ZOOLOGY
SEMESTER:
6th
TOPIC:
HUMAN EVOLUTION
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Human evolution is the gradual process by which modern humans (Homo sapiens) developed from
apelike ancestors over millions of years. This journey involved significant changes in physical and
behavioral traits, including bipedalism, brain size, and the development of complex tools and
culture. Modern humans originated in Africa within the past 200,000 years and subsequently migrated to
other continents.
EARLY HOMININS (Pre-Australopithecines)
Early hominins, often referred to as pre-australopithecines, represent the oldest known hominin species,
predating the more well-known australopithecines. These early hominins, including Sahelanthropus,
Orrorin, and Ardipithecus, exhibited traits indicating a shift towards bipedalism, a key evolutionary
feature that distinguishes early hominins from apes.
1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis (~7 million years ago)
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, commonly known as Toumaï, is an extinct hominin species considered one of
the oldest possible ancestors of humans, dating back 7 million years. Fossil remains, including a partial
cranium, were discovered in Chad, central Africa, in 2002. Sahelanthropus exhibits a blend of ape-like
and human-like features, including a small brain size, sloping face, and prominent brow ridges, but also
small canine teeth and a spinal cord opening under the skull, suggesting some bipedalism. Small canine
teeth, short facial profile, spinal cord opening under the skull.
Example: Toumaï
2. Orrorin tugenensis (~6 million years ago)
Orrorin tugenensis, a species of hominin discovered in 2000, is a candidate for a very early human
ancestor, dating back 6 to 5.8 million years. Found in the Tugen Hills of Kenya, these fossils include teeth,
a lower jaw, humerus (upper arm bone), and femur fragments. Orrorin tugenensis exhibits features that
suggest both bipedalism (walking upright) and arboreal (tree-dwelling) habits, with some anatomical
features like small teeth and thick enamel resembling those of modern humans.
Example: Millennium Man
3. Ardipithecus ramidus (~4.4 million years ago)
Ardipithecus ramidus, nicknamed "Ardi," was a hominin species that lived approximately 4.4 million
years ago in the Afar region of Ethiopia. It is notable for its combination of bipedal and arboreal traits,
suggesting an early transition towards human-like upright walking while still retaining some ape-like
features. Ardi's discovery provided significant insights into the early stages of human evolution and the
transition from ape-like locomotion to bipedalism.
Example: Ardi
AUSTRALOPITHS
The australopiths are a group of early hominins (humans and their close extinct relatives) that lived in
Africa between approximately 4.1 and 1.4 million years ago. Formerly known as the australopithecines,
they are not a “natural” group, in that they do not represent all of the descendants of a single common
ancestor (i.e., they are not a “clade”).
4. Australopithecus anamensis
Australopithecus anamensis is an early hominin species that lived approximately 4.3 to 3.8 million years
ago, making it the oldest known Australopithecus. Fossil evidence, primarily from northern Kenya
(Kanapoi and Allia Bay), indicates it may have coexisted with Australopithecus afarensis for a period. The
species is believed to have been a key link in the lineage leading to later hominins, including Homo and
Paranthropus, and is considered the direct ancestor of A. afarensis.
Example: Kanapoi Hominin
5. Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus afarensis, also known as the "southern ape from Afar," was a hominin species that lived
in East Africa between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. Famous for the "Lucy" specimen, it is one of the
best-known early human species due to a rich fossil record. Au. afarensis exhibits a mix of ape-like and
human-like features, including a projecting face, an upright stance, and a small brain size.
6. Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus africanus is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived between about 3.3 and
2.1 million years ago in the Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of South Africa. The species has been
recovered from Taung, Sterkfontein, Makapansgat, and Gladysvale.
PARANTHROPUS ROBUSTUS
Paranthropus had a massively built, tall and flat skull, with a prominent gorilla-like sagittal crest along the
midline which anchored large temporalis muscles used in chewing. Like other australopithecines,
Paranthropus exhibited sexual dimorphism, with males notably larger than females.
7. Paranthropus aethiopicus
Paranthropus aethiopicus, often referred to as the "Black Skull," is an extinct species of robust hominin
that lived in East Africa around 2.7 to 2.3 million years ago. It is the earliest known member of the
Paranthropus genus and is characterized by its robust skull, face, and mandible, with a strong sagittal
crest and large zygomatic arches, indicating adaptations for heavy chewing.
Example: Black Skull
8. Paranthropus boisei
Boisei is characterized by a specialized skull with adaptations for heavy chewing . A strong sagittal crest on the
midline of the top of the skull anchored the temporalis muscles (large chewing muscles) from the top and side of
the braincase to the lower jaw, and thus moved the massive jaw up and down.
9. Paranthropus robustus
Paranthropus robustus was a robust australopithecine hominin that lived in South Africa between 2.27
and 0.87 million years ago. Known for its large, robust jaws and teeth, as well as its wide, dish-shaped
face, P. robustus is thought to have been adapted to a diet of hard, low-quality foods.
EARLY HOMO SPECIES
The earliest well-known species within the Homo genus include Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, and
Homo erectus. Homo habilis is often considered the earliest, with fossil records dating back around 2.8
million years ago. Homo erectus is notable for being the first human species to leave Africa and colonize
other continents, and for its use of fire.
10. Homo habilis
This species known as 'handy man' because stone tools were found near its fossil remains and it is
assumed this species had developed the ability to modify stone into tools.
[Link] rudolfensis
Homo rudolfensis was an early human species that lived in East Africa approximately 2 million years
ago. The species is known from a few fossils, primarily from Lake Turkana (formerly Lake Rudolf) in
Kenya. Homo rudolfensis is characterized by a larger brain size compared to Homo habilis and other early
hominins, as well as robust teeth, a long face, and a large cranial capacity.
12. Homo ergaster
Homo ergaster was the first of our ancestors to look more like modern humans. These people were
generally tall and slender and may also have been relatively hairless. Not everyone accepts this species
name, some still prefer to use the term African Homo erectus.
LATER HOMO SPECIES
[Link] erectus
This species is considered a pivotal ancestor to later humans, including Neanderthals and modern
humans. It was also the first hominin species to leave Africa and colonize other continents like Asia
and Europe.
Example: Java Man
[Link] heidelbergensis
Homo heidelbergensis was an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human, with fossils found in Africa,
Europe, and possibly Asia, dating back to around 600,000 to 200,000 years ago. It's considered a
transitional species between Homo erectus and the ancestors of modern humans and Neanderthals.
[Link] neanderthalensis
Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as Neanderthals, were an extinct species of human that lived
in Europe and parts of Asia during the Pleistocene epoch. They are characterized by their robust build,
large cranial capacity, and distinctive cranial features like thick brow ridges .
[Link] floresiensis
Homo floresiensis, nicknamed "the hobbit," was a small-statured, early human species discovered on the
island of Flores, Indonesia. They are known for their diminutive size, estimated at around 3 feet 6 inches
tall, and their small brains, which were about a third the size of modern human brains. Despite their
small stature, Homo floresiensis were capable of using stone tools, hunting small elephants, and
potentially using fire.
[Link] naledi
Homo naledi is an extinct species of hominin discovered in the Rising Star cave system in South Africa. It
is characterized by a mix of primitive and advanced features, suggesting a unique evolutionary position
within the human family tree. The species lived between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago.
[Link] denisova
Denisovans may represent a new species of Homo or an archaic subspecies of Homo sapiens (modern
humans), but there are too few fossils to erect a proper taxon. Proactively proposed species names for
Denisovans are H. denisova or H. altaiensis.
MODERN HUMAN
Modern humans, scientifically known as Homo sapiens, are the sole surviving species of the genus
Homo.
[Link] sapiens
Humans or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last
surviving species of the genus Homo. They are great apes characterized by their hairlessness, bipedalism,
and high intellig ence.