Chapter five: computer Networks

Computer networking: is a way to connect two or more computer together using network
cards, cables, and special programs. So that the users can communicate with each other, share
data, program and other resources like a printer, a modem, or external hard disk and overcome
other limitations of stand-alone systems.

Computer networks are becoming very popular these days and can be found in
companies, universities, government offices, and hospital

5.1 ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKING

The main advantages of networking are:
(i). Hardware resource sharing:
Network enables sharing of expensive resources such as processor, storage space and
peripherals like modern, fax, and laser printer.
(ii). Sharing of databases:
The network permits concurrent access to the same data file by many users in the network.
Thus, user in the sales department, production department, inventory department etc share
corporate databases.
(iii). Sharing of Software:
Any user in a network can load and use the software installed on any of the computer of
fileserver in the network.
(iv). Communication between users:
The Network users can communicate between them. E-mail facility can also be used for
communication.
(v). Decentralized data processing:
In a network, the data processing can be decentralized by enabling local offices to capture and
store data, and generate information to meet most of their requirements a local level itself.
(vi) Security of data:
n a networked environment the data is backed up with duplicate storage. Adequate security
measures are also put in place to product the data.

 What is the largest network?

Characterized based on their geographical coverage, speed, capacities
 Packets :A unit of data send across the network
 What is Node (host) : Any device on a network.

 What is Data transfer rate (bandwidth)

The speed with which data is moved from one place to another on a network or how many bits
per second travel across the network. Faster the transfer rate, the faster you can send and receive
data and information• Usually expressed as a measure of bits per second,kilobits per
second(Kbps),megabits per second (Mbps),gigabits per second(Gbps)

 Networks are categorized based on the following characteristics:

 Network coverage
 Network topologies
 Network technologies
 Network architecture

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 5.2 Network coverage (Types of Network)

The networks can be classified into four types (PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN) as bellow:

1-PAN (personal area network): is a computer network(CN) used for communication

among computer devices (including telephones and personal digital assistants) close to
one person. Wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire Examples: Bluetooth
device in a room

2-LAN (local area network): is a CN covering a small geographic area, like a home, office,
or group of buildings.
(wired (10 Mbps, 100Mbps) or Wi-Fi (wireless) or token
ring(16MBPS).

3-MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks): are large CNs usually spanning a city covers a
wider area than LAN, example: campus-wide network.
(wireless)

4-WAN (Wide Area Network): is a CN that covers a broad area, e.g., cross metropolitan,
regional, or national boundaries
Examples: Internet P2P
Technologies:
 telephone lines
 Satellite communications

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Classification of interconnected processors by Scale

5.3 Network Topologies: Configuration or physical arrangement in which devices are

connected together (how the computers are connected together). There are a number
of network topologies; star, ring and bus are popular network topologies.

 Star networks: Most popular type used today. connecting all devices to a central
unit called hub, Failure in one link is not catastrophic
What is the problem with this? All data transferred from one computer to another passes
through hub.

 Ring networks: a number of computers are connected on a closed loop. Data

travels from device to device around entire ring in one direction
 Covers large distances
 Primarily used for LANs and WANs

Bus networks: These are the earliest networks. Single central cable connected a
number of devices, physical cable or backbone.
 Easy and cheap
 Popular for LANs

Star networks ring networks bus networks

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5.4 Network Technologies: are Specific combinations of hardware and software that
allow different devices on several types of networks to communicate like (Ethernet,
token ring, TCP/IP, WAP), vary depending on the type of devices we use for
interconnecting computers and devices together

1-What is an Ethernet?
LAN technology that allows personal computers to contend for access network, based on
bus topologies. Susceptible to collision, Operates at 10Mbps or 100Mbps, (10/100). It was
commercially introduced in 1980 and has since been refined to support higher bit rate and
longer link distance,

2-What is token ring?

LAN technology that controls access to network by requiring network devices to share
or pass a special signal, called a token. Device with token can transmit data over network.
Only the computer with the token can transmit .Based on ring topology, although it can use
star topology. No collision .The token ring protocol was developed by IBM I the mid 1980.

3-What is TCP/IP?
• Short for? (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) Transmits data by
breaking it up into packets. Commonly used for Internet Transmissions packets .

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NO Parameter TCP UDP
1. acronym for transmission control user datagram protocol also known as
protocol stateless protocol
2. connection Connection oriented Connection less protocol
3. Reliability Reliable delivery, No loss Unreliable delivery, packet loss,
,error corruption
4. Data flow Relatively slow and flow Relatively fast but no flow control
control
5. Usage Used for application that Used in video conferencing and games
require higher reliability
6- Ordering of data It rearranges data packet in It has no inherent order as all packets are
packet the order specification independent of each other

4-What is the Wireless Applications Protocol (WAP)?

 Allows wireless mobile devices to access Internet and its services. Wireless device
contains client software, which connects to Internet service provider's Server , Data rate of
9.6-153 kbps depending on the service type

 802.11 (Protocol for wireless LANs)

 Standard for wireless LAN developed in1990 by the institute of electrical and
electronic engineers(IEEE) ,this standard defining all aspects of radio
frequency wireless networking, intended for home and office use.
 Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is used to describe that the device is in 802.11 family
or standards
 Typically used for long range (300-1000 feet)
 Variations include: .11 (1-2 Mbps); .11a (up to 54 Mbps); .11b (up to 11
Mbps); .11g (54 Mbps and higher;.11n
 802.11n
 Next generation wireless LAN technology
 Improving network throughput (600 Mbps compared to 450 Mbps) – thus
potentially supporting a user throughput of 110 Mbit/s,80211n builds on
previous 802.11standared by adding multi-input multi-output(MIMO) and 40
MHZ channels to (PHY)physical layer
 WiMAX
 Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
 Provides wireless transmission of data from point-to-multipoint links to
portable and fully mobile internet access (up to 3 Mbit/s)
 The intent is to deliver the last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative
to cable and DSL
Based on the IEEE 802.16(d/e) standard (also called Broadband Wireless Access)

 Wireless personal area network (WPAN)

 Uses network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, UWB, Z-Wave and ZigBee
 Zigbee
 High level communication protocols using small, low-power digital radios based on the
IEEE 802.15.4
 Wireless mesh networking proprietary standard

 Bluetooth
 Uses radio frequency

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 Typically used for close distances (short range- 33 feet or so)
 Transmits at 1Mbps
 Used for handheld computers to communicate with the desktop
 IrDA
 Infrared (IR) light waves
 Transfers at a rate of 115 Kbps to 4 Mbps
 Requires light-of-sight transmission
 RFID
 Radio frequency identification
 Uses tags which are places in items
 Example: merchandises, toll-tags, courtesy calls, sensors!
Network Examples
 IEEE 802.15.4
 Low-rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs)
 Bases for e ZigBee, WirelessHART, and MiWi specification
 Also used for 6LoWPAN and standard Internet protocols to build a Wireless Embedded
Internet (WEI)
 Intranets
 Used for private networks
 May implement a firewall, Hardware and software that restricts access to data and
information on a network
 Home networks
Ethernet ,Phone line ,HomeRF (radio frequency- waves) ,Intelligent home network

No parameter Wi-fi Wi-Max

1. acronym Wireless fidelity Word Wide Interoperability for Microwave
for Access
2. History Was officially launched in the WiMax come to the picture in the year 2004
year 1997
3. standared Defined under IEEE 802.11x Standardized under 802.16y family where y
standards where x is various refer to various WiMax vertions
Wi-fi vertions
4 Vertions Wi-fi has several versions of it Wi-max has a number of different versions
such as too:802.16a,802.16d ,802.11e
802.11b,802.11g,802.11n
5. Coverage Optimized for indoor Outdoor Non-line- of –sight performance
performance, short range( (NLOS),(80-90kilometers)
100meters) More complex technology
6. Bit rate 2.7 bit/s/Hz 5 bit/s/Hz, and up to 75Mbit/s in a 20MHz
channel

Network Models
 Using a formal model allows us to deal with various aspects of Networks
abstractly.
 We will look at a popular model (OSI reference model).and TCP/IP model.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
Standard Model for Data Communications. Specified by International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a layered model
Seven Layers Altogether
Each Layer Performs a Unique Function
Each Layer Has Its Own Protocol

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Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models
�TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer.
�TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer.
�TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
�TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of packets as
the transport layer in the OSI model does.

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5.5 Network Architecture
Refers to how the computer or devices are designed in a network
Basic types:
 Centralized – using mainframes
 Peer-2-Peer:connecting several computers together (<10)
Each computer (peer) has equal responsibilities, capacities, sharing hardware, data, with the
other computers on the peer-to-peer network
Good for small businesses and home networks, this system is simple and inexpensive, here no
fixed clients and servers
Examples: Skype.
 Client/Server: The serves shares its resources between different clients
All clients must request service from the server. The server is also called a host
Different servers perform different tasks: File server, network server, etc.

P2P vs. Client-Server

Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network
bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central
coordination by servers or stable hosts

5.6 Communication Channels

Channels: Communications path between two devices (transmitter and receiver)
through which data can be transmitted, also called communication media or transmission
media. It can be divided into wired and wireless media.

Channel capacity: How much data can be passed through the channel (bit/sec). Also called
channel band width which determine how many bits per second travel across the
network

5.7 Physical Transmission Media (wired):

Defined as Wire, cable, and other tangible(touchable) materials used to send
communication signals. Examples: Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, Fiber-optics, etc.

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 Twisted-pair cable:
One or more twisted wires bundled together, made of copper, used by telephone system and
network cabling, 300BPS -10MBPS

 Coaxial-Cable:
Consists of single copper wire surrounded by at least three layers of insulating and
metal materials .Higher bandwidth, up to 200MBPS. More expensive and difficult to
wire. Typically used for Television wiring

 Fiber-optics:
Contains core of dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic Uses light to
transmit signals. Very high capacity (permit transmission over longer distance and at
higher band width(data rate)), low noise, small size, less suitable to natural disturbances
, It is flexible, bends easily resist corrosion and difficult to tap.10 GBPS and higher data
rates possible

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 Physical Transmission Media

5.8 What is wireless transmission media?

• Send communications signals through air or space. Used when inconvenient, impractical, or
impossible to install cables
 Broadcast Radio
 Distribute signals through the air over long distance
 Uses an antenna
 Typically for stationary locations
 Can be short range

 Microwaves
 Radio waves providing high speed transmission
 They are point-to-point (can’t be obstructed)
 Used for satellite communication

 Cellular Radio
 A form of broadcast radio used for mobile communication
 High frequency radio waves to transmit voice or data
 Utilizes frequency-reuse
 Infrared (IR)
Wireless transmission media that sends signals using infrared light- waves

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Cellular Network: this technology provides wireless Internet access through cell [Link]:
 0G
 Single, powerful base station covering a wide area, and each telephone would
effectively monopolize a channel over that whole area while in use (developed in 40’s)
 No frequency use or handoff (basis of modern cell phone technology)
 1G
 Fully automatic cellular networks
 introduced in the early to mid 1980s
 2G
 Introduced in 1991 in Finland on the GSM standard
 Offered the first data service with person-to-person SMS text messaging
 3G:
 Faster than PCS; Used for multimedia and graphics
 Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of
speech and data services and higher data rates (up to 14.4 Mbit/s on the
downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s. obtaining mobile speeds of around 2.0 Mbps
 4G:
 Fourth generation of cellular wireless; providing a comprehensive and
secure IP based service to users "Anytime, Anywhere"[p-0 at high data
rates. The goal of 4G is to achieve peak mobile speeds of 100 Mbps but the
reality is about 21 Mbps

5.9 Network Devices: Functions of network devices are:

• A)Separating (connecting) networks or expanding network
• e.g. repeaters, hubs, bridges, routers, switches, gateways
• B)Remote access devices ,as below:
Dial-Up, DSL, IDSN, Cable , Leased line, ATM

A. Expanding Network

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 1-Repeaters: It regenerates data and broadcasts them to all ports. Repeaters are the least
expensive way to expand a network, but they are limited to connecting two segments

2-Hub: Device that provides a central point for cables in a network, Connects parts of a
network, typically different parts of the same LAN
Hub

3-Bridge -Connects two LANs using software (network access level), Bridges function similar to
repeaters, but can understand the node addresses .Has one input and one output .Used to isolate
network traffic and computers .Has the intelligent to examine incoming packet source and destination
addresses, but cannot interpret higher-level information. Hence cannot filter packet according to its
protocol.

Repeaters Bridges

OSI layer Physical layer Data link layer

Data Regenerate data at Regenerate data

regeneration the signal level at the packet
level
Reduce network No Yes
traffic

4-Routers : are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together it’s a
devices that direct packets along fastest available path. Routers work at the OSI layer 3

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 (network layer) .They use the “logical address” of packets and routing tables to determine
the best path for data delivery,

Distinguishing Between Bridges and Routers: both store-and-forward devices

• Bridges forward everything they don’t recognize, Routers select the best path.
• Routers are layer 3 devices which recognize network address (network layer) devices
(examine network layer headers),Bridges are layer 2(Link Layer devices) devices which
look at the MAC sub layer node address
• Routers maintain routing tables, implement routing algorithm. Bridges maintain filtering
tables, implement filtering, learning and spanning tree algorithms
• Bridges do well in small (few hundred hosts) while routers used in large networks
(thousands of hosts)
• Bridges do not offer protection from broadcast storms but routers provide firewall
protection against broadcast storms

5- A network switch: is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within
one (LAN). It's an example of a wireless local area network. Also can connect different LANs.
Switches can be considered as multiport bridges, can divide a network into some logical
(isolated )channels, Since isolated, hence secure. Reduce the possibility of collision
Data will only go to the destination .Can interpret address information
Switches operate at the Data Link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model Packets sending from 1
channel will not go to another if not specify

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 switch

6-Gateway: Connects networks that use different protocols (transport level or above )
Often one particular node on a LAN is set up to serve as a gateway to handle all communication going
between that LAN and other networks

B) Remote access devices

1-Dial-Up (Analog 56K).
Dial-up access is cheap but slow. A modem (internal or external) connects to the Internet after
the computer dials a phone number. This analog signal is converted to digital via the modem
and sent over a land-line serviced by a public telephone network. Telephone lines are
variable in quality and the connection can be poor at times. The lines regularly experience
interference and this affects the speed, anywhere from 28K to 56K. Since a computer or other
device shares the same line as the telephone, they can’t be active at the same time.

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Modems : Allow computers to communicate over a telephone line. Enable
communication between networks or connecting to the world beyond the LA .Cannot send
digital signal directly to telephone line. at sending end: MODulate the computer’s digital
signal into analog signal and transmits .Receiving end: DEModulate the analog signal
back into digital form
 Analog signals: continuous electrical waves
 Digital signals: individual electrical pulses (bits)

2-DSL: DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. It is an internet connection that is always
“on”. This uses 2 lines so your phone is not tied up when your computer is connected. There
is also no need to dial a phone number to connect. DSL uses a router to transport data and the
range of connection speed, depending on the service offered, is between 128K to 8
[Link] are two types of connection in DSL service , symmetric connection :is one in
which the transfer speeds in both direction are equal, and Asymmetric connection ,which has
a faster downstream transmission speed than its upstream speed

[Link]: stands for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

• Particularly suitable for high speed multimedia communications, general Internet
applications

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 • Asymmetric - downstream 1.5 to 6.1Mbps, upstream 16 to 640kbps
• Digital-mainly for transmitting digital data still require modulation and demodulation
• Subscriber line - make use of the analog connection between household and CO
b. Other DSL Technologies
HDSL – High speed DSL,2 twisted pair, 12,000 feet,1.5Mbps (DS1) full-duplex
Symmetric
VDSL – Very high bit rate DSL,Downstream: 52 Mbps (SONET STS-1) over 1000 feet; or
15 Mbps over 3000 feet,Upstream: 1.5 to 2.3 Mbps
RDSL – Rate adaptive DSL,Intelligent DSL to adjust data rate

3-ISDN lines: ISDN is stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It is a set of
protocol that combines digital telephone and data transport service. The whole idea is
to digitize a telephone network to permit the transmission video,text over the existing
telephone [Link] main goal of ISDN is to form of wide area network that provides
end to end connectivity over digital media .This can be done integrating all the
separate transmission service into one without adding new link or subscribe [Link]
data rate of ISDN is 64kbps to 1.5mbs.

4-Cable: Cable provides an internet connection through a cable modem and operates
over cable TV lines. There are different speeds depending on if you are uploading
data transmissions or downloading. Since the coax cable provides a much greater
and Usually bandwidth over dial-up or DSL telephone lines, you can get faster access
attaches to network card. Cable speeds range from 512K to 20 Mbps.

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5-leased line (T1,T3):
When permanent dedicated connections are required, a point-to-point link is used to provide a
pre-established WAN communications path from the customer premises to the provider
network. Point-to-point lines are usually leased from a service provider and are called leased
lines.
Leased lines have existed since the early 1950s, and for this reason are referred to by different
names, such as leased circuits, serial link, serial line, point-to-point link, and T1/E1 or T3/E3
lines. The term leased line refers to the fact that the organization pays a monthly lease fee to a
service provider to use the line.
In North America, service providers use the T-carrier system to define the digital transmission
capability of a serial copper media link, while Europe uses the E-carrier system. For instance,
a T1 link supports 1.544 Mbps, an E1 supports 2.048 Mbps, a T3 supports 43.7 Mbps, and an
E3 connection supports 34.368 Mbps. Optical Carrier (OC) transmission rates are used to
define the digital transmitting capacity of a fiber-optic network

The advantages of leased lines include

1-Simplicity( require minimal expertise to install and maintain).
2-Quality: usually offer high service quality.
3-Availability: Constant availability is essential for some applications, such as e-commerce.

The disadvantages of leased lines include

1-Cost: Point-to-point links are generally the most expensive type of WAN access. Limited
2-flexibility: WAN traffic is often variable, and leased lines have a fixed capacity, so that the
bandwidth of the line seldom matches the need exactly. Any change to the leased line
generally requires a site visit by ISP personnel to adjust capacity.

6-ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode): (ATM) technology is capable of transferring

voice, video, and data through private and public networks. It is built on a cell-based

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architecture rather than on a frame-based architecture. ATM cells are always a fixed length
of 53 bytes. The ATM cell contains a 5-byte ATM header followed by 48 bytes of ATM
payload. Small fixed-length cells are well-suited for carrying voice and video traffic
because this traffic is intolerant of delay. Video and voice traffic do not have to wait for
larger data packets to be transmitted.
The 53-byte ATM cell is less efficient than the bigger frames and packets of Frame Relay.
Furthermore, the ATM cell has at least 5 bytes of overhead for each 48-byte payload.
When the cell is carrying segmented network layer packets, the overhead is higher because
the ATM switch must be able to reassemble the packets at the destination. A typical ATM
line needs almost 20 percent greater bandwidth than Frame Relay to carry the same volume
of network layer data. in Figure below, the ATM switch transmits four different traffic
flows consisting of video, VoIP, web, and email.

7- Frame Relay:Most popular PSDN, 56 kbps to about 40 Mbp ,Frame Relay is a

simple Layer 2 nonbroadcast multiaccess (NBMA) WAN technology used to
interconnect enterprise LANs. A single router interface can be used to connect to
multiple sites using PVCs. PVCs are used to carry both voice and data traffic
between a source and destination, and support data rates up to 4 Mbps, with some
providers offering even higher rates.
Frame Relay creates PVCs, which are uniquely identified by a data-link connection
identifier (DLCI). The PVCs and DLCIs ensure bidirectional communication from one
DTE device to [Link] instance, in figure below R1 will use DLCI 102 to reach R2,
while R2 will use DLCI 201 to reach R1.

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• Satellite. Satellite accesses the internet via a satellite in Earth’s orbit. The enormous
distance that a signal travels from earth to satellite and back again, provides a delayed
connection compared to cable and DSL. Satellite connection speeds are around 512K to
2.0 Mbps.

What is a network interface card (NIC)?

• Card inserted into expansion slot of personal computer or other device, enabling it
to connect to a network

NIC for desktop Computer NIC for notebook computer

Advantages and Disadvantages

Types Advantages Disadvantages
Analog Low cost Slowest type of connection available
Modem Availability: able to get internet service
almost anywhere in the country Unable to talk on the telephone
Simplicity when using internet

ISDN Faster than analog modemsNot dramatically faster than analog service
Widely available in most metro areasThe access charge is usually per-minute
Able to talk on the telephone and surf the webNot available everywhere
simultaneously
Always on connection 

Cable Always on connection Variability of speed

High speedUpstream speed limited

DSL Always on connection Not available everywhere due to the signal

High speed limitations based on the distance
Promise of affordability
Uses existing lines
T-1 Available virtually everywhere in Too expensive to the
the regional serving area individual and small business

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 Always on connection

Satellite Available virtually everywhere in Sensitive to the heavy rainy

the regional serving area day
Always on connection

• Internet backbone A set of high-speed networks that carry Internet traffic

These networks are provided by companies such as AT&T, GTE, and IBM
• Broadband A connection in which transfer speeds are faster than 128 bits per second
– DSL connections and cable modems are broadband connections

Packets: To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a shared communication

line, messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered packets.

Packet switching: Technique of breaking a message into packets, sending packets, and then
reassembling data, In packet-switching, the packets are sent towards the destination
irrespective of each other • There is no predetermined path; each router makes a local decision
as to how to forward the packet towards it intended destination • Typically packets will take
the same path
Circuit switching: In circuit-switching, the path is decided upon before the data transmission
starts. The system decides on which route to follow, based on a resource-optimizing
algorithm, and transmission goes according to the path,

Circuit vs. Packet Switching

Circuit switching is old and expensive, and it is what PSTN uses. Packet switching is more
modern, and allows traffic to be rerouted around failures. PSTN uses circuit switching
whereas emerging technologies such as VoIP uses packet switching.
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
 End-to-end circuit • Packets represent pieces of data
• Sequenced communication • Unordered transmission
• PSTN • Internet
• Traditional telephony • VoIP
• Not cost efficient • Shared cost model
• Less Delay • Higher Delay
• Highly Reliable, but failures typically • Less reliable, but can reroute around failures
mean the circuit must be rebuilt

What is a firewall? Hardware and/or software that restricts access to data and information on
network(serve as a special gateway to a network, protecting it from inappropriate acces).Filters
the network traffic that comes in, checking the validity of the messages as much as possible and
perhaps denying some messages [Link] an organization’s access control policy

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 firewall

5.10 Clients and server

On the network, there exist usually a super computer with higher specification such as larger
hard disk and more Ram, this computer is called the server and the other computers connected
to this one are called client .servers are important computers on the network, they are used to
manage the network, keep shared data for easy access, and some programs may run from the
server and share by all clients. Some servers provide shared access to the internet as a gateway.

Servers: Computers that provide networking services (e.g., sharing files, sharing Web pages)
to other computers

Clients: Computers that access/request and receive networking services from servers

5.11 The Internet and its usage:The internet was invented by the defense advanced research
projects agency (DARPA), in late 50s in an effort of to keep the network working in the case
of enemy attacks, the internet is a large number of connected networks. Damaging part of it
will not stop the transfer of data. During the 70s and 80s the internet was restricted to US army
and universities use. the internet was opened to the world in early 90s, and a few years later the
world wide web (WWW)was invented by a physics researcher called Tim Barnes Lee , his
invention revolutionized the world of information and communication technology. The aim of
his work was first to enable the transfer of images and video, and second to link pieces of
information on different networks together using the Hypertext Text Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).Since then number of user on internet multiplied in exponential rate. The internet has
opened many opportunities for people from sending message, files and pictures around the
globe in seconds , to be able to chat and play games, The Word Wide Web is not the internet

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like some people might think. The WWW is one of the many applications of the internet which
uses (HTTP) to transfer text, images, sounds, and video to anywhere in the world.

So, who owns the Internet?

Well, nobody does. No single person or company owns the Internet or even controls it
entirely. As a wide-area network, it is made up of many smaller networks. These smaller
networks are often owned and managed by a person or organization. The Internet, then, is
really defined by how connections can be made between these networks

The Internet: is an abbreviation for international networking and can be defined as a system
consisting of thousands of connected computers. This system gives you the ability to exchange
data with other connected computers by using the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link
devices worldwide

World Wide Web : can be defined as group of pages and related resources that are
connected together through the internet. It contains hypertext links, or highlighted keywords
and images that lead to related information.
World Wide Web, can be abbreviated as WWW or Web, consists of a worldwide collection of
electronic documents (Web pages)

Internet vs. the Web

Internet is like the network of roads in a city, whereas Web is a service like the Bus Service
that runs over those roads. Just like other services can use the roads (e.g. wagons), so can other
services on the Internet (e.g. ftp).
terconnected computer networks.
run on the Internet.

5.12 Intranet and Extranet:

The Intranet is a closed internet, it uses same technologies of the internet but it has no access
to the outside world, the main advantage is to use same applications used on the internet and
keep the data safe inside and away from hackers. The extranet works like the intranet, but it
allows authenticated people from outside to access the network

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 Web pages: Each electronic document in the web is called a (Web page) Can contain text,
graphics, sound, video, and links to other Web pages
Web site: is a collection of related Web pages and associated items
Home page: A home page is the first web page displayed to you when opening your browser
Hyperlink: is a piece of text that performs an action when clicked by the user.
Internet Service Provider (ISP): Is a company that gives access to the internet to its
customers
File server: A computer that stores and manages files for multiple users on a network
Web servers: are computers (software and hardware) that are capable of providing
information (e.g., documents, files, audio, video) to Web clients
 A Web server processes the requests and returns the requested documents, to the client
 To be a Web server, a software called HTTP Daemon (HTTPD) or Web server software
must be installed in a computer. Examples of HTTPD are Apache and Internet Information

Web clients are computers (software and hardware) that are capable of requesting information
 A Web client requests the
 To be a Web client, a software called Web browser must be installed in a computer

Fetching Pages over the Internet

Architecturally, the Internet consists of a collection of layers, each one providing services for
the one above it: The Internet Layer gets packets to their destinations;
The Transport Layer sends streams of data;
The Application Layer provides high-level services to applications such as Web browsers.
HTTP makes use of TCP to open connections between clients and servers and to pass the
requests and responses between [Link] a user clicks a link or types a web address: A TCP
connection is opened between browser and [Link] requests and responses are sent back
and forth using HTTP

How the Internet Works

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1: Request data from the a server on Internet.
2: Modem converts digital to analog signals.
3: Data travels through telephone lines to a local ISP.
4: Data passes through routers.
5: Regional ISP uses leased lines to send data to a national ISP.
6: National ISP routes data across the country.
7: National ISP passes data to local ISP.
8: Server sends data back to you

POP (Point of Presence): an access point to the Internet. It is a physical location

that houses servers, routers, ATM switches and digital/analog call aggregators
ISP (Internet Service Provider): business or organization that provides
consumers or businesses access to the Internet and related services
Backbone: a large collection of interconnected commercial, government,
academic and other highcapacity data routes and core routers that carry data
across the countries, continents and oceans of the world
NAP (Network Access Point): 4 Network access points where a packet switches
from one backbone to another.

How to access the Web?

Once you have your Internet connection, then you need special software called a browser to
access the Web.

What is a Web browser?

� is the software (Program) that allows you to view Web pages(Internet Explorer Firefox ,
Opera, Safari, Google Chrome, Netscape,) Web browsers are used to connect you to remote
computers, open and transfer files, display text and images

What is a hyperlink? Text or graphic that displays a related Web page Also called a link

How do you recognize links?

1. Some links display a different color when you point to them

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 2. Some links are underlined
3. Some links are graphical images

What can links display?

• Item found elsewhere on same Web page
• Different Web page at same Web site
• Web page at a different Web site

Protocol: is a set of instructions or commands(rules) that is used to communicate or transfer

data between the computers that are connected to the network in general.

Internet Protocol(IP): Which enables traffic to be routed from one network to another as
needed. All the networks connected to the internet use IP, so they all can exchange messages.

Addresses on the Web: IP Addressing

Each computer on the internet does have a unique identification number, called an IP (Internet
Protocol) whether it’s a client or a server (or both) address .The IP addressing system
currently in use on the Internet uses a four-part number(4 octets) separated by “.” .Each part
of the address is a number ranging from 0 to 255

For example, [Link], first part identifies network, last part identifies specific computer
The combination of the four IP address parts provides 4.2 billion possible addresses (256
x 256 x 256 x 256).This number seemed adequate until 1998.

Members of various Internet task forces are working to develop an alternate addressing
system that will accommodate the projected growth.

IP Addresses serve as the location of websites on the Internet as well as the workstations that
are connected to the web. There are two types of IP Addresses: S

What is a domain name? Text version of IP address

IP address [Link]
Domain name [Link]

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Domain Name Addressing
Most web browsers do not use the IP address to locate Web sites and individual
[Link] use domain name addressing.
A domain name is a unique name associated with a specific IP address by a program that
runs on an Internet host computer.

This program, which coordinates the IP addresses and domain names for all computers
attached to it, is called DNS (Domain Name System ) software.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a database that matches IP addresses to host names
Mean the Domain Name System (DNS) translates host names into IP addresses, which are
then used by TCP to establish connections between HTTP clients and servers.
Domain names are administered in such a way that they are guaranteed to be unique.
Domain names are organized in a hierarchical structure….

Uniform Resource Locators

The IP address and the domain name each identify a particular computer on the Internet.
However, they do not indicate where a Web page’s HTML document resides on that
computer. To identify a Web pages exact location, Web browsers rely on Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). URL is the unique address used to distinguish web pages from each other.
Also it is used to access a web page, URL is a web address
URL is a four-part addressing scheme that tells the Web browser:

1-What transfer protocol to use for transporting the file2- The domain name of the
computer on which the file resides3-The pathname of the folder or directory on the
computer on which the file resides the name of the file

Format: protocol://server name/path/file name

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
protocol = rules for transferring the data (for example, http for a web page)
server = fully qualified domain name (or IP address) of the host computer
where object is located
path = folder or directory in the host computer where object will be found 
file = file name of the object (web page, image, sound , etc.)

Example:
[Link]

Summary: URLs, HTTP, domains, paths

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
The common addressing mechanism used to navigate the web

[Link]

Host name, Path, pathname

domain name Identifies a file within a
Identifies a particular computer hierarchical directory structure
or server somewhere on the on the server.
Internet. Paths can be Absolute (that is,
Prefix
The Domain Name System hierarchical from the top of the
The transfer protocol at the file system or volume), or
application layer: Hypertext translates Internet Protocol (IP)
addresses into unique Relative (that is, hierarchical
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is from the top of a designated
used to request web pages recognisable names that have to
be registered with assigned working directory / root
and related data from a directory).
server domain registration services.
Second- or sub-level domains Relative paths are much
can identify different servers or preferred for creating and
services within the same managing groups of web pages
domain. and resources within a site.

SM5312 week 5: web technology basics 33

• A hostname consists of the computer name followed by the domain name

• [Link] is the domain name
A domain name is separated into two or more sections that specify the organization, and
possibly a subset of an organization, of which the computer is a part
Top-level Domains
 gTLDs (generic TLDs)
 .com, .edu, .net, .org, .gov, .mil
 .aero, .biz, .coop, .info, .museum, .name, .pro
 The very last section of the domain is called its top-level domain (TLD) name

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 • Organizations based in countries other than the United States use a top-level
domain that corresponds to their two-letter country codes
• ccTLDs (country code TLDs)
• .au, .ca, .br, .de, .fi, .fr, .jp, .hk, .cn, .tw, .my, .us

Second-level Domains
 Domains that are directly below a TLD
 Eg.
 [Link]
 [Link]
 [Link]
 Must apply to a registrar for the appropriate TLD

What is TCP/IP? Short for transmission control protocol/Internet protocol, is the basic
communication language or protocol of the Internet .Transmits data by breaking it up into
packets

5.11 Communication Software

 Examples of applications (Layer 7) take advantage of the transport (Layer 4) services of

TCP and UDP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A client/server application that uses TCP for
transport to retrieve HTML pages. Stands for "Hypertext Transfer Protocol." HTTP is

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 the protocol used to transfer data over the web. It is part of the Internet protocol suite and
defines commands and services used for transmitting webpage data.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers
and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a
URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it
to fetch and transmit the requested Web page

 Domain Name Service (DNS): A name-to-address translation application that uses both
TCP and UDP transport.
 Telnet: A virtual terminal application that uses TCP for transport.
 File Transport Protocol (FTP): A file transfer application that uses TCP for transport.
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): A file transfer application that uses UDP for
transport.
 Network Time Protocol (NTP): An application that synchronizes time with a time
source and uses UDP for transport.
 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): An exterior gateway routing protocol that uses TCP
for transport. BGP is used to exchange routing information for the Internet and is the
protocol used between service providers.

Hyper Text Markup Language ,or HTML: is the language used to build web pages. In this
language a set of formatting command or tags are placed around the text or the pictures you
want to include in your web page.

What is a search engine?

Program used to find Web pages pertaining to a specific topic such as google

What are some widely used search engines?

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What are the six basic types of Web pages?
1-Advocacy 2- Business/marketing 3-Informational
4-News 5-Portal 6-Personal

What is a portal Web page?

• Offers a variety of Internet services from a single, convenient location Often called a Portal,
Yahoo! Is a portal

What is an advocacy Web page?

Contains content that describes a cause,opinion, or idea

What is file transfer protocol (FTP)? Internet standard that allows you to upload and
download files with other computers on Internet

What is an Internet use of peer-to-peer (P2P)?

Enables users with same networking software to connect to each other’s hard disks and exchange
filesdirectly. Networks without servers are called peer-to-peer networks.

Electronic Commerce (E-commerce)

Financial business transaction that occurs over an electronic network such as the Internet

What are the three types of e-commerce?

1-Business to consumer(B-to-C or B2C)Sale of goods to general public
2-Consumer to consumer(C-to-C or C2C)One consumer sells directly to another
3-Business to business(B-to-B or B2B)Businesses providing goods and services to other businesses

What is an e-mail address?

Combination of user name and domain name that identifies user so he or she can receive email
User name or user-ID( A unique combination of characters that identifies you) at Domain name(
Identifies the mail server)

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 Communication Technology Applications

 Different technologies allowing us to communicate

 Examples: Voice mail, fax, email, instant message, chat rooms, news groups,
telephony, GPS, and more
 Voice mail: Similar to answering machine but digitized
 Fax: Sending hardcopy of text or photographs between computers using fax modem
 Email: electronic mail – sending text, files, images between different computer
networks - must have email software
 More than 1.3 billion people send 244 billion messages monthly!
 Chat rooms: Allows communications in real time when connected to the Internet
 Telephony: Talking to other people over the Internet (also called VoIP)
 Sends digitized audio signals over the Internet
 Requires Internet telephone software
 Groupware: Software application allowing a group of people to communicate with
each other (exchange data)
 Address book, appointment book, schedules, etc.
 GPS: consists of receivers connected to satellite systems
 Determining the geographical location of the receiver
 Used for cars, advertising, hiking, tracking, etc.

Policies
 AUP (Acceptable Use Policies)
 A legal document, written to protect the ISP from unlawful use of its service,
and outlines prohibited uses of the service and possible consequences of misuse
 Privacy Policies
 A document describes an ISP’s policy for protecting users’ information

FTTH stands for "Fibre to the Home." It refers to a type of broadband internet
connection technology that uses fibre-optic cables to transmit data.

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