Module 3: Reactive Chemistry

Chemical Reactions
Physical & Chemical Changes

Physical Changes:

Change in state

Change in appearance

Dissolving of solid

Separating mixtures

Chemical Changes:

New substance is produced

Change in colour

Change in temperature

Odour is produced

Bubbles produced

Exothermic
In a exothermic reaction the reactants have more energy than the products.
This energy is released from bonds being formed and goes into the
surroundings, usually causing the temperature to rise. Most combustion
reaction are exothermic

Endothermic

In an endothermic reaction, the energy is taken away from the surroundings

and the reactants have less energy than the products because energy is
being used to break bonds, endothermic reactions usually cause the
temperature to drop. Most decomposition reactions are endothermic

Synthesis Reactions

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 Synthesis reaction involves the formation of a compound from smaller
compounds / molecules.
Reactant A + Reactant B → Reactant C

For Example: Hydrogen Gas reacts with Oxygen Gas to form Water

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2 O(l)

Decomposition Reaction

Decomposition reaction involves the decomposition of a compound into

smaller compounds / molecules.

Reactant A → Reactant B + Reactant C

For Example: Hydrogen Peroxide decomposes into Water and Oxygen gas.

2H2 O2(l) → 2H2 O(l) + O2(g)

Compounds can be decomposed by

Thermal Decomposition

Thermal decomposition uses heat to break down compounds.

Compounds that can be easily decomposed by heat include:

most hydroxides (to form oxide and water)

most carbonates (to form oxide and carbon dioxide)

many nitrates (to form oxide, nitrogen dioxide and water).

Electrolysis

Electrolysis is the process in which electric current is passed through a

liquid or solution to bring about a chemical reaction.

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 For Example: Electrolysis of Water to form Hydrogen Gas and Oxygen
Gas

2H2 O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Photolysis

Photolysis is the process in which light energy is used to decompose a

compound.

For Example: Photolysis of Silver Chloride to form Silver and Chlorine

Gas

2AgCl(s) → 2Ag(s) + Cl 2(g)

Combustion Reaction

Combustion reactions involves an element or compound burning in oxygen

to form oxides. Thermal energy is released during combustion.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide

For Example: Combustion of Magnesium produces Magnesium Oxide

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

Combustion of a hydrocarbon (a compound containing only hydrogen and

carbon) produces carbon dioxide and water, provided there is enough
oxygen.

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Water + Carbon

Dioxide

For Example: Complete combustion of Methane produces water and carbon

dioxide

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → 2H2 O(l) + CO2(g)

A combustion reaction can either be complete or incomplete.

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 Complete Combustion

A complete combustion reaction is when a fuel (hydrocarbon) reacts

with oxygen which is plentiful so the products are carbon dioxide and
water.

Incomplete Combustion

An Incomplete combustion reaction is when a fuel (hydrocarbon) reacts

with oxygen which is limited so the products are water, carbon
monoxide and/or carbon..
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → Carbon / Carbon
Monoxide + Water

For Example: Incomplete combustion of Methane produces Water and

Carbon Monoxide
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO(g) +
4H2 O(l)

Precipitation Reaction

Precipitation reaction involves the production of an insoluble (cannot

dissolve) salt when two soluble (can dissolve) solution are combined.
Soluble Salt A + Soluble Salt B → Insoluble Salt C + Soluble
Salt D

For Example: Sodium Chloride and Silver Nitrate combine to form the
precipitate Silver Chloride and the soluble salt Sodium Nitrate.
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) +
NaNO3(aq)
During a precipitation reaction, when two soluble solutions are combined,
they split apart into individual ions and will collide with one another. When
two oppositely charged ions collide, they may join together to form a new,
insoluble precipitate.

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 Spectator ions in a precipitate reaction are present in the reaction but not
involved. They make up the soluble salt after the reaction.

Chemical Equation

A net ionic equation shows the actual ions that are undergoing reaction
without specifying the compounds they came from.
For Example: Copper ions react with hydroxide ions to form copper
hydroxide.

Cu2+ −
(aq) + 2OH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)

A complete formula equation or neutral species equation shows the actual

compounds that were used for the reaction.
For Example: Copper Chloride and Sodium Hydroxide combine to form the
precipitate Copper Hydroxide and the soluble salt Sodium Chloride.

CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) +

2NaCl(aq)
A complete ionic equation shows all the ions that are present in the
reaction mixture, those undergoing reaction and along with spectator ions.
For Example: Copper ion and Hydroxide ion react to form Copper Hydroxide
and leave spectator ions Sodium and Chlorine.
Cu2+ + 2Cl − + 2Na+ + 2OH − → Cu(OH)2(s) +
2Na+ + 2Cl −
Solubility Table

Acids

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 An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions in a solution. Some
properties of acids are:

sour taste

conduct electricity when in solution

turns blue litmus red

react with metals to produce hydrogen gas

Base
A base is a substance that contains either the hydroxide ion or the oxide
ion or that in solution produces the hydroxide ion. Bases that are soluble in
water are called alkalis. Some common properties of bases are:

Soapy feel

Bitter taste

Conduct electricity when in solution

Turns red litmus to blue

Acid & Reactive Metal Reaction

When dilute acids are added to reactive metals, hydrogen gas is released
and a salt is formed.

Acid + Reactive Metal → Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Gas
For Example: Dilute Hydrochloric Acid reacts with Zinc metal to form Zinc
Chloride and Hydrogen Gas.

2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Acid & Metal Hydroxide Reaction

An acid and metal hydroxide reaction occurs when a soluble metal

hydroxide reacts with an acid to form a salt and water.
Acid + Metal hydroxide → Salt + Water

For Example: Solution of Sulfuric Acid reacts with Sodium Hydroxide to

form Sodium Sulfate and Water

H2 SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2 SO4(aq) + 2H2 O(l)

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 In a neutralisation reaction the hydroxide ions will reaction with the
hydrogen ions. When all the ions have been reacted forming water, the acid
and base are said to be neutralised.

Acid & Metal Carbonate Reaction

An acid and metal carbonate reaction occurs when a metal carbonate

reacts with an acid to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
Acid + Metal Carbonate → Salt + Water +
Carbon Dioxide

For Example: Solution of Hydrochloric Acid reacts with Sodium Carbonate

to form Sodium Chloride, Carbon Dioxide and Water

2HCl(aq) + Na2 CO3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2 O(l)

Metal hydrogen carbonates also called bicarbonates can react with an acid
to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide

Acid + Metal Hydrogen Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon

Dioxide

For Example: Solution of Hydrochloric Acid reacts with Sodium Hydrogen

Carbonate to form Sodium Chloride, Water and Carbon Dioxide

HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) → NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g)

Test for Carbon Dioxide
To test for carbon dioxide is to bubble the gas through clear limewater
(calcium hydroxide solution). If carbon dioxide is present it will turn the
solution milky.

For Example: Calcium Hydroxide Solution reacts with Carbon Dioxide to

form Calcium Carbonate and Water

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) +

H2 O(l)

Reactions Of Metals
Metals – Oxygen Reaction

All metals except silver, platinum and gold react with oxygen to produce a
metal oxide.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide

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 For Example: Aluminum metal reacts with oxygen gas to produce solid
aluminum oxide

4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2 O3(s)

Metal – Water Reaction

Some metals react with water or steam while others do not. Highly reactive
metals react with cold or hot water to produce metals hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.

Highly Reactive Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide +

Hydrogen Gas

For Example: Calcium metals reacts with Water to produce Calcium

Hydroxide and Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2 O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Less highly reactive metals require steam to react to produce a metal oxide
and hydrogen gas.

Less Reactive Metal + Water → Metal Oxide +

Hydrogen Gas
For Example: Zinc metal reacts with Water to produce Zinc Oxide and
Hydrogen Gas

Zn(s) + H2 O(g) → ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Metal – Acid Reaction

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 Most metals except for highly unreactive ones will react with dilute acids to
produce a metal salt and hydrogen gas.

Metal + Dilute Acid → Metal Salt + Hydrogen

Gas
For Example: Zinc metal reacts with dilute Hydrochloric Acid to produce
Zinc Chloride and Hydrogen Gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Since acids produce hydrogen ions in a solution, it is actually the hydrogen
ions that the metal reacts to.

Displacement Reactions

A displacement reaction is when a more reactive metal converts the ion of

another less reactive metal to the neutral atom.
A + BC → AC + B

For Example: Zinc metal reacted and displaced Copper Sulfate to produce
Zinc Sulfate and Copper metal

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Metal Oxide – Acid Reaction

Most metal oxides react with acid to produce a metal salt and water.
Metal Oxide + Acid → Metal Salt +
Water

For Example: Copper Oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form metal salt,
Copper Chloride, and water.

CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2 O

Activity Series of Metals
The activity series of metals shows metals in order of decreasing reactivity.

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 Metal Activity & The Periodic Table

The reactivity of metals is in part dependent on their:

Atomic Radius

Atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost

electrons, is a measure of the size of an atom.
The atomic radius increases down a group but decreases across
periods

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove one electron from

the outer shell of an atom.
The ionization energy decreases down a group but increases across
periods

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of atoms to attract electrons from other
atoms.

The electronegativity decreases down a group but increases across

periods

Core Charge

Core charge is a measure of the force of attraction between the

valence electrons and the nucleus of the atom.

The core charge does not change down a group but increases across
periods

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 Redox Reactions & Galvanic Cells
Oxidation & Reduction

A common feature of all the reaction of metals is that atoms of metals lose
electrons to become a cation. If the metal lost electron, then some other
species gained electrons.

Reactions in which electrons have been transferred are called electron

transfer reactions or redox reactions. Oxidation means loss of electrons.
Reduction means gain of electrons.
2+
For Example: Mg loses two electron to become Mg , so Mg is oxidized.
2−
O gains two electrons to become O , so oxygen is reduced.

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

An oxidant or oxidizing agent is a substance that brings about oxidation of

another substance and is itself reduced. A reductant or reducing agent is a
substance that brings about reduction of another substance and is itself
oxidized.

Half Equations
Half equations describe the oxidation and reduction processes separately
in terms of electrons lost or gained.

For Example: Half equations of a redox reaction between Zinc Metal and
Hydrogen Ions.

Oxidation: Zn(s) → Zn2+

aq + 2e
−

+
Reduction: 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 (g)
+
Overall: Zn(s) + 2H(aq) → Zn2+
(aq)
+ H2 (g)

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 Sometimes, the electrons in two half equations will not cancel out exactly.
In order to add these types of equation together, we need the electron to
cancel out. We can do this by multiplying the equation.
For Example: Half equation of a redox reaction between Silver Metal and
Hydrogen Ions.
+
Oxidation: Ag(s) → Agaq + e−
+
Reduction: 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 (g)
Multiply the oxidation half equation by 2 so the amount of electrons in each
equation is the same so we can cancel them out.
+
Oxidation: 2Ag(s) → 2Agaq + 2e−
+
Reduction: 2H(aq) + 2e− → H2 (g)
+ +
Overall: 2Ag(s) + 2H(aq) → 2Ag(aq) +
H2 (g)

Oxidation Number

The oxidation number is not the charge of an element but are values that
are assigned in order to better understand losses and gains in electrons.

When the oxidation number increases, oxidation has occurred (loss of

electrons). When the oxidation number decreases, the reduction has
occurred (gain of electrons).
There are rules and steps for assigning oxidation numbers:

A substance present in elemental state has an oxidation number of 0

regardless.

The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is simply the charge on the

ion.

The oxidation number of group 1 elements is 1

The oxidation number of group 2 elements is 2

The oxidation number of halogens (group 17 elements is 2

Fluorine always has an oxidation number of 1. Unless F2 where it is 0

The oxidation number of hydrogen is 1 when bonded to non-metals

and 1 when bonded to metals.

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 Oxygen has an oxidation number of 2. Unless its with peroxide where
is changes to 1

Chlorine, bromine and iodine have oxidation numbers of 1 unless rule

5 requires them to have a different value.

The sum of the oxidation numbers of the elements in a molecule or ion

must equal to the net charge of the species.

The most electronegative element is assigned the negative oxidation

number.

Galvanic Cells
A galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell in which chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy. If several galvanic cells are connected in a
series to obtain a higher voltage, the combination of cells is called a
battery.
A galvanic cell is designed so that half-reactions occur in two separate
compartments of the cell. Because the oxidizing agent and reducing agent
do not come into direct contact with each other, electrons can only be
transferred through an external circuit connecting the negative and positive
electrodes. This flow of electrons is an electric current. Therefore, the
chemical energy often reactants is transformed into electrical energy.

Half Cells
A galvanic cell consist of two half cells. Each half cell contains an electrode
in contact with a solution.

The Daniell Cell

John Daniell invented the Daniell cell in 1836.

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 Parts of the Daniell cell

An electrode is a conductor that connects the external circuit to the

solution of the galanic cell. In the Daniell model the zinc electrode and
the copper electrode are just pieces of metal.
The electrode where oxidation is occurring is called the anode and the
electrode where reduction is occurring is called the cathode.
The solutions in galvanic cells are called electrolyte solutions. An
electrolyte is a substance that in solution-state or molten state
conducts electricity. The Daniell model, zinc sulphate, copper sulphate
and potassium nitrate are the electrolytes.
A salt bridge is a device that provides electrical contact between two
solutions. In the Daniel model, the salt bridge is a strip of filter paper
soaked in potassium nitrate solution.

Function of the Daniell cell

The Daniell model function by:

The zinc electrode corrodes because the zinc metal forms zinc ions
in the solution
Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
The oxidation of zinc metal releases electrons which flow through
the wire to the copper electrode.

Electrons flow through the copper electrode and collide with the
positive copper ions in the solution.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
When copper ions receive electrons they become neutral to form
copper metal and deposite on the electrode as a dark brown
coating

The salt bridge is present to maintain electrical neutrality.

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 This redox reaction is described as a spontaneous reaction because it
occurs naturally. Copper ions act as the oxidant or the oxidising agent
and the zinc ions act as the reductant or the reducing agent.

Function of the salt bridge

The salt bridge is needed since it contains free ions so that they call
balance charges formed in the two compartments. The cations move
toward the cathode and the anions move towards the anode.
Without the salt bridge the two compoartments will accumalative either
a positve or a negative charge.

Potential Difference
A potential difference exist between two half cells since one half cell has a
greater tendency to push electrons into the external circuit than the other
half cell. The potential difference of a cell is also called the electromotive
force (emf) and it is commonly referred to as voltage. The potential
difference of a cell E has measured in volt V with a voltmeter. Potential
differences of cells are usually measured under the standard conditions of:

1 bar 100 kPa) pressure

1 mol/L concentration of solution

25 degree celsius

The potential difference of a cell under standrard consition is given the

symbol E o .

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 Standard Electrode Potentials
It is impossibel to measure the potential difference of an isolated half cell
because both exidation and reduction must occur for a potential difference
to exist.
However, you can assign a standard half-cell potential E°) to each half-cell
by connecting the cells to a standard reference half-cell and measuring the
voltage produced. A hydrogen half cell, H + (aq)/H2 (g), under standard
conditions is used to measure the voltage produced by connecting it to a
half cell. This half-cell is known as the standard hydrogen half-cell or
standard hydrogen electrode.

F e2+ (aq) + 2e− < — > F e(s)E° = −0.44V

The negative side indicates that the electrode was negative when
connected to the hydrogen half cell.

Strong reducing agents donate electrons more readily than weak ones.

Strong oxidising agents accept electrons more readily than weak ones.

Strong reducing agents have weak conjugate oxidising agents.

Strong oxidising agents have weak conjugate reducing agents.

Table Of Standard Reduction Potentials

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 Calculating Voltage For Redox Reaction
The maximum potential difference of a cell under standard conditions is the
difference between the E° values of its two half cells. It is defined as
follows:

cell potential difference = E° of half-cell containing the oxidizing agent

− E° of half-cell containing the reducing agent

For galvanic cells, we can us:

cell potential difference = most positive half-cell E° − most negative

half-cell E°

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 Rates Of Reactions
Collision Theory

Collision theory is the idea that chemical reactions occur as a result of

collision between the reacting particles. During chemical reactions particles
will collide with one another and rearrange to form new particles
According to the collision theory, for a reaction to occur, the reactant
particles must:
• make contact (collide) with each other
• collide with sufficient energy to break the bonds within the reactants
• collide with the correct orientation to break the bonds within the
reactants and so allow the formation of new products.

Activation Energy
The activation energy, Ea , of a reaction is the minimum energy that a
collision must possess for a reaction to occur. If the energy of a collision is
equal or greater than the activation energy than a reaction can occur.
When the activation energy is absorbed, a new arrangement of the atoms
known as the transition state forms. The transition state occurs at the
stage of maximum potential energy in the reaction when reactants have
achieved the activation energy.
Bond breaking and bond-forming are both occurring at this stage, and the
arrangement of the atoms is unstable. The atoms in the transition state
rearrange to form the products as the reaction progresses.

Orientation Of Colliding Particles

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 Note only does a collision need to posses energy equal or above the
activation energy but also particles need to collide in a specific orientation
to break or form bonds.

Rate Of Reaction
The rate of reaction is the rate of change of concentration with time.
Alternatively the average rate of reaction over a small time interval is the
change in concentration divided by the time taken for the change to occur.

change in concentration
average rate =
time taken
Δc
average rate =
Δt
There are five main factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions:

surface area of solid reactants

concentration of reactants in a solution

pressure of any gaseous reactant

temperature of the reaction mixture

presence of catalysts

The rate of reaction can be practically calculated by finding the volume of

gas produced, mass lost, change in temperature, change in color,

Effect Of Surface Area

When a solid is involved in a reaction, only the particles at the solid surface
are involved in the reaction. The number of particles on the solid's surface
depends on the solid's surface area.

The more particles are present, the more collision there meaning the rate of
reaction has increased so increasing the surface area increases the rate of
reaction.
Surface area can be increased by breaking a particle down into smaller
parts to expose more particles.

Effect Of Concentration
When concentration increases, more particles of either reactant are put in.
The more particles there are, the frequency of collisions consequently

Module 3 Reactive Chemistry 19

 increases which also increases the rate of reaction
Meaning increasing the concentration of a reactant in a chemical reaction
with also increase the rate of the reaction.

Effect Of Pressure
In reactions involving gases, increasing the pressure on the gas at a
constant temperature will result (on average) in the reactant particles
coming closer together. This will increase the chance of the gas molecules
colliding, and therefore increase the rate of reaction.

Effect Of Temperature
As the temperature of a reaction increases, the increased speed of the
particles from the increase in their kinetic energy causes them to collide
more often, increasing the frequency of collisions and the rate of reaction.

Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution

At any temperature, the particles have a range of kinetic energies. Although

most particles have similar kinetic energies, there are some with a higher or
a lower energy.
This range of energies is shown on a graph called a Maxwell–Boltzmann
distribution curve or the kinetic energy distribution diagram.

During a chemical reaction a small amount of the particles have kinetic

energy that is equal to or greater than the activation energy and are able to
react.

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Module 3 Reactive Chemistry 21