Rotation and Revolution

Like all the other planets in the Solar System, the Earth also has two types of movements.

The Earth rotates on an imaginary axis and takes nearly 24 hours to complete one rotation. The period taken for one rotation is called a day.

The Earth also revolves round the Sun. The path along which the Earth revolves round the Sun is called its orbit. The orbit has an elliptical
shape. This means that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is not the same during the course of its revolution.

One revolution is completed in about 365¼ days. This period is called a year. The rotation and revolution of the Earth have important
consequences affecting our environment.

Rotation of the Earth: its direction, speed, day and night occurrence

The Earth rotates on its own axis, once in 24 hours causing day and night. The axis is inclined at an angle of 23½° from the vertical or 66½°
towards the plane of its orbit. The axis is always inclined in the same direction towards the Pole Star during revolution.

The tilt of the Earth's axis is also known as the inclination of the Earth's axis.

When the Earth rotates, only one part of the Earth's surface which faces the Sun experiences daylight. The other half of the Earth, which is away
from the Sun's rays, experiences darkness.

The Circle of Illumination is the imaginary line that demarcates light from darkness, day and night.
As the Earth rotates from west to east, almost every part of the Earth's surface comes before the Sun at least once a day. Since the Earth
rotates in a west-east direction, we see...

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...the Sun rising everyday in the east and setting in the west.

The part of the Earth that emerges from darkness into the Sun's rays experiences sunrise. Later, when it passes away from the Sun's beams it
experiences sunset.

As it takes 24 hours for the Earth to complete one rotation, a point on the equator moves a distance of about 40,000 km during that period. The
speed of movement of a point at the equator is about 1,670 km per hour.

Due to the spherical shape, the speed of rotation decreases both to the north and south of the equator.

As the circumference of 60°N and 60°S latitudes is only half that of the equator, the speed of rotation is only half that of the equator.

At the two poles which are the two ends of the imaginary axis, there is no relative movement due to rotation.

FACT FILE
FOUCAULT'S PENDULUM
Foucault's Pendulum is the earliest proof of the Earth's rotation. Today at the United Nation's building, a replica of this apparatus is seen in
action.
A French physicist, Jean Bernard Leon Foucault, in 1851, suspended a cannon ball, weighing 28 kg, using a slender wire about 67 m long, from
the dome of the Pantheon in Paris. The pendulum was set in action so that the ball swung in a single plane. With reference to the ground
beneath it, the pendulum, with a back and forth motion, began to rotate confirming the obvious, that the Earth surface was rotating slowly.
This massive ball, free from any direct attachment to the Earth and in keeping with Newton's first law of motion, under the influence and action
of an external force, was compelled to change its uniform motion in a straight line - that external force was the Earth's rotation.

Effects of Earth's Rotation

The rotation of the Earth is responsible for the following major effects:

1.
2.
Rotation of the Earth causes the alternation of day and night.

3.
4.
Rotation of the Earth is also responsible for difference in time between different places on the Earth. The difference in time is 4 minutes for
each degree of longitude (24 hrs divided by 360°).

5.
6.
Due to the rotation of the Earth from west to east, the Sun, the Moon, planets and the stars appear to move from east to west across the
sky.
7.
8.
The Sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west. This apparent movement of the Sun and other heavenly bodies are in a direction
opposite to that of the rotation of the Earth. This is similar to what you observe through the window of a moving train. The trees, houses and
fields on either side of the railway track appear to move in a direction opposite to that of the speeding train.

9.
10.
The speed of rotation has created a centrifugal force, which is considered responsible for the slight bulging at the Equator and the
flattening of the two poles. The equatorial diameter of the Earth is 43 km longer than the polar diameter.

11.

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The speed of rotation at the equator is much higher than at the poles.

1.
2.
Coriolis Effect: The rotation of the Earth causes a deflection of winds and ocean currents from their normal path to the right of their course
in the northern hemisphere and to the left of their course in the southern hemisphere. This deflection is due to the effect of the Coriolis
Force.

3.
4.
The occurrence of tides in the oceans twice daily and their westward progress are the result of the rotation of the Earth.

5.

Revolution of the Earth

1.
2.
The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. An ellipse is an elongated circle.

3.
4.
The period taken for one revolution is about 365¼ days. A normal year has only 365 days. The remaining fraction of 1/4 days is added once
in four years to make a leap year of 366 days. The year 2024 was a leap year. When will you get another leap year? In a leap year, the month
of February has 29 days instead of the normal 28 days.

5.
6.
Due to its elliptical orbit, the distance between the Earth and the Sun varies from a minimum of about 147 million km to a maximum of 152
million km. The minimum distance is reached on about 3 January when the Earth is closest to the Sun. This position is known as
the Perihelion (peri - near; helion - Sun).

7.
8.
The Earth is at the maximum distance from the Sun on about 4 July. This position is known as Aphelion (ap - away from; helion - Sun) (Fig.
3.2).
9.
10.
The difference in distance between the perihelion and aphelion positions is only about 5 million km. This is quite small considering the
average distance of about 150 million km between the Earth and the Sun.

11.

FACT FILE

The monthly position of the Earth during its revolution around the Sun are shown in this diagram. The parallel at which the Sun is overhead at
noon is shown for each position. The overhead position of the Sun 'moves' from the Equator on 21 March northward to the Tropic of Cancer on
21 June, then back to the Equator on 23 September and then 'moves' southwards to the Tropic of Capricorn on 22 December and finally returns
to the Equator on 21 March. This is known as the apparent movement of the Sun.

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The Earth moves more quickly in its orbit when it is in Perihelion than it does when the Earth is in Aphelion.

Effects of Inclination of the Earth's Axis

1.
2.
The plane in which the Earth revolves around the Sun is called the Plane of the Ecliptic.

3.
4.
The Earth's axis is not at right angles to the plane of the Ecliptic. The axis is inclined at an angle of 66½° to the plane of the ecliptic (Fig. 3.3).
In other words, the Earth's axis is inclined at an angle of 23½° from the vertical.

5.
6.
If the axis was not inclined, every place on Earth would have 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night throughout the year. There would be no
seasons.

7.
8.
Due to the inclination, when it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in Southern Hemisphere and vice versa.

9.

Effects of Earth's Revolution

The revolution of the Earth round the Sun on an inclined axis has two major effects.

1.
2.
VARIATION IN THE LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT: The North Pole is inclined towards the Sun during a part of the year and the South Pole is
inclined towards the Sun during another part of the year. This leads to changes in the duration of day and night during the course of a year.
 Both these changes are the basic causes of different seasons during a year.
If the axis of the Earth were vertical to the plane of the ecliptic, the Sun's rays would always be overhead at the equator. The Sun would
always be on the horizon at the North and South Poles. All places on the Earth would always experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
night.

3.

Page 5 (Page 26)

1.
2.
VARIATION IN THE ALTITUDE OF THE MIDDAY SUN: There would be no seasonal changes in the altitude of the midday Sun or the duration of
day and night during a year. There would be no seasons.

3.

Sun's Position and Seasonal Changes

The orbit of the Earth around the Sun is elliptical. The positions of the Earth in each of the four seasons show the seasons are reversed
between the two hemispheres due to the inclination of the Earth's axis.

When the Northern Hemisphere experiences the summer season, the Southern Hemisphere has its winter season and vice versa.

The seasonal changes in different latitudes differ for each position of the Earth.
Equinoxes: Spring and Autumn
1.
2.
On 21 March and 23 September, the Sun's rays are overhead at the equator, 0°.

3.
4.
The circle of illumination passes through the two poles.

5.
6.
Thus, on these two dates, days and nights are of equal duration, namely, of 12 hours at all places on the Earth. Therefore, these days are
known as Equinoxes, meaning equal nights and, therefore, equal days.

7.
8.
As 21 March represents the spring season in the Northern Hemisphere, this equinox is called the Vernal Equinox. 23 September is referred
to as Autumnal Equinox because it represents the autumn season in the Northern Hemisphere.

9.
10.
On the two equinoxes, the altitude of the Sun is 90° at the equator. Away from the equator, the altitude of the Sun decreases gradually (Fig.
3.5). At the two poles, the Sun is at the horizon. The altitude of the Sun is 0°. At any intermediate latitude, such as 40°N, the altitude of the
Sun will be (90-40) or 50°. At the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), the altitude of the Sun will be (90-23½) or
66½°.
11.

As a general rule, the altitude of the Sun at any latitude X° is obtained by subtracting the value of latitudes (in degrees) from 90°, i.e., (90° - X°).

1.
2.
Calculate the altitudes of the midday Sun at the following latitudes on 21 March.

3.

A few examples are given below as illustration:

1.
2.
Calculate the altitudes of the midday Sun at the following latitudes on 21 March.
(a) 13°N (b) 60°N (c) 35°N (d) 72°S
(a) Latitude of station: 13°N
Altitude of the Sun on 21 March = (90 - 13)° or 77°.
(b) Latitude of station: 60°N
Altitude of the Sun on 21 March = (90 - 60) or 30°.
(c) Latitude of station: 35°N
Altitude of the Sun on 21 March = (90 - 35) or 55°.
(d) Latitude of station: 72°S
Altitude of the Sun on 21 March = (90 - 72) or 18°.

3.

Solstices
1.
2.
After 21 March, there is an apparent movement of the Sun to the north of the equator. The apparent northward movement of the Sun in the
sky continues up to 21 June when the Sun appears overhead at the Tropic of Cancer...

3.

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...(23½°N). The Sun appears to stand still at this position and then 'moves' southwards towards the equator. The position of the Sun on 21 June
is called the Summer Solstice, as it marks the summer season in the Northern Hemisphere.

1.
2.
The word Solstice is derived from a Latin word which means 'the Sun standing still' or reaching the highest point. After 21 June, the Sun
appears to move southwards and crosses the equator on 23 September or Autumnal Equinox.

3.
4.
The apparent southward movement of the Sun continues beyond the equator till 22 December. On this day, the Sun is overhead at the Tropic
of Capricorn (23½°S). This position of the Sun is referred to as the Winter Solstice because it marks the winter season in the Northern
Hemisphere.

5.
6.
The Sun appears to stand still again at the Tropic of Capricorn and then appears to move northwards towards the equator. The apparent
movement of the Sun reaches the equator on 21 March or Spring Equinox.

7.

This marks one revolution of the Earth round the Sun. The Sun's rays are overhead only in the tropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn.

The Sun's rays are never overhead at any point beyond the tropical zone (23½°N to 23½°S). The word 'Tropic' means 'turning point'. When the
Sun has reached its northernmost and southernmost limits on June 21st (Tropic of Cancer), and 22 December (Tropic of Capricorn),
respectively, 'it appears to turn' southwards or northwards.

Summer Solstice

On the summer solstice (21 June), the Sun's rays are overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, 23½°N.

The Northern Hemisphere is inclined towards the Sun [Fig. 3.6(a)].

The altitude of the Sun is 90° at 23½°N. At the North Pole, the altitude of the Sun is [90 - (90 - 23½)] or 23½°.

The altitude of the Sun at the North Pole on the summer solstice is greater than that on the equinoxes.

The altitude of the Sun also decreases south of the Tropic of Cancer. At the equator, the altitude of the Sun is (90 - 23½)° or 66½°. This is less
than on the equinoxes.

In the Southern Hemisphere, the altitude of the Sun decreases gradually from 66½° at the equator to 0° at the Antarctic Circle (66½°S).

As the South Pole is inclined away from the Sun, the Sun's rays do not reach the south polar region beyond the Antarctic Circle.

The Southern Hemisphere experiences lower altitudes of the Sun and this marks the winter season in that hemisphere.

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Winter Solstice

The position of the Earth on winter solstice (22 December), is shown in Fig. 3.6(b).

On this day the Sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S).

The South Pole is inclined towards the Sun. The altitude of the Sun is 90° at the Tropic of Capricorn. The altitude of the Sun at the South Pole is
[90 - (90 - 23½)] or 23½°.

The altitude of the Sun also decreases north of the Tropic of Capricorn. At the equator, the altitude of the Sun is (90 - 23½) or 66½°.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the altitude of the Sun decreases gradually from 66½° at the equator to 0° at the Arctic Circle (66½°N). The Sun's
rays do not reach the north polar region beyond the Arctic Circle.

The altitude of the Sun is greater in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. This marks the summer season in the Southern
Hemisphere.

The variations in the altitudes of the Sun at the equinoxes and solstices in different latitudes is given in the table below:
Latitude Summer Solstice 21 June Equinoxes 21 March, 22 Sept. Winter Solstice 22 Dec.
90°N 23½° 0° 0°
66½°N 47° 23½° 0°
50°N 63½° 40° 16½°
23½°N 90° 66½° 43°
0° 66½° 90° 66½°
23½°S 43° 66½° 90°
50°S 16½° 40° 63½°
66½°S 0° 23½° 47°
90°S 0° 0° 23½°

From the above table it becomes evident that the seasonal contrasts in the altitude of the Sun are minimum at the equator and maximum in the
middle latitudes.

Seasons and Duration of Day and Night

During the equinoxes, all places on the Earth have 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night. Due to the revolution of the Earth round the Sun on an
inclined axis, the duration of day and night varies according to seasons and the latitude of a place.

During the summer solstice (21 June), the North Pole is inclined towards the Sun. Therefore, the duration of sunlight or daytime increases from
12 hours at the Equator to 24 hours at the Arctic Circle and beyond [Fig. 3.7(a)].

The region beyond the Arctic Circle, especially Norway, is known as the Land of the Midnight Sun because there the Sun does not rise or set on
21 June.

At the North Pole, there will be six months of daylight. The Sun will be seen always above the horizon at a low angle.

At 66½°N, 24 hours of sunlight can be seen only on 21 June.

Hammerfest in northern Norway is a place of tourist attraction for observing the phenomenon of the 'Midnight Sun'. This place has continuous
daylight from 13 May to 29 July. This place is easily accessible to tourists and has hotels and other facilities. The view of the midnight Sun from
here is enthralling.

In the Southern Hemisphere, the duration of daylight decreases from 12 hours at the equator to 0 hours beyond the Antarctic Circle.

In the south polar region, there is 24 hours of darkness. The Sun is always below the horizon. In the Southern Hemisphere, which experiences
winter, the duration of night-time is longer than the duration of daylight.

During winter solstice (22 December), the South Pole is inclined towards the Sun [Fig. 3.7(b)]. The Southern Hemisphere experiences summer
and the Northern Hemisphere has winter.
Therefore, the duration of daylight or sunlight is greater in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere.

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The duration of daylight increases from 12 hours at the equator to 24 hours beyond the Antarctic Circle. The South Polar region has 24 hours of
sunlight for many days continuously. At the South Pole, there will be six months of sunlight. The Sun will always be seen at a low angle above
the horizon.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the duration of daylight will decrease from 12 hours at the equator to 0 hours at the Arctic Circle. There are 24
hours of darkness in the North Polar region. The duration of night is greater than the duration of daylight as one moves northwards from the
Equator.

The duration of day at different latitudes in different seasons is given in the following table:
Latitude 21 June 21 March, 23 Sept. 22 December
90°N 6 months 12 hours nil
66½°N 24 hours 12 hours nil
50°N 16 hours 18 minutes 12 hours 7 hours 42 minutes
23½°N 13 hours 27 minutes 12 hours 10 hours 33 minutes
0° 12 hours 12 hours 12 hours
23½°S 10 hours 33 minutes 12 hours 13 hours 27 minutes
50°S 7 hours 42 minutes 12 hours 16 hours 18 minutes
66½°S nil 12 hours 24 hours
90°S nil 12 hours 6 months

It is evident from the above table that the duration of daylight is 12 hours throughout the year at the equator only. As one moves away from the
equator, the seasonal variations in the duration of daylight increase. The seasonal variations in the duration of daylight are maximum at the
polar regions.

Twilight and Dawn

No place on the Earth has an abrupt change from day to night or vice versa. There is a transition period between day and night as well as night
and day.

During this transition period, there is diffused light produced by the scattering of air molecules, minute particles of dust and moisture which
reflect the Sun's rays back to the Earth's surface long after the Sun has disappeared below the horizon. This occurs both before sunrise and
after sunset.

At these periods, the Sun is below the horizon. The period of diffused light before sunset is called twilight. The period of diffused light before
sunrise is called dawn. Dawn and twilight are quick miracles.

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The duration of twilight or dawn at a place depends on the path of the Sun in the sky. In the low latitudes, where the Sun's path is almost
vertical, the duration of dawn or twilight is short. The Sun rises or sinks below the horizon rapidly (Fig. 3.8). In the high altitudes as also middle
and high latitudes, where the Sun has an inclined path at a low angle, the duration of dawn and twilight is long.

Generally, twilight continues as long as the Sun is up to 18° below the horizon. Dawn starts from the time the Sun is 18° below the horizon and
lasts till the Sun rises above the horizon at sunrise. Twilight in the evening begins after sunset and continues till the Sun sinks 18° below the
horizon.

In the middle and high latitudes, there is a long period of twilight lasting for many days during the summer season. The duration of twilight is
large especially beyond 50° latitude.

At the polar regions, twilight or dawn continue for nearly seven weeks at a stretch during the winter season when the Sun is within 18° of the
horizon.

The period of twilight is of great significance during winter in the middle and high latitudes when the duration of sunlight is limited and nights
are long.