Networking Facts

A network is a group of computers that can share information through their interconnections. A network is
made up of the following components:

 Computers (often called nodes or hosts)

 Transmission media--a path for electrical signals between devices
 Network interfaces--devices that send and receive electrical signals
 Protocols--rules or standards that describe how hosts communicate and exchange data

Despite the costs of implementation and maintenance, networks actually save organizations money by
allowing them to:

 Consolidate (centralize) data storage

 Share peripheral devices like printers
 Increase internal and external communications
 Increase productivity and collaboration

There are several ways to classify networks. The following table lists several ways to describe a network.

Network Type Description

Host Role
In a peer-to-peer network, each host can provide network resources to other hosts or
access resources located on other hosts, and each host is in charge of controlling access
to those resources. Advantages of peer to peer networks include:

 Easy implementation
 Inexpensive
Peer-to-peer
Disadvantages of peer to peer networks include:

 Difficult to expand (not scalable)

 Difficult to support
 Lack centralized control
 No centralized storage

In a client/server network, hosts have specific roles. For example, some hosts are
assigned server roles which allows them to provide network resources to other hosts.
Other hosts are assigned client roles which allows them to consume network resources.
Advantages of client/server networks include:

 Easily expanded (scalable)

 Easy support
Client/server  Centralized services
 Easy to backup

Disadvantages of client/server networks include:

 Server operating systems are expensive

 Requires extensive advanced planning
Geography and Size
Local Area
A local area network (LAN) is a network in a small geographic area, like in an office.
Network (LAN)
Wide Area A wide area network (WAN) is a group of LANs that are geographically isolated but
Network (WAN) connected to form a large internetwork.
Management
The term network often describes a network under a single organization with control over
the entire network. This could be a local area network at a single location, or a wide area
Network network used by a single business or organization. If, for example, two companies
connected their internal networks to share data, you could call it one network. In reality,
however, it is two networks, because each network is managed by a different company.
A subnet is a portion of a network with a common network address.

 All devices on the subnet share the same network address, but have unique host
addresses.
Subnet
 Each subnet in a larger network has a unique subnet address.
 Devices connected through hubs or switches are on the same subnet; routers are
used to connect multiple subnets.

A network that includes geographically disperse (WAN) connections that connect multiple
LANs is often called an internetwork. Additionally, connecting two networks under
Internetwork
different management is a form of internetworking, as data must travel between two
networks.
Participation
The Internet is a large, world-wide, public network. The network is public because virtually
anyone can connect to the network, and users or organizations make services freely
available on the Internet.

 Users and organizations connect to the Internet through an Internet service

Internet provider (ISP).
 The Internet uses a set of communication protocols for providing services called
TCP/IP.
 Individuals and organizations can make services (such as a Web site) available to
other users on the Internet.

An intranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies. Services on an intranet

are only available to hosts that are connected to the private network. For example, your
Intranet
company might have a Web site that only users who are connected to the private network
can access.
An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technologies, but whose resources are
Extranet made available to external (but trusted) users. For example, you might create a Web site
on a private network that only users from a partner company can access.

Topology Facts

Topology is the term used to describe how devices are connected and how messages flow from device to
device. There are two types of network topologies:
  The physical topology describes the physical way the network is wired.
 The logical topology describes the way in which messages are sent.

The following table describes several common physical topologies.

Topology Description
A physical bus topology consists of a trunk cable with nodes either inserted directly into the
trunk, or nodes tapping into the trunk using offshoot cables called drop cables.

 Signals travel from one node to all other nodes on the bus.
 A device called a terminator is placed at both ends of the trunk cable.
 Terminators absorb signals and prevent them from reflecting repeatedly back and forth
on the cable.

Bus The physical bus:

 Requires less cable than the star

 Can be difficult to isolate cabling problems

A broken cable anywhere on the bus breaks the termination and prevents communications
between any device on the network.
A ring topology connects neighboring nodes until they form a ring. Signals travel in one
direction around the ring. In ring topologies, each device on the network acts as a repeater to
send the signal to the next device. With a ring:

 Installation requires careful planning to create a continuous ring.

Ring  Isolating problems can require going to several physical locations along the ring.
 A malfunctioning node or cable break can prevent signals from reaching nodes further
along on the ring.

A star topology uses a hub or switch to concentrate all network connections to a single physical
location. Today it is the most popular type of topology for a LAN. With the star:

 All network connections are located in a single place, which makes it easy to
troubleshoot and reconfigure.
Star  Nodes can be added to or removed from the network easily.
 Cabling problems usually affect only one node.
 Requires more cable than any other topology. Every node has its own cable.

A mesh topology exists when there are multiple paths between any two nodes on a network.
Mesh topologies are created using point-to-point connections. This increases the network's
Mesh fault tolerance because alternate paths can be used when one path fails. Two variations of
mesh topologies exist:

 Partial Mesh--Some redundant paths exist.

 Full Mesh--Every node has a point-to-point connection with every other node.

Full mesh topologies are usually impractical because the number of connections increases
dramatically with every new node added to the network. However, a full mesh topology
becomes more practical through the implementation of an ad-hoc wireless network. With this
topology, every wireless network card can communicate directly with any other wireless
network card on the network. A separate and dedicated network interface and cable for each
 host on the network is not required.

You should be able to identify the physical topology by looking at the way in which devices are connected.
However, it is not as easy to identify the logical topology. As the following table describes, there is often
more than one way for messages to travel for a given physical topology.

Logical Physical
Description
Topology Topology
Bus
Bus Messages are sent to all devices connected to the bus.
Star
Ring Messages are sent from device-to-device in a predetermined order until
Ring
Star they reach the destination device.
Star Star Messages are sent directly to (and only to) the destination device.

Network Architecture Facts

A network architecture is a set of standards for how computers are physically connected and how signals
are passed between hosts. Some typical network architectures are described in the table below.

Network
Description
Architecture
Ethernet is a wired networking standard and is the most common networking
Ethernet
architecture used in LANs (both in business and home networks).
Dial-up networking is a common way to connect a computer (often your home
Dial-up modem computer) to a remote network, such as the Internet or a business network. A modem
on each computer uses the phone lines to send and receive data.
Digital Subscriber DSL is a fast-growing alternative to dial-up networking to connect to the Internet. DSL
Line (DSL) uses regular phone lines to send digital broadband signals.
ISDN is another alternative to traditional dial-up that can be used to connect to the
Integrated Services Internet or to directly communicate with another computer connected to the ISDN
Digital Network network. ISDN is more common in Europe than in the U.S. ISDN sends digital signals
(ISDN) and can use regular telephone wiring, but must be connected to a special ISDN
network.
Wireless networking uses radio waves or infrared light (with the air as the
transmission medium) to send data between hosts. Wireless networks are common in
Wireless
homes, businesses, airports, and hotels. Most wireless networks connect into larger
wired networks (such as LANs) which are in turn connected to the Internet.

Common TCP/IP Protocols

A protocol is a set of standards for communication between network hosts. Protocols often provide
services, such as e-mail or file transfer. Most protocols are not intended to be used alone, but instead rely
on and interact with other dependent or complimentary protocols. A group of protocols that is intended to
be used together is called a protocol suite.

The Internet protocol suite (normally referred to as TCP/IP) is the most widely used protocol suite today.
The following table lists several protocols in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Category Protocol Description
HTTP is used by Web browsers and Web servers to exchange files
(such as Web pages) through the World Wide Web and intranets. HTTP
HyperText
can be described as an information requesting and responding protocol.
Transfer Protocol
It is typically used to request and send Web documents, but is also used
Web browsing (HTTP) as the protocol for communication between agents using different
TCP/IP protocols.
HTTP over SSL HTTPS is a secure form of HTTP that uses SSL to encrypt data before it
(HTTPS) is transmitted.
SSL secures messages being transmitted on the Internet. It uses RSA
Secure Sockets for authentication and encryption. Web browsers use SSL (Secure
Layer (SSL) Sockets Layer) to ensure safe Web transactions. URLs that begin with
https:// trigger your Web browser to use SSL.
TLS ensures that messages being transmitted on the Internet are
private and tamper proof. TLS is implemented through two protocols:
Security
protocols
 TLS Record--Can provide connection security with encryption
Transport Layer
(with DES for example).
Security (TLS)
 TLS Handshake--Provides mutual authentication and choice of
encryption method.

TLS and SSL are similar but not interoperable.

FTP provides a generic method of transferring files. It can include file
security through usernames and passwords, and it allows file transfer
File Transfer between dissimilar computer systems. FTP can transfer both binary and
Protocol (FTP) text files, including HTML, to another host. FTP URLs are preceded by
ftp:// followed by the DNS name of the FTP server. To log in to an FTP
server, use: [Link]
TFTP is similar to FTP. It lets you transfer files between a host and an
Trivial File FTP server. However, it provides no user authentication and no error
Transfer Protocol detection. TFTP is often used when transferring files such as video,
File transfer (TFTP) audio, or images. Because it does not perform error detection, TFTP is
faster than FTP, but might be subject to file errors.
SFTP is a file transfer protocol that uses Secure Shell (SSH) to secure
Secure File
data transfers. SSH ensures that SFTP transmissions use encrypted
Transfer Protocol
commands and data which prevent data from being transmitted over the
(SFTP)
network in clear text.
SCP is associated with Unix/Linux networks and used to transfer files
Secure Copy
between systems. Like SFTP, SCP relies on SSH to ensure that data
(SCP)
and passwords are not transmitted over the network in clear text.
E-mail SMTP is used to route electronic mail through the internetwork. SMTP is
used:
Simple Mail
 Between mail servers for sending and relaying mail.
Transfer Protocol
 By all e-mail clients to send mail.
(SMTP)
 By some e-mail client programs, such as Microsoft Outlook, for
receiving mail from an Exchange server.

Internet Message IMAP is an e-mail retrieval protocol designed to enable users to access
Access Protocol their e-mail from various locations without the need to transfer
(IMAP) messages or files back and forth between computers. Messages remain
on the remote mail server and are not automatically downloaded to a
 client system. Note: An e-mail client that uses IMAP for receiving mail
uses SMTP for sending mail.
POP3 is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite and used to retrieve e-mail
Post Office
from a remote server to a local client over a TCP/IP connection. With
Protocol 3
POP3, e-mail messages are downloaded to the client. Note: An e-mail
(POP3)
client that uses POP3 for receiving mail uses SMTP for sending mail.
DHCP is a method for automatically assigning addresses and other
Dynamic Host
configuration parameters to network hosts. Using a DHCP server, hosts
Configuration
receive configuration information at startup, reducing the amount of
Protocol (DHCP)
manual configuration required on each host.
DNS is a system that is distributed throughout the internetwork to
Domain Name
provide address/name resolution. For example, the name
System (DNS)
[Link] would be identified with a specific IP address.
Network Network Time NTP is used to communicate time synchronization information between
services Protocol (NTP) systems on a network.
Network News
NNTP is the most widely-used protocol that manages notes posted on
Transport
Usenet Newsgroups.
Protocol (NNTP)
LDAP is used to allow searching and updating of a directory service.
Lightweight
The LDAP directory service follows a client/server model. One or more
Directory Access
LDAP servers contain the directory data, the LDAP client connects to an
Protocol (LDAP)
LDAP Server to make a directory service request.
SNMP is a protocol designed for managing complex networks. SNMP
Simple Network
lets network hosts exchange configuration and status information. This
Management
information can be gathered by management software and used to
Protocol (SNMP)
monitor and manage the network.
Telnet allows an attached computer to act as a dumb terminal, with data
Remote Terminal
processing taking place on the TCP/IP host computer. It is still widely
Network Emulation
used to provide connectivity between dissimilar systems. Telnet can
management (Telnet)
also be used to test a service by the use of HTTP commands.
SSH allows for secure interactive control of remote systems. SSH uses
RSA public key cryptography for both connection and authentication.
Secure Shell
SSH uses the IDEA algorithm for encryption by default, but is able to
(SSH)
use Blowfish and DES. SSH is a secure and acceptable alternative to
Telnet.
TCP provides services that ensure accurate and timely delivery of
network communications between two hosts. TCP provides the
following services to ensure message delivery:
Transmission
Control Protocol
 Sequencing of data packets
(TCP)
Transport  Flow control
protocols  Error checking

UDP is a host-to-host protocol like TCP. However, it does not include

User Datagram mechanisms for ensuring timely and accurate delivery. Because it has
Protocol (UDP) less overhead, it offers fast communications, but at the expense of
possible errors or data loss.
Control Internet Control ICMP works closely with IP in providing error and control information, by
protocols Message Protocol allowing hosts to exchange packet status information, which helps move
(ICMP) the packets through the internetwork. Two common management
utilities, ping and traceroute, use ICMP messages to check network
connectivity. ICMP also works with IP to send notices when destinations
 are unreachable, when devices' buffers overflow, the route and hops
packets take through the network, and whether devices can
communicate across the network.
IGMP is a protocol for defining host groups. All group members can
Internet Group
receive broadcast messages intended for the group (called multicasts).
Membership
Multicast groups can be composed of devices within the same network
Protocol (IGMP)
or across networks (connected with a router).

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed to work independently of the physical network architecture. You
can use a wide variety of architectures with the TCP/IP protocol suite.

Internet Connectivity Parameters

The following table summarizes the configuration settings required to connect to a TCP/IP network.

Parameter Purpose
The IP address Identifies both the logical host and the logical network addresses.

 Each host on the entire network must have a unique IP address.

 Two devices on the same subnet must have IP addresses with the same network
IP address
portion of the address.
 Two devices on the same subnet must have unique host portions of the IP address.
 Do not use the first or the last host address on a subnet address range.

The subnet mask identifies which portion of the IP address is the network address, and
Subnet
which portion is the host address. Two devices on the same subnet must be configured with
mask
the same subnet mask.
The default gateway identifies the router to which communications for remote networks are
Default sent. The default gateway address is the IP address of the router interface on the same
gateway subnet as the local host. Without a default gateway set, most clients will be unable to
communicate with hosts outside of the local subnet.
The DNS server address identifies the DNS server that is used to resolve host names to IP
DNS server
addresses.
Host name The host name identifies the logical name of the local system.

OSI Model Facts

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a theoretical way of classifying and talking about the
complex process of sending data on a network. You should be familiar with the OSI model because it is
the most widely used method for understanding and talking about network communications. However,
remember that it is only a theoretical model that defines standards for programmers and network
administrators, not a model of actual physical layers.

Using the OSI model to discuss networking concepts has the following advantages:

 Provides a common language or reference point between network professionals

 Divides networking tasks into logical layers for easier comprehension
 Allows specialization of features at different levels
 Aids in troubleshooting
 Promotes standards of interoperability between networks and devices
  Provides modularity in networking features (developers can change features without changing the
entire approach)

However, you must remember the following limitations of the OSI model.

 OSI layers are theoretical and do not actually perform real functions.
 Industry implementations rarely have a layer-to-layer correspondence with the OSI layers.
 Different protocols within the stack perform different functions that help send or receive the
overall message.
 A particular protocol implementation may not represent every OSI layer (or may spread across
multiple layers).

To help remember the layer names of the OSI model, try the following mnemonic devices:

Mnemonic Mnemonic
Layer Name
(Bottom to top) (Top to bottom)
Layer 7 Application Away All
Layer 6 Presentation Pizza People
Layer 5 Session Sausage Seem
Layer 4 Transport Throw To
Layer 3 Network Not Need
Layer 2 Data Link Do Data
Layer 1 Physical Please Processing

Have some fun and come up with your own mnemonic for the OSI model, but stick to just one so you
don't get confused.

OSI Layer Facts

The following table compares the functions performed at each OSI model layer.

Layer Description and Keywords

The Application layer integrates network functionality into the host operating system,
and enables network services. The Application layer does not include specific
applications that provide services, but rather provides the capability for services to
operate on the network.

Most Application layer protocols operate at multiple layers down to the Session and
even Transport layers. However, they are classified as Application layer protocols
because they start at the Application layer (the Application layer is the highest layer
Application (Layer 7) where they operate). Services typically associated with the Application layer include:

 HTTP
 Telnet
 FTP
 TFTP
 SNMP

Presentation (Layer The Presentation layer formats or "presents" data into a compatible form for receipt
6) by the Application layer or the destination system. Specifically, the Presentation
 layer ensures:

 Formatting and translation of data between systems.

 Negotiation of data transfer syntax between systems, through converting
character sets to the correct format.
 Encapsulation of data into message envelopes by encryption and
compression.
 Restoration of data by decryption and decompression.

The Session layer's primary function is managing the sessions in which data is
transferred. Functions at this layer include:

 Management of multiple sessions (each client connection is called a

Session (Layer 5) session). A server can concurrently maintain thousands of sessions.
 Assignment of the session ID number to each session to keep data streams
separate.
 Set up, maintain, and tear down communication sessions.

The Transport layer provides a transition between the upper and lower layers of the
OSI model, making the upper and lower layers transparent from each other.
Transport layer functions include:

 End-to-end flow control.

Transport (Layer 4)  Port and socket numbers.
 Segmentation, sequencing, and combination.
 Connection services, either reliable (connection-oriented) or unreliable
(connectionless) delivery of data.

Data at the Transport layer is referred to as a segment.

The Network layer describes how data is routed across networks and on to the
destination. Network layer functions include:

 Identifying hosts and networks using logical addresses.

 Maintaining a list of known networks and neighboring routers.
Network (Layer 3)  Determining the next network point to which data should be sent. Routers
use a routing protocol to take into account various factors such as the
number of hops in the path, link speed, and link reliability to select the
optimal path for data.

Data at the Network layer is referred to as a packet.

Logical The Data Link layer defines the rules and procedures for hosts as they access the
Link Physical layer. These rules and procedures specify or define:
Control
(LLC)  How hosts on the network are identified (physical or MAC address).
 How and when devices can transmit on the network medium (media access
Data
control and logical topology).
Link
 How to verify that the data received from the Physical layer is error free
(Layer 2) Media
Access (parity and CRC).
Control  How devices control the rate of data transmissions between hosts (flow
(MAC) control).

Data at the Data Link layer is referred to as a frame.

 The Physical layer of the OSI model sets standards for sending and receiving
electrical signals between devices. Protocols at the Physical layer identify:

 How digital data (bits) are converted to electric pulses, radio waves, or
Physical (Layer 1) pulses of lights.
 Specifications for cables and connectors.
 The physical topology.

Data at the Physical layer is referred to as bits.