REVIEWER FOR STATISTICS
STATISTICS
- The science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and analyzing information to draw
conclusions or answer questions.
- Provides a measure of confidence in any conclusions.
- Presents a rigorous scientific method for gaining insight into data.
- Gives an instant overall picture of data based on graphical presentation or numerical
summarization irrespective of to the number of data points.
- Make inference and predict relations of variables.
PROCESS OF STATISTICS
- ICPDDP
- Identify
- Collect information. - Discuss
- Process Data - Data Presentation
BASIC STEPS IN STATISTICS
- COPAI - Presentation of Data
- Collection of Data - Analysis of Data
- Organization of Data - Interpretation of Data
IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS
- It enables people to make decisions based on empirical evidence.
- Provide tools needed to covert massive data into pertinent information that can be used in
decision making.
- Provides information that we can use to make sensible decisions.
BASIC TERMS
Universe – the set of all entities under study.
Population – total or entire group of individuals from which information desired by the researcher.
Statistics – is the numerical summery of a sample.
Sample – the subset of the population.
Variable – the characteristic that is observable or measurable in every unit of the universe.
Data – factual information used as a basis for reasoning, discussion or calculation.
2 BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics
- Employed in the collection, description, and analysis of numerical data.
- Focusing on describing based on gathered data.
Inferential Statistics
- A statistical method concerned with the analysis of a sample data leading to prediction,
inferences, interpretation, decision or conclusion about the entire population.
Independent Variable
- A.k.a explanatory or treatment variable
- Controlled by the researcher
- Expected to have an effect on the behavior of the subjects.
Dependent Variable
- A.k.a outcome or response variable
- Influenced by independent variable
2 TYPES OF DATA
Quantitative Data
- Numerical information that can be obtained from counting or measuring that which can be
manipulated by any fundamental operation.
- Ex: Age, height, weight
Qualitative Data
- Descriptive attributes and characterized by categorical responses.
- Ex: Gender, religion and attitude.
BROAD CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Quantitative Variable (Numerical)
Discrete Variable
- Can be counted
- Assume only finitely and infinitely countable number of values.
- Cannot take the form of decimals.
- Taken through the process of enumeration or counting.
Continuous Variable
- Can be measured.
- Ex: Height, volume
- Can take continuous values or assume continuous set of numerical values.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL DATA
a. Nominal Data (Qualitative Variables)
- For classification or identification purposes
- This is a discrete variable.
b. Ordinal Data (Qualitative Variables)
- Used to designate the rank order of the data
- the correlation or the effect ranking of one variable to another can be measured
c. Interval Data (Quantitative Variables)
- Range between numeric values and constant.
- Addition and subtraction can be performed while multiplication and division are not
appropriate.
d. Ratio Data (Quantitative Variables)
- Widely used in science and engineering
- Addition characteristics starts from zero.
SAMPLING
- A technique of selecting individual members or subset of the population to make statistical
inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole population
- Time-convenient an cost-effective.
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Probability Sampling
- Sets selection of few criteria, then chooses members of population randomly.
- The members have an equal opportunity to be part of the sample.
Non-Probability Sampling
- Rely on subjective or criteria set by the researcher.
- Has no specific rules or methods in place to ensure that everyone gets the equal opportunity to
be part of the sample
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
- Best probability sampling
- Helps in saving time and resources.
- Reliable method of obtaining info.
- Chooses randomly
- Has the same probability to be part of the sample.
2. Systematic Sampling
- Chooses members at regular intervals.
- Has predefined range
- Least-time consuming.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
- Divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire
population.
- Can be organized and draw a sample from each group separately.
4. Cluster Sampling
- Divides the entire population into clusters or sections that represent a population.
- Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like
ages, sex, location.
- Very simple for a survey creator to derive inference from the feedback.
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Convenience Sampling
- Selecting of people that are available for study.
2. Purposive Sampling
- Selecting people based on judgement to select a sample which the research believed.
3. Quota Sampling
- Investigator survey collects information from an assigned number or quota of individuals
from one of the several sample unit fulfilling certain prescribed criteria or belonging to
one stratum.
4. Snowball Sampling
- One or members of population located and used to lead the researcher to other
members of the population.
5. Voluntary Sampling
- Samples are self-select into the study or survey.
- Most of the time, samples have a strong interest in the topic of the study.
BASIC TERM IN THE FORMULATION OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Raw Data – the data collected in its original form.
Range – is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in the distribution.
Frequency – organization of data in a tabular form, using mutually exclusive classes showing the number
of observations in each
Class Limit – the highest and the lowest values in a describing class.
Class Boundaries – the upper and lower values of a class for group frequency distribution whose values
has an additional place more than the class and end with the digit 5.
Interval – the difference between the class lower boundary and the class upper boundary, and it is
denoted by the symbol i.
Frequency the number of values in a specific class of a frequency distribution.
Percentage – is obtained by multiplying relative frequency by 100%.
Cumulative Frequency – is the sum of the frequency accumulated up to the upper boundary of the
class in a frequency distribution.
Midpoint - is the point halfway between the class limits of each class and is representative of
data within that class.
TWO TYPES INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Parametric Test
- Data represent interval or ratio scale
- Ex: T-test, Z-Test, ANOVA, Linear regression, Pearson Correlation.
Non-Parametric Test
- Data represent nominal or ordinal scale
- When parametric scale assumption has been greatly violated when the nature of distribution is
unknown.
- Ex: Chi-square, Kruskal Wallist Test, Spearman Rho, Mann-Whitny, Fischer’s exact test etch.