Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete
(egg) to form a zygote, which begins the development of a new organism.
Types:
🐟 External Fertilization
Definition
Occurs outside the female’s body, typically in water when both eggs and
sperm are released into the environment—called spawning.
Examples
Common in most fish, amphibians, mollusks, and crustaceans .
Advantages & Disadvantages
Produces large numbers of gametes → increases genetic diversity however,
eggs and embryos are vulnerable to predation and environmental hazards
→ low survival rate
🧬 Internal Fertilization
Definition
Occurs inside the female’s body; the male transfers sperm directly into the
female reproductive tract.
Types
1. Oviparity – fertilized eggs are laid externally to develop (birds,
reptiles, many fish)
2. Ovoviviparity – eggs develop inside, nourished by yolk; live young
hatch internally or immediately after laying (some sharks, snakes)
3. Viviparity – embryo develops inside and receives nourishment via
placenta (most mammals) .
Advantages & Disadvantages
Offers protection and stability, higher survival rates, and selective sperm
transfer typically produces fewer gametes and requires more energy
investment
🧬 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Definition
A type of external fertilization in a laboratory setting (in vitro meaning “in
glass”), where eggs are retrieved and combined with sperm in culture
dishes, forming embryos that are then implanted into the uterus.
Process Highlights
Often used to treat infertility, genetic screening, or in same-sex/solo
parenthood. In the U.S., IVF accounts for about 2% of births.
Pros & Cons
Allows family creation where natural fertility is limited; enables genetic
testing. However, it’s expensive (US $15,000–30,000 per cycle), emotionally
taxing, and involves risks like multiple pregnancies or ovarian
hyperstimulation
Fertilization Gamete Survival
Location Protection Examples
Type Count Rate
Outside
External body High Low Low Fish, frogs, sea urchins
(water)
Inside Mammals, birds,
Internal female Moderate High High reptiles, some fish
body (oviparous/viviparous)
In Vitro Human-assisted
Laboratory Controlled High (lab) Varies
(IVF) reproduction
🔹 Zygote
A diploid eukaryotic cell formed immediately after fertilization when the sperm
and egg nuclei fuse, containing all genetic information needed for development .
🔹 Cleavage
Rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote (without overall growth), producing smaller
cells called blastomeres and forming a solid ball termed the morula .
🔹 Blastula (Blastocyst in mammals)
A hollow sphere of blastomeres surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (blastocoel); in
mammals, it’s a blastocyst, featuring an inner cell mass and surrounding
trophoblast .
🔹 Gastrula
The stage after blastula where cells undergo gastrulation, reorganizing into a
layered structure (the gastrula) and forming the primary germ layers .
🔹 Germ Layers
Three primary tissue layers established during gastrulation:
Ectoderm: forms skin, nervous system
Mesoderm: forms muscles, bones, circulatory system
Endoderm: forms gut and internal organs .
🔹 Trophoblast (Trophectoderm outer layer)
The outer cell layer of the blastocyst, providing nourishment, facilitating
implantation, and developing into most of the placenta .
🔹 Embryo
The developing organism from formation of the zygote until around the end of
the eighth week of gestation in humans .
🔹 Embryonic Stem Cell
Pluripotent cells derived from the inner cell mass of a pre-implantation
blastocyst, capable of forming all three germ layers in vitro .
🔹 Adult Stem Cell
Undifferentiated cells found in adult tissues (e.g., bone marrow) that are
multipotent, meaning they can generate limited cell lineages specific to their
tissue.
🔹 Totipotency
The capability of a single cell (like a zygote or early blastomere) to differentiate
into all cell types, including both embryo and extra-embryonic tissues.
🔹 Pluripotency
The capacity of cells—such as those in the inner cell mass—to differentiate into
all three germ layers, but not extra-embryonic structures like the placenta .
🔹 Zona Pellucida
A glycoprotein shell surrounding the oocyte and early embryo; protects prior to
implantation and is shed (“hatching”) by the blastocyst before implantation .
🔹 Inner Cell Mass (ICM)
A cluster of cells inside the blastocyst that gives rise to the embryo proper, some
extra-embryonic tissues, and is the source of embryonic stem cells .
🔹 Trophectoderm
The outer epithelial layer of the blastocyst (synonymous with trophoblast),
contributing to the formation of the placenta .
🔹 Placenta
A highly vascular organ derived primarily from trophoblast tissue, enabling
nutrient, gas exchange, and waste removal between mother and fetus.
🔹 Blastomere
An individual daughter cell produced by cleavage divisions of the zygote .
🔹 Yolk Sac
An early extra-embryonic membrane formed from the hypoblast during the
second week, supplying nutrients and harboring early blood cells and germ cells;
later largely supplanted by placental function.
🔹 Multipotency
Definition: Multipotency is the ability of a stem or progenitor cell to differentiate
into multiple, but limited, cell types within a specific tissue lineage or organ
system .
🌟 Four Main Embryonic Membranes
1. Amnion
o Forms from epiblast-derived amnioblasts during the second week.
o Creates the amniotic cavity, filled with amniotic fluid that cushions
the embryo, allows movement, and maintains a stable temperature .
2. Yolk Sac
o Derived from hypoblast cells; lies ventral to the embryonic disc.
o In early development, supplies nutrients and hosts the first blood and
germ cells. It later becomes part of the umbilical cord and regresses
once the placenta forms .
3. Allantois
o Emerges as an outpocketing of the hindgut in week 3.
o Functions as an early conduit for gas exchange and waste storage,
and contributes to forming the umbilical cord and placental blood
vessels ..
4. Chorion
o Composed of trophoblast plus extraembryonic mesoderm;
encompasses all the other membranes.
o Crucial in forming placental villi to facilitate maternal–fetal exchange
🍼 Amniotic Sac
Definition:
The amniotic sac, often called the bag of waters, is a thin yet tough, transparent
double membrane that becomes the fluid-filled environment enveloping the
embryo (and later fetus) during amniote development .
Inner layer = amnion: directly surrounds the amniotic cavity and fetus.
Outer layer = chorion: encases the amnion and eventually contributes to
the placenta ..
Developmental stage of mice-