Cambridge International AS and A level Physics

b −2.4 × 10 −19 to −7.6 × 10 −19 J b E 1 mv 2 =

(mv )2
2
2m
c 5.2 × 10 −19 J
d −2.4 × 10 −19 to −3.0 × 10 −19 J
mv = ( mE )
h h
4 a a range of energies which an electron in a solid cannot have λ= =
b energy of photon = 3.32 × 10 −19 J; band gap 2.4 × 10 −19 J
mv ( )
c An electron may absorb a photon and move from valence to c 2.7 × 10 −11
m
conduction band. It is free to move in the conduction band d The wavelength is similar to the spacing of the atoms in the
and the resistance decreases. crystal.
d 3.6 × 1014 Hz
3 a Each line corresponds to one wavelength or frequency. Since
5 a a range of electron energies in which electrons are free to E = hf this implies there is a specific or discrete energy change
move throughout the material E1 − E2 between energy levels.
b 1.1 × 10 −6 m b i 2.23 and 3.47 eV (or 3.57 × 10 −19 and 5.55 × 10 −19 J)
c The thermal energy of electrons in the valence band is not ii from A to B (557 nm) and from A to C (358 nm)
enough for the electron to reach the conduction band. iii −1.51 eV
d Electrons move around the conduction band; at higher iv 1.00 × 10 −6 m
temperatures the atoms in the solid vibrate with larger
amplitudes and the free movement of the electrons is Chapter 31:
restricted.
Nuclear Physics
Exercise 30.4 De Broglie
Exercise 31.1 Balancing equations
1 the wavelength associated with a moving particle
1
1 p; proton
1
2 a 4.5 × 10 −10 m
b 2.7 × 10 −23 N s 2 a 1
c 2.5 × 10 −11 m b 0
48
c neutron
3 a 1.3 × 10 −22 N s
d fission
b 7.8 × 10 4 m s −1
3 a 2
4 a 1.6 × 10 −16 J
b positron
b 1.9 × 107 m s −1
c fusion
c 1.7 × 10 −23 N s
d They are protons with a positive charge and repel each other,
d 3.9 × 10 −11 m so high amounts of energy are required to force the particles
together.
5 a electron diffraction
b λ wave p particle 4 a 234
J s (Nm s ) b alpha-particle (a helium nucleus)
= = m
c
(N s) (N s) c alpha emission
6 a 6.6 × 10 −35
m 5 3
2 He + 01n → 42He
b If wavelength is much less than the gap then no diffraction is
6 10
5 B + 01n → 73Li + 42He
observed. Spacing of atoms provides a gap for diffraction of
electrons.
Exercise 31.2 Mass defect, mass excess and
Exam-style questions binding energy
1 a The energy of the photon is lower than the work function. 1 binding energy: the minimum external energy required to
separate all the nucleons in a nucleus to infinity
b Emission occurs immediately the light strikes the surface; the
maximum KE of the photoelectrons does not depend on light nucleon number: the total number of protons and neutrons in one
intensity but only on the frequency of the light. nucleus
c 9.2 × 1014 Hz mass excess: the difference between the mass of a nuclide (in u)
d 6.6 eV and its nucleon number

2 a de Broglie wavelength = Planck’s constant/momentum mass defect: the difference between the total mass of the
individual, separate nucleons and the mass of the nucleus
2 a 9.0 ×1013 J
 Answers

b 1 u = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg In fusion the binding energy of the nucleus formed is more
= 1.66 × 10 −27 × (3 × 108)2 J than the sum of the binding energies of the original nuclei.
= 1.49 × 10 −10 J In fission, the binding energy of the parent nucleus is less than
1.49 × 10 −10 the sum of the binding energies of the fragments formed.
= eV
1.6 × 10 −19 d There is a steeper increase in binding energy/nucleon at low
= 9.3 × 108 eV nucleon numbers, where fusion occurs, than the decrease
in binding energy/nucleon at high nucleon numbers, where
= 930 MeV
fission occurs.
c It is a single nucleon and cannot be split into smaller e The nucleus formed has lower binding energy per nucleon
nucleons. than the original nucleus and thus the total binding energy
after fusion is less than before. This is only possible if the
3 a 0.0278 u initial nuclei have large kinetic energy.
b −0.0215 u f 3 × 10 −10 J
c 227.9784 u g 1.6 × 10 −10 J
4 a 90 protons and 138 neutrons h Your answer should be 2 × g − f
b 3.8167 × 10 −25
kg 1023
i h × 6.02 ×
c 3.1 × 10 −27 kg 238

d 2.8 × 10 −10 J
Exercise 31.4 Half-life and the decay constant
e 1.7 × 109 eV
1
5 a 0.0305 u
b 5.06 × 10 −29 kg Half-life Decay Initial Initial Number of Activity
constant number activity undecayed after
c 4.56 × 10 −12
J
of nuclei nuclei left 10 s
d 2.85 × 107 eV after 10 s

6 a 3.58 × 10 −13 J a 5.0 s 0.139 s −1 1000 139 Bq 250 35 Bq 49

b 3.98 × 10 −30
kg b 347 s 0.0020 s −1 5000 10 Bq 4900 9.8 Bq

c 3.347 55 × 10 −27 kg c 100 s 0.006 93 s−1 100 0.693 Bq 93 or 93.3 0.65 or

0.647 Bq
d 3.343 57 × 10 −27
kg
d 6.93 s 0.1 s −1 10000 1000 Bq 3680 368 Bq
7 a 0.272 u e 5.0 s 0.139 s −1 4000 554 Bq 1000 139 Bq
b 4.1 × 10 −11 J
2 a 0.002 31 min−1
b 4.16 × 103 min−1
Exercise 31.3 Binding energy per nucleon,
c 69.3 Bq
fusion and fission
1 a 3 a 0.0578 hour−1

Nuclide Number of Binding Binding energy b 1.60 × 10 −5 s −1

nucleons energy /MeV per nucleon /MeV c 50%
235
U 235 1790 7.6 d 31.5
92

56
26 Fe 56 492 8.79 4 a 2.15 × 109
87
b 1.40 × 10 −8 s −1
35 Br 87 748 8.6
c 4.97 × 107 s
b Fe: a nucleus needs the most energy to remove one nucleon. d 1.15 × 108 s

2 a 2.2 MeV
Exam-style questions
b 28.4 MeV
1 a i The half- life or activity is the same no matter what the
c 24 MeV
external factors.
3 a about 60 ii Cannot predict when or which nucleus will decay.
b Fusion is the joining together of light nuclei to make a nucleus iii The activity during decay shows variations or fluctuations.
of larger mass; fission is the break-up of a large nucleus into
two nuclei of approximately equal mass. b i H → 32He + −01e + ν
3
1

c binding energy of nucleus = binding energy/nucleon × A

 Cambridge International AS and A level Physics

ii 0.00856 u b 100 keV

iii the minimum external energy required to separate all the c braking radiation
nucleons in a nucleus to infinity d line spectrum
iv 1.28 × 10 −12 J e 0 eV
v 8.50 × 10 −14 J f increases
2 a 22
11 Na → 0
+1 + Ne + ν
22
10
g increases
b i the probability that an individual nucleus will decay per h no change (constant)
unit time i increases
−1
ii 0.267 year
3 a electron-volt 1 eV = 1.60 × 10 −19 J
iii With a small decay constant, the probability of a nucleus
b 1.60 × 10 −17 J
decaying per second is small and the number of nuclei
8.0 × 10 −14 J
decaying in a given time decreases. Therefore, it takes
3.52 × 10 −13 J
longer for the number of nuclei to fall to one-half the
initial value. c 5.0 eV
c i 2.01 × 1011 5.0 keV
ii 5.3 × 1010 160 keV
iii 0.36 d 2.65 × 10 −15 J
3 a cannot predict when or which nucleus will decay and the
e 1.45 × 1019 Hz
activity shows variations or fluctuations
f 1.93 × 1019 Hz
b 4.6 × 109 years
g 1.6 × 10 −11 m
c i
Binding energy/
nucleon Exercise 32.2 X-rays and matter
1 a P = power in watt, W
A = area in m2
50
b 25 kW m−2
c intensity does not decrease, so no spreading out.
0
0 Nucleon number d bone; the intensity falls towards zero most quickly
e air; the intensity is constant i.e. radiation is not absorbed
ii Energy is released when binding energy per nucleon
increases. In fission a large nucleus splits and in fusion f
I0
small nuclei come together. The most stable nuclei are at
the peak of the graph. Fission occurs on the right side of
the graph at high nucleon number and fusion on the left
side for low nucleon numbers.

Chapter 32:
Intensity

Medical imaging
0.5 I0
Exercise 32.1 Producing X-rays
1 a positive: anode
negative: cathode
b to accelerate electrons to high speed (high energy)
c electric field
d Electrons would be absorbed by gas or other matter between
the electrodes. 0
0 half-thickness
e the window Distance
f At the cathode, electrons have high electrical potential energy
and zero kinetic energy; as they reach the anode they have g flesh
high KE and low EPE.
I
g Most electron energy heats the cathode; it rotates so that the 2 a = e−μ x
I0
part receiving the beam moves around and cools off.
b 0.28
h collimated
c 0.72
2 a 120 kV d 0.50