Chapter 2

LOADS ON BRIDGES

2.10 LOADS, TYPES OF LOADS

Loads – The freight, burden or weights acted upon a bridge where the
design is based.
2.11 Types of Loads
[Link] Loads – the weight of the structure completed, including the
roadway, sidewalks, car tracts, pipe conduits, cables and other public
utility services.

If separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is

constructed or if placement of separate wearing surface is
anticipated in the future, adequate allowance shall be made for its
weight in the design dead load.

The following unit weights shall be used in computing the

dead loads;
Steel or cast steel ------------------ 76,913 N/m3
Cast Iron ----------------------- 70,635
Aluminum alloys ------------------- 27,469
Timber (Treated or untreated) ---------- 7,848
Concrete, plain or reinforced ------------ 23,545
Compacted sand, earth and gravel or ballast -- 18,836
Loose sand, gravel and earth ------------ 15,687
Macadam or gravel, rolled ------------- 21,975
Cinder filling --------------------- 9,418
Pavement, other than wood block -------- 23,545
Railway rails, guard rail and fastening ------ 31,393
(per linear foot of truck)
Asphalt plank, 25.0 mm thick ------------ 430 Pa
Stone Masonry ------------------- 26,000 N/m3

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 [Link] Loads – Weight of the applied moving load of vehicles, cars and
pedestrians.

2.12 Types of Live loadings

A. Truck Loadings – Standard idealized trucks weights which are
equivalent to a series of trucks.

Two Systems of Truck Loadings:

1) M (H)–Loadings – Represented by two-axle truck and the gross
weight is divided between the front and rear axles, (Refer to
Standard M(H) trucks at next page).

2) MS (HS)-Loadings – Represented by two-axle truck plus a

single axle trailer van, (Refer to Standard MS(HS) trucks at next
page).

B. Lane Loadings – Are designed to approximate the effect of series

of truck loadings, govern the design of longer-span bridge. This
loading shall be used when produces greater stresses than the
corresponding truck loadings, (Refer to M(H) and 9HS) Land
Loadings).

C. Other Roadway Loadings

If bridge maybe required to carry railways, railroad freight

cars, military vehicles, or other extra ordinary vehicles; it should
be considered in the design and loads of such traffic shall be
determined and added. It is also known as Overload Protections.

Provision for Overload:

1. It shall apply to all loadings except the M18 (H20) and MS
18(HS 20).

2. Heavy loads shall be made by applying in any single lane as M

(H) or MS (HS) trucks as specified, increased 100 percent, and
without concurrent loading of any other lanes. Combined deed,
live and impact stresses resulting from such loadings shall not

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be greater than 150 percent of the allowable stresses
prescribed herein. The overload shall apply to all parts of the
structures affected, except in the roadway deck.

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Figure 2.10: Truck MH Loadings

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Figure 2.20: Truck MS (HS) Loadings

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Figure 2.30: Sidewalk, Curb and Railway Loadings

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 Sidewalk floors, stringers and other immediate supports shall be
design for a live load of 4,070 Pa of sidewalk area.
Girders, trusses, arches and other members shall be designed for
the following sidewalk live loads.
Span 0 to 7.62 m in - - - - - - - - - - 4,07 Pa/
length 0 area
Spans 7.952 m to 30.48 in ----- 2,87 Pa/
length 3 area
Spans over 30.48 meters in length, use the formula:

[
P = 1,435 +
][ ][
43,800 16 . 7 - W 55 - W
L 15 . 2 L ]
Where:
P = Live load per m2, Maximum 2.873 Pa
L = Loaded length of sidewalk in meters
W = Width of sidewalk in meter
Note:
1. In calculating stresses in structures which supports
cantilever sidewalks shall be considered as fully loaded
on only one side of the structure if this condition
produces maximum stress.

2. Pedestrian bridges, shall be designed for a liveload of

4,070 Pa for walkway area.

2.20 APPLICATION OF LOADINGS

A. Minimum Loadings
Bridges supporting highway which carry heavy truck traffic,
shall be designed for MS 18 (HS-20-44) loading or an Alternate
Military Loading of tandem axles 1.20 m apart with each axle
weighing 108 Kn whichever produces the greatest stress.
[Link] Lane Loadings
The lane loading or standard truck shall be assumed to occupy
a width of 3.048 meters. These loads shall be placed in 3.658-
meter-wide design traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge

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 roadway width in numbers and positions required to produce the
maximum stress in the member under consideration. Roadway
width shall be the distance between curbs. Fractional parts of
design lanes shall not be used. Roadway width from 6.50 m to
7.315 shall have two design lanes equal to one-half the roadway
width.

2.21 Loading for Maximum Stress

The type of loading, whether lane loading or truck loading, to
be used, and whether the spans be simple or continuous, shall be
the loading which produces the maximum stress.
1) The axle spacing for MS (HS) trucks shall be varied between
the specified limits.
2) For discontinuous spans, the lane loading shall be continuous
or discontinuous, as maybe necessary to produce maximum
stress, and the concentrated load or loads shall be placed in
a position to produce maximum stresses.
3) For continuous spans, only one standard M (H) or MS (HS)
truck per lane shall be considered on the structure and place
so as to produce maximum positive and negative moments.
4) Where maximum stresses are produced in any member by
loading any number of traffic lanes simultaneously, the
following percentages of the resultant liveload stresses shall
be used in view of the coincident maximum loadings:

One or two - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 100

lanes - %
Three ------------------------ 90%
lanes -
Four or more - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 75%
lanes --

2.30 LOADS AND FORCES ON BRIDGES

Structures shall be proportioned for the following loads and forces
when they exist.
A. Loads
1. Dead Loads 3. Impact or dynamic effect of live loads
2. Live Loads 4. Wind Loads

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 B. Forces (when they exist)

1. Longitudinal Forces 6. Shrinkage Stresses

2. Centrifugal Forces 7. Rib shortening
3. Thermal Forces 8. Erection Stresses
4. Earth Pressure 9. Current Pressure
5. Buoyancy 10. Earthquake Stresses

2.31 Load and Resistance Factor Design

Format of the many multiple safety factor in vogue, perhaps the

simplest to understand is the Load and Resistance Factor Design
(LRFD), which is adopted from the ACI Code and practice in the
Philippines using the aid of the National Structural code of the
Philippines.

Reference Code of Practice, NSCP 2015, Volume 1

Symbols and Notations

D = dead load
E = earthquake load
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be develop in the
structure.
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressure and maximum
heights.
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil.
L = live load, except road live load, including any permitted live load
reduction.
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction.
P = ponding load.
R = rain load on the undeflected roof.
T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or
expansion resulting from temperature change, shrinkage,
moisture change, creep in component materials, movement due
to different settlement, or combinations thereof.
W = load due to wind pressure.

Factored Load and Load Combinations used in the Applications

of Load and Resistance Factor Design

Dead load: W = 1.2D Load Due to Fluid: W = 1.4F

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 Live Load: W = 1.6L Load due to Temperature: W =
1.2T
Rain Load: W = 1.6R Wind Load: W = 1.0W
Load due to Lateral Earthquake Load: W = 1.0E
Force of Soil: W = 1.6H

Load Combinations: (from section 203 of NSCP 2015)

Structural failures usually occur under combinations of several

loads. In recent years these combinations have been presented in what
is referred to as the companion action format. The following were
modeled to compensate the new trend of analysis.
 Combination of Dead and Fluid Loads:
WU = 1.4(D + F) --- from NSCP, 2015, Section 203-1.
 Combinations of Dead, Fluid, Temperature Loads, Live loads with
Load due to Soil Force, Roof Live loads or Rain load.
WU = 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
 Combinations of Dead load, Roof Live load or Rain load added with
Live loads greater than 4.8 kPa.
WU = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1 or 0.5W)
 Combinations of Dead load, Wind load, added with Live loads
greater than 4.8 kPa. With Roof Live load or Rain load
WU = 1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R)
 Combinations of Dead Load, Earthquake Loads and other Live load
greater than 4.8 kPa.

WU = 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L

Where:
f 1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live
loads in excess
of 4.8kPa, and garage live load.
= 0.5 for other live loads

 Combinations of Dead, Wind Loads and Lateral Pressure of Soil.

WU = 0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H
 Combinations of Dead, Earthquake Loads and Lateral Pressure of
Soil
WU = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H

2.40 IMPACT LOADINGS

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 Live load stresses due to truck loading or equivalent lane loading
are increase to allow for vibration and the sudden application of the
load. The amount of this allowance or increment is expressed as a
fraction of live load stresses and shall be determined by the formula:
15 .25
I=
L + 38 Where: I = Impact Fraction
L= Length in meter of the
portion of the span which is loaded
to produce the maximum stress in
the member.
Note:
Maximum Impact allowance to be used shall be 30%
Impact shall be considered in the following:
1. Superstructure, including steel or supporting columns, steel
towers, legs of rigid frames and generally those portions of
structures which extend down to the main foundation.

2. The portion above the ground line of concrete or steel piles which
are rigidly connected in the superstructures as in rigid frames or
continuous designs.

Impact shall not be applied to the following:

1. Abutments, retaining walls, piers, piles except in 3.E.1 number 2.
2. Foundation pressures and footing
3. Timber structures
4. Sidewalk Loads
5. Culverts and structures having cover of 914 mm or more.

2.50 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADINGS

1. When a concentrated load is placed on a reinforced concrete slab,
the load is distributed over an area larger than the actual contact
area. For example, a concentrated load with a bearing area of 1.0
m2 were placed on the slab of a through-girder bridge, it is
reasonable to assume that, on account of the stiffness of the slab,
the strips of the slab at right angles to the girder and adjacent to 1
m – strip in direct contact with the load that would assist in
carrying the load.

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 2. The beams spaced fairly closely, with a concentrated load placed
over one of the beams would not be carried entirely with that
beam, part of the load is transferred and distributed to adjacent
beams.

3. No distribution is assumed in the direction of the span of the

member. The effect of the distribution would be comparatively
small.

2.51 RULES FOR DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON CONCRETE

SLABS
1. SPAN Lengths – For simple spans, the span length shall be the
distance center to center of support but shall not exceed clear span
plus thickness of slab.

The following EFFECTIVE SPAN LENGTH shall be used in

calculating the Distribution of Loads and Bending Moments for
slabs continuous or more than two supports:
a) Slabs monolithic with beam (without haunches): S = Clear Span
plus one-half the thickness of stringers
b) Slabs supported on stringers: S = Clear Span plus one-half the
thickness of stringers

2. Edge Distance of Wheel Load – For the design of slabs, the

centerline of wheel load shall be assumed to be 0.30 m from the
face of the curb.

3. Bending Moments
Bending Moments per meter width of slab shall be calculated
according to the method given in the following cases:
Case I: Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans
2.0 m to 8.0 m.
The live load moment for simple spans shall be determined
by the following formulas (Impact not included).
S + 0. 60
Moment (M )= P25 , Kn . m per meter width of slab
30

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 Where:S = Effective span length
M = Moment
P = Load on one rear wheel of truck

For MS 22.5 (HS – 25) = 180 KN

180 KN
p25= = 90 KN; This P 25 is the MS 22 . 5 ( HS - 25 )
2
S + 0. 60
M= pMS 18 ( HS - 20 )
30
144 KN
PMS 18= = 72 KN
2

Note:
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a
continuity factor of 0.80 shall be applied to the above
formulas for both positive and negative moments.

Case II: Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

Distribution of wheel loads E = 4 + 0.02S, maximum
of 2.0 meters. Lane loads are distributed over a width of
2E. Longitudinally reinforced slab shall be design for the
appropriate NS Loading.

The simple spans, the maximum live load Moment

(LLM) per meter width of slab without impact, is closely
approximated to the following formulas:
HS 25 Loading
Spans up to and including 15 meters
LLM = 1.22 S, KN.m
Spans 15.0 meters to 30.0 meters;
LLM = 1,000 (0.45 s – 6.0), KN.m
HS 20 Loading

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 Use three-fourths of the value obtained from HS 25
loadings.
Note:
Moments in continuous spans shall be determined
by suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane
loadings.

4. Edge Beams (Longitudinal)

It shall be provided for all slabs having main reinforcement
parallel to traffic. The beam may consist of a slab section
additionally reinforced for a beam integral with and deeper than
the slab and curb. It shall be designed to resist a Live load
Moment LLM = 0.10 PS.
Where: P = Wheel Load of H25 or H20
S = the span length in meter

Note:
This moment is for freely supported span. It may be reduced
by 20% for continuous spans unless a greater reduction results
from a more exact analysis.

5. Distribution Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be placed in the bottom of slabs
transverse to the main steel reinforcement to provide for the
lateral distribution of the concentrated live loads, except that
reinforcement will not be required for culverts or bridge slab when
the depth of the fill over the slab exceeds 0.60 meters. The amount
shall be the percentage of the main-reinforcement steel required
for the positive moment as given by the following formulas:
For Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic:
100
Percentage = , maximum 50%
√S
For Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic:

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 220
Percentage = , maximum 67%
√S
6. Shear and Bond Stresses on Slabs:

Shear designed for bending moment in accordance with the

above forgoing shall be considered satisfactory in bond and shear.

2.52 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS TO STRINGERS,

LONGITUDINAL BEAMS AND FLOOR BEAMS

The following rules governs the distribution:

1) Position of Loads for Shear

In calculating end shears and end reactions in transverse floor

beams and longitudinal beams and stringers, no lateral or
longitudinal distribution of the wheel shall be assumed for the
wheel or axle load adjacent to the end at which the stress is being
determined. For loads in other positions on the span, the
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
prescribed for moment.

2) Bending Moment in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams

In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams and

stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel loads shall be
assumed. The lateral distribution shall be determined as follows:
a) Interior stringers supporting concrete floors shall be designed
for loads determined in accordance with the following table, in
which S is the average spacing of stringers in meter:

Table 2.10: Average spacing of stringers in meters.

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 ONE TRAFFIC TWO OR MORE
LANE, TRAFFIC LANES,
FRACTION OF FRACTIONAL OF A
FLOOR SYSTEM WHEEL LOAD WHEEL LOAD TO
TO EACH EACH STRINGERS
STRINGERS

Concrete slab on S S
STEEL I – beam 2. 13 1. 7
stringers and pre-
stressed concrete
girder Smax = 3.0 m Smax = 4.5 m

Concrete Slabs S S
on Concrete 1. 8 1. 5
Stringers
Smax = 2.0 m Smax = 3.0 m

Concrete Box S S
girders 2. 44 2. 13
Smax = 4.0 m Smax = 5.0 m

Note: If S exceeds the maximum value, the load on each stringers

shall be the reaction of the wheel loads under the
assumption that the flooring between the stringers acts as a
simple beam.

b) The live load supported by the outside stringer shall be the

reaction of the truck wheels, under the assumption that the
flooring acts as simple beam between stringers.
c) The combined load capacity of all the beams in span shall not be
less than the total liveload and dead load in panel.

3) Bending Moment in Floor Beams (Transverse)

In calculating bending moments in floor beams, no transverse

distribution of the wheel load shall be assumed. If longitudinal

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 stringers are omitted and the concrete floor is supported directly
on floor beams, the fraction of the wheel loads allotted to each
floor beams Smax = 2.0 m, where S equals the spacing of beam in
meter. If S exceed 2.0 m, the load on the beam shall be the
reaction of the wheel loads, under the assumption that the flooring
between beams act as simple beam.

2.60 Wind Loads

Wind load on a bridge may act:
(1) Horizontally, transverse to the direction of the span.
(2) Horizontally, along the direction of the span.
(3) Vertically upwards causing uplift.

Wind load is not generally significant for short-span bridges; for

medium spans, the design of the sub-structure may be affected by wind
loading; the superstructure design is affected by wind only for long
spans. For bridges with high natural frequency of vibration, only the
static loading effect of wind needs to be considered. The dynamic
effect of wind, and the oscillation caused by it, is, however, very
important for bridges with low natural frequency.
In the AASHTO code [5] the transverse wind load is specified as:
1.0) 3.6 kN/m2 for trusses and arches
2.0) 2.4 kN/m 2 for girders and beams, to be applied to the total
exposed area in elevation.
The following minimum values are also specified, corresponding to
wind velocity of 161 km/h:
(1) 4.4 kN/m in the plane of the windward chord of a truss
(2) 2.2 kN/m in the plane of the leeward chord of a truss
(3) 4.4 kN/m on girder spans.

All these values may be reduced if a lower velocity is appropriate

to the particular location. These values are appropriate to the bridge
carrying no traffic load. When traffic is present, only 30% of the above
load on the structure is taken, plus a loading of 1.5 kN/m acting at
1.83 m above the deck.

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 The LRFD Specifications provide wind loads as a function of
base design wind velocity, VB equal to 100 mph (160 km/h); and base
pressures, PB, corresponding to wind speed V B. Values for PB are listed
in Table 2.20.
The design wind pressure, PD, is then calculated by the following
equation:

Where:
V DZ = is the design wind velocity at design elevation Z in
km/hr. It is a function of the friction velocity.
V O = km/hr multiplied by the ratio of the actual wind
velocity to the base wind velocity both at 30 ft (10
m) above grade, and the natural logarithm of the ratio
of height to a meteorological constant length for given
surface:

Values for Vo and Zo are shown in Table 2.30. The resultant design
pressure is then applied to the surface area of the superstructure.
Wind forces because of the additional surface area from trucks is
accounted for by applying a 0.10 k/ft (1.46 N/mm) load 6 ft (1800 mm)
above the bridge deck.
Wind loads for substructure design are of two types:
1.) Load applied to the substructure, and those applied to the
superstructure and transmitted to the substructure.
2.) Load applied to the superstructure.
A base wind pressure of 0.002 MPa force is applied directly to the
substructure, and is resolved into components (perpendicular to the
front and end elevations) when the structure is skewed.

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 In absence of live loads, an upward load of 0.0096 MPa is
multiplied by the width of the superstructure and applied at the
windward quarter point simultaneously with the horizontal wind loads
applied perpendicular to the length of the bridge. This uplift load may
create a worst condition for substructure design when seismic loads
are not of concern.
For Skew Bridge
The effect on sub-structures, forces in both transverse and
longitudinal directions are to be taken, their magnitudes depending on
the angle of skew. For zero skew angle, the transverse forces and the
longitudinal forces are zero; the former decreases and the latter
increases with increase in the skew angle. The wind loading on the
sub-structure itself is taken as 1.92 kN/m 2 corresponding to 161 km/h
wind speed, and the wind force is resolved into transverse and
longitudinal components corresponding to the skew angle of the wind
direction.

Table 2.20: Base Wind Pressure, P B, corresponding to VB=100 mph

(160 kph)

Table 2.30: Values of VO and ZO for various upstream surface

condition

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 Figure 2.40: Wind Velocity Profile

The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the
ground and the upstream terrain roughness, and therefore pressure on
a structure is also a function of these parameters. Velocity increases
with elevation, but at a decreasing rate. If the terrain is smooth, then
the velocity increases more rapidly with elevation. A typical velocity
profile is illustrated in Figure 2.40 above, where several key
parameters:
A.) The parameter Vg is the geotropic velocity or the velocity
independent of surface (boundary) effects.
B.) δ is the boundary layer thickness, usually defined as the height
where the velocity of 99% of Vg.
C.) V30 is the reference velocity at 30 ft.

2.70 Seismic Loads

Depending on the location of the bridge site, the anticipated
earthquake effects can be inconsequential or they can govern the
design of the lateral load resistance system.

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 In many cases the seismic loads are not critical and other lateral
loads, such as wind, govern the design. The provisions of the AASHTO
Specifications are based on the following principles
❑ Small-to-moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the
elastic range of the structural components without significant
damage.
❑ Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces are used in
the design procedures.
❑ Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause
collapse of all or part of the bridge. Where possible, damage should
be readily detectable and accessible for inspection and repair.
The AASHTO provisions apply to bridges with conventional slab,
girder, box girder, and truss superstructures whose spans do not
exceed 500 ft (150 m). Bridges with spans exceeding 500 ft (150 m)
and other bridge types, such as suspension bridges, cable-stayed
bridges, movable bridges, and arches, are not applicable.

2.71 SEISMIC DESIGN PROCEDURE

The six steps in the seismic design procedure are outlined
below:
1.) The first step is to arrive at a preliminary design describing the
type of bridge, the number of spans, the height of the piers, a
typical roadway cross section, horizontal alignment, type of
foundations, and subsurface conditions. The nature of the
connections between the spans of the super structure, between the
superstructure and the substructure, and between the substructure
and the foundation are also important. For example, if a bridge
superstructure has no deck joints and is integral with the
abutments, its response during a seismic event is quite different
from one with multiple expansion joints. There are also innovative
energy dissipating connections that can be placed below the
superstructure at the abutments and pier caps to effectively isolate
the superstructure from the effects of ground shaking. These
devices can substantially reduce the magnitude of the inertial
forces transmitted to a foundation component and can serve as a
structural fuse that can be replaced or repaired if a larger
earthquake occurs.

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2.) The second step is to determine the acceleration coefficient A
that is appropriate for the bridge site. There is a 10% probability
that an earthquake larger than the design earthquake implied by
the acceleration coefficient will occur.

3.) The third step is to determine the seismic performance zone

for each bridge. These seismic zones group together regions that
have similar seismic risk. The greater the acceleration coefficient,
the greater is the risk. The seismic zones are given in Table 2.40,
and the higher the number the greater are the seismic performance
requirements for the bridge in regard to the method of analysis, the
length of bridge seats, and the strength of connections.

Table 2.40: Seismic Performance Zone

4.) The fourth step is to determine the importance category of a

bridge. Following a seismic event, transportation routes to
hospitals, police and fire departments, communication centers,
temporary shelters and aid stations, power installations, water
treatment plants, military installations, major airports, defense
industries, refineries, and railroad and truck terminals must
continue to function. Bridges on such routes should be classified as
essential. In addition, a bridge that could collapse onto an essential
route should also be classified as essential. Table 2.50, summarizes
the characteristics of the three importance categories, one of which
must be assigned to each bridge. Consideration should be given to
possible future changes in the role of the bridge when assigning an
importance category.

Table 2.50: Importance Category

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5.) The fifth step is to determine a site coefficient S, which is
dependent on the soil conditions at the bridge site. The
acceleration coefficients given may be at some depth below the
surface where the bridge is located. Depending on the nature of the
soil overlying the rock, the acceleration at the surface can be
amplified to as much as double the acceleration in the rock. The
four soil profiles given in Table 2.60 are used to select an
approximate acceleration coefficient modifier from Table 2.70. In
locations where the soil conditions are not known in sufficient
detail or the soil profile does not fit any of the four types, the
AASHTO Specifications state that a type II soil profile shall be used.
The use of this default site condition could be nonconservative and
should not be used unless type III and type IV soil profiles have
been ruled out by a geological or geotechnical engineer.

Table 2.60: Soil Profiles

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 Table 2.70: Site Coefficients

6.) The sixth step is to determine the response modification

factors (R factors), which reduce the seismic force based on an
elastic analysis of the bridge system. The force effects from an
elastic analysis are to be divided by the response modification
factors given in Table 2.80. The use of these R factors, generally
greater than 1, recognizes that when a design seismic event (475-
year return period) occurs, energy is dissipated through inelastic
deformation (hinging) in the substructure. This energy dissipation
actually protects the structure from large shocks and allows it to be

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designed for reduced forces. In the event a large earthquake (2500-
year return period) should occur, the hinging regions may have to
be repaired, but, if all of the components are properly tied
together, collapse does not occur. To ensure that proper attention
is given to the transfer of internal actions from one component to
another, the R factors for connections given in Table 2.90 do not
reduce, and in some cases amplify, the force effects from an elastic
analysis. Based on the information obtained by completing the
above steps, decisions can be made regarding the level of seismic
analysis required, the design forces, and the design displacement
requirements. For example, single-span bridges and bridges in
seismic zone 1 do not have to be analyzed for seismic loads, while
critical bridges in seismic zone 4 require a rigorous method of
seismic analysis.

Table 2.80: Response Modification Factors – substructures

Table 2.90:

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2.72 Minimum Seismic Design Connection Forces

When ground shaking due to an earthquake occurs and a bridge

superstructure is set in motion, inertial forces equal to the mass times
the acceleration are developed. These forces can be in any direction and
must be restrained, or dissipated, at the connection between the
superstructure and substructure. For a single-span bridge, the minimum
design connection force in the restrained direction is to be taken as the
product of the acceleration coefficient and the tributary dead load
associated with that connection. Bridges in seismic zone 1 do not
require a seismic analysis, and therefore nominal values are specified
for the connection forces. To obtain the horizontal seismic forces in a
restrained direction, the tributary dead load is multiplied by the value
given in Table 2.100. The tributary dead load to be used when
calculating the longitudinal connection force at a fixed bearing of a
continuous segment or simply supported span is the total dead load of
the segment. If each bearing in a segment restrains translation in the
transverse direction, the tributary dead load to be used in calculating
the transverse connection force is the dead-load reaction at the bearing.
If each bearing supporting a segment is an elastomeric bearing, which
offers little or no restraint, the connection is to be designed to resist the
seismic shear forces transmitted through the bearing, but not less than
the values represented by the multipliers in Table 2.100

Table 2.100: Multiplier for connection force in seismic one

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 Example Problem:

Determine the minimum longitudinal and transverse connection forces

for a simply supported bridge span of 21 meters in Montgomery County,
Virginia (zone 1), with a dead load of 115kN/m founded on soil type II.
Assume that in the longitudinal direction, one connection is free to move
while the other is fixed and that in the transverse direction both
connections to the abutment are restrained.

Solution:
Acceleration coefficient A = 0.075
Site coefficient, S = 1.2
Total dead load, WD = 115kN/m (21 m) = 2,415kN.
Connection force, FC = ma = (WD /g) (A × S × g) = WD AS
Longitudinal (min) FCL = (2,415kN) (0.075) (1.2) = 217.35kN
For maximum value a fixed end, used 0.20 of table 2.100.
Longitudinal (max), FCL = 2,415kN (0.20) = 483kN at fixed end
(controls)
483
Transverse, FCT = 1/2 FCL = = 241.2 kN. per abutment
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2.73 From National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015, Volume

1

LSG27
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