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Unit I: Introduction to Research

Q. 1. What do you mean by term ‘Research’? How the everyday thinking does differs
from Research? Explain with suitable example
Answer:

MEANING OF RESEARCH:

Research in common refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research
is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
lays down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”Redman and Mory define research as a
“systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement,
a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all
possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder
and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the
unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man
employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the
Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an
original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the
pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the
search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation
of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data,
analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards
the concerned problem or in certain generalisations for some theoretical formulation.

Everyday thinking does differs from Research:

Everyday thinking has no place in a research paper.

Many students write with a set of given ideas (their own, usually) and opinions. These
opinions are often passed off as evidence" or facts, because the student believes that they
must be common to everyone.

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Research is a thing that is very different from everyday thinking. It is (or at least it should be)
much more systematic and more focused.

In research, we must clearly identify a question we are [Link] must then set up, in a very
precise and systematic way, a method for objectively answering the [Link] must do our
best to go wherever the data lead us rather than coming into our research with
preconceptions.

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of

scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose.

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Q. 2. What is the importance of research in various areas?

Answer:

Importance of research in various areas:

The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering
material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required,
and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in
the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence,
sorting it out and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research
or how research is done stems from the following considerations:

(i) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute
the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the
new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop
disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence, those aspiring
for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques and must
thoroughly understand the logic behind them.

(ii) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of
research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or business
administration, community development and social work where persons are increasingly
called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.

(iii) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a
new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every
day experience. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to took at things in life objectively.

(iv) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can
use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which
they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research
results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.

Marketing: For marketers, research is not just utilized for the purpose of learning, it is also a
vital element required to make good decisions. It is “the process or set of processes which
links the buyers and end users to the marketer through information – information employed to
identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate
marketing actions; keep track of marketing performance; and enhance understanding of
marketing as a process.

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Production: Research makes it possible for a business to decide on what to produce, how
much to produce, when to produce, and for whom to produce in the area of production.
Research tools are also of tremendous help in quality control, and setting up optimum
inventory level.

Strategy Making: Research can inform and help shape business strategies. Researching can
give or stimulate strategic planning. Being aware of what competition is doing and the
direction they are headed can inform present business strategies. Carrying out business
research in the area of consumer preferences unveils what products need further development
and what features makes sense to add.

Government: Research lays the foundation for all govt policies in the economic system. For
instance, research is utilized for developing the union finance and railway budget annually.
Research is employed for economic planning and ideal utilization of resources for the growth
and development of the country. Research is also required for systematic collection of details
on the economic and social structure of the country. This kind of information reveals what is
happening to the economy and what shifts are taking place.

Advertising Effectiveness: Organizations make use of research to ascertain the success of

their advertising. For instance, an auto manufacturer may wish to know what percentage of
the people saw its most recent tv commercial. The auto company may find that more people
become aware of its advertising the longer the tv ad runs. The organization might need to run
its tv commercials at different times if few people have seen the commercials. Businesses
also utilize research to see if consumers recall the message or slogan of their advertisements.
Networks, systems and services, distributed computing: The research teams in this area help
to define what’s going to be the future of the Internet as a communication infrastructure, as
well as a computing infrastructure in the broad sense. The researchers are interested in the
creation of innovative communication protocols as much as in the modelling of existing
networks, to be able to better evaluate their performance and size them to meet needs.

Risk Management:Understanding current conditions can lower risk. Research provides

parameters in which a business can prosper and manage risk. Researching trends and market
conditions can find out the need for increased insurance, alternative shipping and
transportation requirements or the need to assess and sell assets.

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Q. 3. What do you mean by term ‘Research Methods’ and ‘Research Methodology’?

Explain.
Answer:

Research Methods: All those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as research methods. Since the object of research,
particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available
data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a
solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three
groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive
at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.

Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In
it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his
research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know
not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only
need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode,
the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research
techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant
and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to
understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria
by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain
problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design
his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. For
example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of his
decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects particular size, number
and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials and not others and
the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research decisions to evaluation
before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely what decisions he
selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many
dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope
of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of
research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using
a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are

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capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research
study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why
the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been used and a
host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research problem or study.

Comparison Chart
BASIS OF
RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPARISON
Meaning Research Method implies the Research methodology signifies way to
methods employed by the efficiently solving research problems.
researcher to conduct research.
What is it? Behavior and instrument used in Science of understanding, how research is
the selection and construction of performed methodically.
the research technique.
Encompasses Carrying out experiment, test, Study different techniques which can be
surveys and so on. utilized in the performance of experiment,
test, surveys etc.
Comprise of Different investigation techniques. Entire strategy towards achievement of
objective.
Objective To discover solution to research To apply correct procedures so as to
problem. determine solutions.

The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method, as the latter is the
part of the former. For understanding the research problem thoroughly, the researcher should
know the research methodology along with the methods.
In a nutshell, research method refers to the technique which can be adopted to explore the
nature of the world that surrounds us. On the contrary, research methodology is the
foundation, which helps us to understand the determinants influencing the effectiveness of the
methods applied.

Q4. What do you mean by scientific method of research? State various ways for
'Scientific Method'?
Answer:

The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related each other.

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1) The philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may vary
considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.
2) Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
3) The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts.
4) Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical
arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.
5) In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
their possible alternatives become clear.
6) Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are
compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist
to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through
experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific
method.
7) The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered
information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated
by the demands of logic and objective procedure.” Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice,
a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a
method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein
the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal
consistency.

Q5. How are the various research tasks classified? Explain or what is research? What
are the various types of research? Explain.
Answer:

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Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Research is as a scientific

and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Research is an art of
scientific investigation. It is search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Research as a
systematized effort to gain new knowledge. It is actually a voyage of discovery. This
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for
obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. Research is an
academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. Defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising
and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis. The manipulation
of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an
art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalisation
and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the
systematic method

TYPES OF RESEARCH: The basic types of research are as follows:

Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we quite often use Research Methodology. The main
characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can
only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are
used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for
example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies
also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the
variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all
kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other
hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to
make a critical evaluation of the material.

Applied vs. Fundamental:

Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research
studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain

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conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of

applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed
towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative:

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering
the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other
techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e.,
research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the
behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human
behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various factors which motivate people
to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It
may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in Research Methodology practice
is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance
from experimental psychologists.

Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental
type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove
his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research
is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence

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gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most

powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the
environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the
point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the
latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting
research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in
which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic
research. Such research follows case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest
us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may
be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research
is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas
of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry
as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is
always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark
upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a
quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

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Q.6. What are the Steps involved in research process? Explain

Answer:

The generic 8 step model of research process is given below

The model provide 8 sequential steps and each step provides various methods/
techniques/procedures and models for research . the process has similarity with journey to
somewhere.
Now suppose you want to perform a journey . Before you start , you must decide
which place you want to go to ( step I). The next step is to find the route . For finding the
route you must read and understand the map for the area of your destination. If there are more
than one route , then you must decide the shortest and safest route for your journey. You must
also decide about the budget the trip that may include things like vehicle to use, money for
petrol, drivers charges , food , toll etc you will also finalize the purpose of journey and other
things .
As the figure shows 8 operational steps of research process . These 8 steps could be
grouped in the phases

PHASE I : Deciding about a research problem Step I

PHASE II : Planning of research Step II to V
PHASE III: Conducting of research Step VI to VIII

STEP I :Formulating a research problem

The most important and 1st step in research process is to formulate a research
problem . The research problem must be finalized after examining the problem thoroughly ,

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carefully and critically in terms of cost , time , researchers expertise , guides expertise and
knowledge /technology/infrastructures in the area.

STEP II : Research Design

Research design is the blue print for conducting research . it provides a complete
guideline for data collection , selection of research approach , design of experiment , sample
design etc i research design we finalize
(1) Which method / technique should be used ?
(2) How many minimum data points should be collected and analyzed ?
(3)What method of sampling is to be used ?

STEP III : Instruments of data collection

The construction of research instrument is primary step in conduction of research .
The calibration of instrument is important aspect of reliable and accurate measurement . the
instrument should be computer compatible for to be using properly in digital signal
processing.

STEP IV: Sample Design

The accuracy of research finding depends on the way data points are sampled . the
objective of Sample Design is to minimize the cost of sampling in terms of under and over
sampling without losing the required information
In steps I to IV , we have done all preparatory work for research . In Step V , we will
write research proposal which is nothing but detailed overall plan of research.

STEP V : Writing a Research Proposal

Research proposal guideline may change form one university , organization and guide
to other, but in general a research proposal must have following information.
Statement of Objectives
list of hypothesis/ variables
Research design
Time schedule to complete the study
List of infrastructure required to carry out research
Sample size and Sample Design
Information on Data processing Techniques.
Budget
Limitation in Study

STEP VI : Data Collection

In step VI we collect the required data for finding solution of research problem , As in
research design process we already have finalized the procedure to collect data and in the
phase we collect the data .

STEP VII : Data Analysis

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In this step , we analyze the data collected in previous phase and perform data
processing on the data

STEP VIII: Research Report

Writing the research report is the last and tedious tsak of research process. This report
writing is essential to inform the world about the work done , discovery made and conclusion
drawn from Research finding.

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Q.7. What do you mean by the term Hypothesis? What are the various sources of
hypothesis? How are the hypothesis classified?

Answer:
A hypothesis can be a proposition assumed as a premise in an argument, the
antecedent of a conditional proposition or a mere assumption or guess. The construction of
hypothesis brings clarity, specificity and focus to research problem. A hypothesis is defined
as “A hypothesis written in such a way that it can be proved or disproved by valid and
reliable data - it is in order to obtain these data that we perform our study"
A hypothesis has following characteristics:
1. A hypothesis should be simple , specific and conceptually clear.
There is no place for ambiguity in the construction of a hypothesis , as the ambiguity
will make the verification of your hypothesis almost impossible.
2. A hypothesis should be capable of verification
Method and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis. There is no
point in formulating a hypothesis it cannot be subjected to verification.
3. A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of knowledge
It is important that your hypothesis emerges from the existing body of knowledge and
that it adds to it as this is the important function of research.
4. A hypothesis should be operationalisable
This means that it can be expressed in terms that can be measured, it cannot be tested
and hence , no conclusions can be drawn.

Sources of a hypothesis are 4 p's given People , Problems , Programme and Phenomena.
Types of Hypothesis
As we can say , any assumption that you seek to validate through an inquiry is called
hypothesis. hence we can say that there should be only one type of hypothesis i.e a Research
hypothesis - the basis of your investigation . However , because of the convention in
scientific inquiries and because of the wording used in the construction of a hypothesis ,
hypothesis can be classified into several types . Broadly there are two categories of the
Hypothesis
1 Research Hypothesis
2 Alternate Hypothesis

The formulation of an alternate hypothesis is a convention in scientific circles. Its main

function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered as true in case the
research hypothesis proves to be wrong. In a way, an alternate hypothesis is the opposite of
the research hypothesis. Conventionally, a null hypothesis, or hypothesis of no difference, is
formulated as an alternate hypothesis.
a) Let us take an example. Suppose you want to test the effect that different combinations of
maternal and child health services (MCH) and nutritional supplements (NS) have on the
infant mortality rate. To test this, a two-by-two factorial experimental design is adopted

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Fig Two-by-two factorial experiment to study the relationship between MCH, NS and infant
mortality

There are several ways of formulating a hypothesis. For example: There will be no
difference in the level of infant mortality among the different treatment modalities.

The MCH and NS treatment groups will register a greater decline in infant mortality than the
only MCH treatment group, the only NS treatment group or the control group. Infant
mortality in the MCH treatment group will reach a level of 30/1000 over five years. Decline
in the infant mortality rate will be three times greater in the MCH treatment group than in the
NS group only over five years.

b) Let us take another example. Suppose you want to study the smoking pattern in a
community in relation to gender differentials. The following hypotheses could be
constructed:
There is no significant difference in the proportion of male and female smokers in the study
population.
A greater proportion of females than males are smokers in the study population.
A total of 60 per cent of females and 30 per cent of males in the study population are
smokers.
There are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in the study population.

In both sets of examples, the way the first hypothesis has been formulated indicates that there
is no difference either in the extent of the impact of different treatment modalities on the
infant mortality rate or in the proportion of male and female smokers. When you construct a
hypothesis stipulating that there is no difference between two situations, groups, outcomes, or
the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon, this is called a null hypothesis and is usually
written as H0.
The second hypothesis in each example implies that there is a difference either in the
extent of the impact of different treatment modalities on infant mortality or in the proportion
of male and female smokers among the population, though the extent of the difference is not
specified. A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that there will be a difference but
does not specify its magnitude is called a hypothesis of difference.

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A researcher may have enough knowledge about the smoking behaviour of the
community or the treatment programme and its likely outcomes to speculate almost the exact
prevalence of the situation or the outcome of a treatment programme in quantitative units.
Examine the third hypothesis in both sets of examples: the level of infant mortality is 30/1000
and the proportion of female and male smokers is 60 and 30 per cent respectively. This type
of hypothesis is known as a hypothesis of point-prevalence.
The fourth hypothesis in both sets of examples speculates a relationship between the
impact of different combinations of MCH and NS programmes on the dependent variable
(infant mortality) or the relationship between the prevalence of a phenomenon (smoking)
among different populations (male and female). This type of hypothesis stipulates the extent
of the relationship in terms of the effect of different treatment groups on the dependent
variable (‘three times greater in the MCH treatment group than in the NS group only over
five years’) or the prevalence of a phenomenon in different population groups (‘twice as
many female as male smokers’). This type of hypothesis is called a hypothesis of association.

FIG. Types of hypothesis

Note that in Fig the null hypothesis is also classified as a hypothesis of no difference under
‘Research hypothesis’. Any type of hypothesis, including a null hypothesis, can become the
basis of an enquiry. When a null hypothesis becomes the basis of an investigation, it becomes
a research hypothesis.

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Q.8. What is the role of ICT in research?

Answer:-

ICT tools are mainly used by researchers for its ability to ease knowledge-gathering process
and to enhance resource-development. Researcher in general value creativity and originality ,
thus the ICT tools which provide with the most open situations with great autonomy to the
researcher can really help in identifying and solving research problems in the most creative
ways.
Generally, ICT tools help researcher in the following research related tasks
 identify appropriate information sources
 critically analyse information
 research effectively
 manage information
 use information to extend and communicate knowledge across subject fields
 search up to ten databases and electronic resources simultaneously
 receive results in a common format
 link to individual databases for more specialised searching
 select favourite resources and e-journals, save searches and records, and setup email
alerts.

The following are some of the useful search engines used for research activities ,
1. [Link] -lists related searches ,
2. [Link] : a multi-disciplinary search engine for academically relevant web ,
3. Bing – Microsoft’s search engine lists related searches ,
4. Google Scholar – indexes scholarly research from many journals, books, papers, etc. across
many disciplines ,and
5. Yahoo! Search – originally a Web directory, it now features a reliable search engine.

In the following three ways ICT Tools can be used by researchers for qualitative research

 As a medium of communication ICT tools provide powerful communication channels

mostly text based but increasingly enhanced with moving and still images and sound,
thus competing fairly with the traditional medium of interaction. Researchers can log
into any of these channels and practices , either for studying the way people use
computer mediated communication in cultural context or can utilize these to interact
with participants by initiating a discussion.

 As a network of computers -Internet , the most popular and powerful ICT tool, breaks
all boundaries and makes physical distances between people disappear thus providing
a platform like online communities, blogs and discussions forums to reach out to
people all across the globe for collective and collaborative research with seamless
possibilities for the researcher to utilize this space particularly for collecting
information.

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 As a context of social construction The web2.0 facilitates the researchers to witness

and analyse the structure of conversation by either participating or simply observing,
the social structures that emerge. This gives a good insight to the researcher while
gathering data and then during analysis, how language builds and structures social
reality.

Data collection requires Collaboration. A word of caution to the researcher is to take care of
Intellectual property related issues in advance before using Internet and web2.0 tools for data
collection and storage . The qualitative research process starts with a Questionnaire / Survey
Design . Survey can be created using ICT tools Web, Word Processors (WP), Spreadsheets
and now most popular online tools like google-forms and [Link], and can be
distributed using email and discussion boards.

To make the research outcomes reach maximum numbers of stake holders proper planning
for printing, mailing and/or posting on community forums plus translation is required .
Making research results accessible to various audiences through website, Research Portfolio,
Newsletter, and other Community reports is now a common practice. Presenting research at
Conferences/ Seminars and thus making findings known to users should be planned. Events
happening across the globe on the theme of research can be found out easily today through
Internet.

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Q. 9. Define term Research. Explain characteristics of research.

Answer:

Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of

matter. The primary purpose for applied research is discovering, interpreting, and the
development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide
variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific
method. Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is regarded as a systematic efforts to
gain new knowledge. The dictionary meaning of research is “a careful investigation or
enquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge”. Definition of
Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis. M Stephenson and D Slesinger defined research in the Encyclopedia
of Social Sciences as “The manupulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” “Research is an organized and systematic
way of finding answers to questions” Systemactic because there is a definite set of procedures
and steps which is to follow. There are certain things in the research process which are always
done in order to get the most accurate results.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

1. Research should be controlled-

It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by
each other (whether it is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will
not be able to design a particular research report.
2. Research should be rigorous-
It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related
questions which are relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of
two types of sciences such as physical and social sciences. These two sciences are also varied
from each other.
[Link] should be systematic-
Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design
or process then it will have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market
in a systematic manner. It takes various steps to do a perfect or systematic research process
and all the steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.
[Link] should be valid-
It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable
by researcher. If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will also be
ethical in nature.
[Link] should be empirical-
This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered
information collected from observations and real-life experiences.

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6. The foundation of knowledge-

Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important
source for providing guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or
governmental problems. It is a variety of formal training which enables us to understand the
new developments in one’s field in an efficient way.

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Q.10. What is Problem? Explain Importance of Goals in Problem Solving.

Answer:-

The term problem means any process/machine that don’t work properly due to some faults
but the problems could be corrected or solved with establish procedure or method
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory,
or in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate
investigation. In some social science disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the
form of a question. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or
broad proposition, or present a value question.

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

 Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied. The reader is
oriented to the significance of the study and the research questions or hypotheses to
follow.
 Places the problem into a particular context that defines the parameters of what is to
be investigated.
 Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what is probably
necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this
information.
 Importance of Goals in Problem Solving.
 Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping
generalizations and irresponsible statements],
 Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words
and terms,
 Identification of an overarching question and key factors or variables,
 Identification of key concepts and terms,
 Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters,
 Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
 Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [regardless of the
type of research, it is important to address the “so what” question by demonstrating
that the research is not trivial],
 Does not have unnecessary jargon; and,
 Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a
snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.

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Q11. What is Solution? Discuss General Guidelines for Problem Solving.

Answer:-

Conducting research into existing solutions to the problem or similar problems is helpful to
generate workable solutions. The main criteria for judging solutions in this step is simply
whether or not they answer the problem statement with a ‘yes.’ At this point, it may also be
possible to eliminate some solutions because they do not agree with commonly held moral
and ethical guidelines. Even though not stated specifically, these guidelines are understood
and assumed to be upheld when reviewing solutions. For example, a solution to global
pollution might be to kill every human. This is obviously not a good solution even though it
would give a ‘yes’ answer to the question of "How might we minimize global air pollution
caused by humans?"

When working in groups, it is important to work together to generate solutions. Also,

it should be realized that the solution process takes time depending upon the problem
complexity. At this point, do not judge solutions for more than their ability to answer the
stated problem questions with a "yes" because they will be evaluated more closely in the next
step. Many times it is possible to use discarded solutions to develop new ideas for solutions.
However, it is important to be able to distinguish between similar solutions. Once a list of
potential solutions has been generated, the evaluation process can begin. First, a list of
criteria for judging all solutions equally must be chosen. It is vital to eliminate personal bias
towards particular solutions as well as to utilize a consistent set of criteria to evaluate all
solutions fairly. For example: most cost effective, most socially acceptable, most easily
implemented, most directly solves the problem, most far reaching effects, most lasting
effects, least government intervention required, least limiting to development, or quickest to
implement.

It is important to have research and logical reasons for the criteria chosen as well as
factual support for the rankings given to a particular solution for each criterion. Once the
criteria are chosen, they should be given a weighting. In most cases, all the criteria have the
same weight. However, it is possible to give other weightings to criteria so that a particular
factor is seen as more important. Many times, the cost, time to complete, or political nature of
a project is more important than other factors and so that criteria may have a higher ranking
than others used to judge. Once the criteria are chosen and weighted, all qualified solutions
must then be ranked. Two types of procedures for ranking exist. If the number of solutions is
large, usually greater than ten, an independent ranking must be conducted to narrow the
number of choices.

After selecting the best solution, it is necessary to give some thought to the way in
which it might be implemented. Giving insight into funding, potential problems with
implementing the solution, and the time frame of the solution is necessary for any workable
solution to a problem. Not all solutions can be implemented. Unforeseen problems may arise
as solutions are tested and put to work. Many times, unexpected resistance to solutions can be
encountered. Other times, unacceptable results can require that another solution be used.

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Discuss General Guidelines for Problem Solving

1. Become aware of the problem
2. Define the problem
3. Choose the particular problem to be solved
4. Identify potential solutions
5. Evaluate the valid potential solutions to select the best one
6. Develop an action plan to implement the best solution

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Q. 12. Differentiate between following:

I) Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to

phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon that is phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behavior ( why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation
Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering
the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other
techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e.,
research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is especially important in the
behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
Through such research we can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in
a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated,
however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and
therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental
psychologists.

II) Conceptual and Empirical Research

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the
other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type
of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and
actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or
guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove
his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research
is thus characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate
when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence
gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

III) Applied and Fundamental Research

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Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research . Similarly, research
studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain
conclusions facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution
or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied
research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a
broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.

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