1.

Topologies
Networking topologies are organized by the way in which information "flows" across a network. Below are the basic topologies:

Bus'''' - This is the most simplistic topology in which the nodes of the network are individually linked to up to two successive othe nodes or
another node and a terminating node or terminator. This is considered now an archaic topology, because of the difficulty of
troubleshooting network issues (how do you know which node is causing the connection issue?), redundancy issues (if one node fails, the
network as a whole can fail), the need for terminators, and the amount of traffic created (every node between A and B must receive the
packet that A sends). The nodes linked in this topology are often referred to as "daisy-chained."

Ring - Similar to a bus network in that nodes are linked to each other, but dissimilar in that the ends of a ring network are not terminated
because, well, there are no ends! A ring network is something like a "circular" network in which each and every node is linked to two
other nodes. This shares many of the same weaknesses as the bus topology, including troubleshooting difficulty, redundancy issues, and
traffic created, and also adds an additional difficulty - the difficulty of adding a node to a token ring network.

Star - This is the most typical and practical network setup. In a star network, each node maintains an individual connection to a switch,
where all other nodes are connected. Traffic between two known nodes, therefore, only goes through the switch and not through other
nodes. This increases the redundancy of the network (one computer faltering will not cause the network to fail), increases data privacy
(unicast traffic does not travel through all nodes), and is a relatively easy-to-use setup. Disadvantages include reliance on the switch (a
fail-point) and the amount of wiring necessary.
Mesh/"Ad Hoc" - This is a rarely occurring configuration in which every node is connected to every other node; it usually occurs only in
wireless networks in "ad hoc" mode, which will be discussed later; in this mode, each wireless card maintains a connection to each other
wireless node it wishes to connect with, forming a "mesh" of a network. This is a relatively easy to understand option but is inefficient,
requires a large amount of overhead, and is difficult to manage.

Combined or Hybrid - This is simply a topology referring to the case where more than one topology is utilized. For example, you may
have three token ring networks connected to a central hub, forming a star of token rings. This is one of many possibilities of a hybrid
network.

Types of Networks (Access Models)

The Network+ examination is interested in your ability to identify network access models, generally referred to as types of networks. This
does not suggest the way in which network nodes are connected or the way that information flows (as do topologies), but rather, the
manner and mode in which nodes communicate with each other and share information. There are three basic types:

Decentralized - Often referred to as "peer to peer" network, a decentralized network does not contain any distinctions between client
and server. In a decentralized network, every node acts as a client and/or a server depending on the task at hand. For example, many file
sharing networks are considered "decentralized" because nodes both download and upload (serve) files. The ease of adding nodes and
the ease of setup is a drawing point of decentralized networks, but the pivotal downfall of these networks is their difficulty of
maintenance (a setting must be changed on each node to reflect a setting change on the whole network).
Client-Server Access - In this type, nodes can either act as "clients" or "servers," requesting or handing out information. Do not confuse
the model with the star topology; though the star topology often utilizes the client-server access model, this does not infer that every
client-server network utilizes the star topology. In a client-server network, management is easy and the network can offer services that
decentralized networks cannot, but this comes at the expense of difficulty in setup, setup cost, and server reliance.

Centralized - A centralized network is a modified client-server network in which the clients have no individual control; that is, all
maintenance and setup occurs at the server level. The extreme ease of management and ability to micromanage is a drawing point of
this access method, but the prohibitive cost and inflexibility of the method deter many from employing it.

2. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

At the core of the Network+ exam is the OSI "Seven" Model. The model describes the ways and means that networks use to operate
and for communication . Though you will seldom (if ever) encounter or use it in practice, and although you will find it to be a mundane,
ambiguous, or even arbitrary model, it is heavily tested on the Network+ exam and therefore for our purposes, it is immediately relevant.

The OSI Model is like a seven-layered cake. Just as the cake starts from the bottom and becomes more ornate as it reaches the top, the OSI
Model begins with the most basic layer, the Physical layer, and ends at the layer that we as users encounter, the Application layer. Like a
cake, each of the layers depends on the layers below it to operate - for example, Outlook Express cannot receive email when the
network cable is disconnected - without the cable, the "cake" crumbles. (OK, this analogy is a bit of a stretch, but just go with it!) The order
of the layers, therefore, is quite important and you should have it intimately memorized.

Here are the layers, from bottom to top:

Name Mnemonic
Application All
Presentation People
Session Seem
Transport To
Network Need
Data Link Data
Physical Processing

Of course, you are free to come up with your own mnemonic device, but we do recommend you find some way of remembering the layers
because it will be a subject of the test.

More important than the order of the layers, however, is the function of the layers. Most exam questions on the OSI model ask you,
"Which layer does so-and-so operate in?" or something to that nature. Another type of question that occurs frequently is, "A problem
has occurred (Problem description). Which layer is to blame ?" These questions can feel ambiguous or difficult, but most of the time,
there is a single, clear answer that makes itself known provided that you are aware of the model and the place each layer takes in the model.
We will now cover each layer in detail.

Physical
At the base of the OSI model is the physical layer. This one is the easiest to understand - it encompasses most of the physical aspects of
the network; for example, a repeater (a piece of equipment that amplifies signals) operates at the physical level because it is only
concerned with transmitting the electric signal on the wire - it does not try to interfere with, encode/decode, or otherwise logically
manipulate the signal. Think of the physical layer as the "electrical" layer of the model - the physical layer is the layer of low-
levelnetworking equipment, such as some hubs, cabling, and repeaters . The physical layer is never concerned with protocols or other
such higher-layer items.

Examples of hardware in this layer:

Network adapter
Repeater

Network hub

Modem

Fiber Media Converter

Data Link
Directly above the physical layer is the Data Link layer, which can be seen as the layer that links the electric signals of the physical layer to
the logical organization of the higher layers. Unlike hubs, switches operate at the Data Link sublayer, because switches can direct intra-
network traffic to a specific MAC address. It is the layer that organizes data bits (electric/physical) into frames (more logical). The Data
Link layer is traditionally broken into two sub-layers:

MAC Sub-layer: (Media Access Control) The layer that organizes networked devices by a unique MAC address . Every networked
device has a unique MAC address assigned by the manufacturer.

LLC: (Logical Link Control) The layer that provides error and flow control to other layers, and that is used to provide both connection
and connectionless - oriented services . When you think LLC, think transport layer - LLC is intimately connected to the transport layer as
the two work together to provide these two types of services

Network
The Network layer is where the frames of the Data Link layer become packets.'''''' The best way to think of the Network layer is as the
mailroom clerk of the OSI model. The clerk receives mail and directs it to the appropriate couriers. In similar fashion, the Network
layer translates the frames it receives from the Data Link layer into more logical packets which can be routed to other networks (like
sending it to a courier). At the Network layer, you can begin to actually communicate across a Network, but the service is called
"unreliable" because no connection can be established. Communication over the Network layer is something like throwing a message
in a bottle into the sea' - you cannot verify that the other person ever reads the message. The Network Layer is the layer that uses IP
addresses. Most of what we call "routing" occurs at the network layer - that is, network traffic is routed from one network'to another at
this layer, allowing for inter-network (as opposed to intra-network) communication.

Transport
At the Transport layer, the Network layer's packets are sorted and organized into "segments." This is different from the idea of packets
in the Network layer in one fundamental way: the segments of data over the Transport layer contain information on the connection and
the transmission of data. The Transport layer removes the uncertainty of "throwing the message in the bottle" that we experience over the
Network layer by attaching to segments (which are basically continued packets) information about the state of a connection. Thus, the
Transport layer uses the LLC sub-layer of the Data Link layer to establish connections between hosts. The protocols that are
typically associated with the Transport layer are:

TCP: Connection-Oriented, reliable - unlike the "message in the bottle," it can verify that a segment or packet reaches the location, or
note failure

UDP: Connectionless, unreliable - it is like a "smarter" message in the bottle service; it makes a best-effort delivery but cannot establish a
connection or verify receipt

Session
The Session layer is the layer that initiates and terminates the transport layer connection-oriented services . While the Session layer is
not widely used by protocols, it is important in that it is responsible for managing the connections that we value and that the Transport layer
provides.

Presentation
The Presentation layer translates the segments of information from the Transport layer into data that can be used at the Application layer. It
is something of an intermediary between the network node's processing area and the network node's actual networking area - it can
interpret the segments or packets it receives and change them into "data formats" that we all know and that the PC can recognize.

Application
This is the top of our cake, utilizes the layers below it, and includes the functions that we are most familiar with - the end-user application
protocols such as FTP and HTTP, the vital services like DHCP and DNS, and several obscure applications. This is where the sockets are
defined. The Application layer does indeed cover a wide variety of protocols and services, but don't let this overwhelm you. In general,
when trying to decide if a service or protocol is an application level one, ask: "Does this facilitate networking, or does networking facilitate
the service ?" If the answer is the latter, you know it is an

3. The Equipment
Hub: A hub, at the most basic level, is a “dumb” device that operates at the Physical layer of the OSI model. A hub forwards all
signals it receives to all connected network devices. Think of a hub as a “drunk” – when he speaks, he speaks to all around him, even if
he really only means to speak with one person.

Switch'''': Because the hub is something of a “drunk,” it can be an inefficient (think about the excess traffic created) and unsecure device.
Imagine if you wish to send sensitive credit card information over the network – do you really want every node to receive your electronic
signal? To alleviate this, the switch was developed. A switch operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. It uses the MAC sub-layer
to forward the relevant frames of information only to the intended recipient. Messages can still be broadcast, but this is only an option
and not the normal condition. Unlike the “drunken” hub, the switch can speak softly to one person at a time or announce to the crowd. The
Network+ exam tends to test you on this difference between a hub and switch, so keep it fresh in your mind.
Bridge: A bridge also operates at the Data Link layer (aka Layer 2) and is used to connect two (similar or dissimilar) physical network
segments together, forming a larger inter-network. It can forward packets or reject them based on their destination (MAC) address. Note:
The connected network segments must have same network ID.

Router: The router operates at the Network layer of the OSI Model and is used to forward packets across network segments to reach a
certain destination address. Do not be confused between a router and a bridge – a bridge simply forwards packets or frames based on
their destination address from one connected network segment to another. A router can determine where a packet should be sent to
given its final destination (IP address). Usually, routers forward packets to other routers, but sometimes routers also forward to other
pieces of network equipment. A router is usually used to connect a home computer to an “always-on” Internet connection through the home
network. To appreciate what a router really does, run tracert to your favorite website and see how many steps (hops) are involved in getting
from your computer to the web server in question.

Gateway: A gateway is any device that serves to interface with other networks using dissimilar protocols . For example, a gateway
might interface between a home network and the Internet or between a NetBIOS network and an IPX/SPX network. A gateway operates in
any of the seven OSI layers.

WAP: A Wireless Access Point is a device that allows wireless devices to access and to communicate with the network. It acts as a
bridge between the wired, traditional network and other wireless [Link], it can act as a bridge between wireless devices
and another, linked WAP. It typically operates in the Network layer of the OSI model as a sort of router/bridge/switch combination. Note
that most WAP devices direct traffic by MAC address, making them switched.
NIC:A Network Interface Card is a device that allows a node to connect to the network typically in the form of a computer “card”
(PCI/ISA), but also in the form of an external (think USB) device. It can either be wired and connect to a traditional, wired network, or
wireless, and connect to a WAP.

Applying the Knowledge

So now that you know a bit about some networking equipment, let’s end with a few review questions that apply your knowledge.

1. Which of the following devices operate at the Application layer of the OSI model?

A. Hub

B. Switched Hub

C. Router

D. Gateway

E. Bridge

2. You have been asked to implement a network design that incorporates a star topology and is safe from “packet sniffing” (other nodes
receiving network traffic not directed towards them). In addition, the network will connect to other networks, including the Internet. Which
of the following is not recommended for such a setup?

A. Switch

B. CAT5 Cabling
C. Hub

D. Router

E. Gateway

Answers
1. The gateway operates at the Application layer of the OSI model , so the answer is D.

2. Because a hub is not immune to such “sniffing,” as it broadcasts all traffic, the hub would be a terrible choice for that setup. The answer
is C.

4. Equipment
CSU/DSU: A CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) is a special type of “bridge” that operates between the WAN (wide)
and LAN (local) networks. It is typically found in devices such as “cable modems,” which are not modems in the true sense of the word,
but rather, converters from one digital signal to another. CSU/DSU devices operate in the physical layer of the OSI model.

Modem: A modem (short for modulator demodulator) acts like a sort of CSU/DSU between digital/analog networks. That is, a modem
can translate a physical analog signal to a digital one, and vice-versa. It typically acts as the intermediary between the analog phone
system and digital networks. Modems operate in the physical layer of the OSI model.

ISDN Adapter: ISDN is a somewhat archaic technology that allows connection via a special “digital” phone line. An ISDN Adapter is a
CSU/DSU for ISDN connections.
Firewall: A firewall is a device that can “filter” traffic coming into and out of a network. There are different types of firewalls that will be
tested on the Network+ exam:

Packet Filtering – This firewall operates at the network layer of the OSI model, and filters traffic based on the headers
(destination/source) of the individual packets.

Circuit Level – Circuit level firewalls filter traffic based on whether or not a session has been established between the destination and
source using TCP handshaking. You can think of a circuit level firewall as a protective father who will not let his daughter date a boy
until he “gets to know him.” In a similar way, circuit level firewalls regulate traffic based on whether or not a trusted connection has been
established. These operate in the Session layer of the OSI model.

Application Level – Application level firewalls inspect the contents of packets, rather than the source/destination or connection between the
two. Application level firewalls are similar to proxies in that they operate and regulate between two segments of the network. Remember
that an Application Level firewall operates in the 7th layer of the OSI model (Application Layer) and can inspect the actual contents of
packets.

Stateful Inspection – This firewall combines the circuit level and the application level firewall techniques and is most commonly
employed today. It assures the connection (session) between the two parties is valid (like the circuit level firewall) and inspects packets
from this connection to assure the packets are not malicious (application level). So, the stateful inspection firewall operates in the
network, session, and application layers of the OSI model.

Proxy: Proxy Servers operate at the Application layer of the OSI model and serve as filters of client-Internet traffic. Instead of
establishing direct connections between the clients and servers on the Internet, clients connect to the proxy server, which can filter
their request and then forward it to the Internet. The information sent back is first filtered and then sent back to the client. In this way, a
proxy server is something like the propaganda office of an oppressive government that only presents to its citizens information that has
gone through the office. The citizens never directly know what is going on, but instead, what the government (the proxy server) has told
them.

And Now for Some Quick Review

So, you should now have a command of all of the tested Network+ equipment. Below are a few questions that should help stretch your
mind a bit.

1. You have a small network connected to the Internet via phone line. Which of the following pieces of equipment will you need?

a. CSU/DSU

b. Modem

c. ISDN Adapter

d. Bridge

e. Token Ring

2. A client reports that he is unable to connect to a few pages on the Internet, but can connect to almost all others. Which of the following
would prevent him from connecting to these pages?

a. Gateway

b. Router
c. Firewall

d. Proxy Server

e. All of the Above

Answers
1. B – A modem modulates/demodulates signals between analog (phone) networks and digital (local area) networks.

2. D – Only the Proxy Server is able to filter individual pages in this way.

5. Understanding Frame Types, Especially Ethernet

Frame technologies are the medium between the physical electric signals and the higher-level logical packets that drive networking
technology. Through the years, we have seen a number of prominent frame technologies.

Ethernet (802.3) is the frame technology standard that drives most networks today and probably the one that you are most familiar with.
Understanding Ethernet is a key to doing well on the Network+ exam, yet there is actually not much information that you need to know
about Ethernet. Instead, it is more important that you understand how Ethernet works and the methods it employs in controlling traffic “on
the wire.” Remember that Ethernet is not a protocol as it operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.

Remembering the Ancestors

Before you can understand (and appreciate) Ethernet, it is important to backtrack a bit through the predecessors of the Ethernet standard.
Typically, when networks are illustrated to “laypeople,” they are demonstrated as computers that appear to be linked or “daisy-chained” to
each other. This in fact was one of the earliest networking concepts, the bus topology. That topology is inexorably linked to the 802.4
Token Bus standard, which defined the way in which data would move across a token bus network. The standard stipulates that data would
be treated like a token – that is, data would move through the network, passing from one node to the next until it reached its destination.
You can imagine some of the problems incurred with this – for example, for a frame to travel across the network, it would have to “pass
through” every node between two communicating nodes. This mode of communication made impossible the idea of information privacy; in
addition, the bus technology is infamous for the large amount of traffic produced. Don’t forget that bus networks require “terminators”
on the ends on networks to “end” token travel.

The token ring (802.5), though an improvement on the bus design was only a slight improvement at best. In the ring formulation, a
“token” still had to be passed from node to node – the only difference was that in the token ring, there was no need for terminators
necessarily, but in practice, very few ring networks literally daisy-chain all of their nodes together. In fact, in many cases, the terminators
are still employed. Still, the ring was promoted as an improvement to the bus standard and a competitor to the rising Ethernet standard.

Ethernet’s Entrance
Yet, in the end, Ethernet prevailed. The key difference between Ethernet and the aforementioned two standards was that Ethernet featured a
seemingly counter-intuitive and problematic approach to handling network traffic. In the Ethernet standard, traffic is not “passed” on a
token. Instead, information is sent almost haphazardly along the wire without regard to the status of other packets. In the token formulation,
the transfer of information can be schematically controlled because the passing of tokens implies that no collisions occur. Ethernet, in
contrast, features a system called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) that allows Ethernet to
automatically detect and fix collisions in frame communication. The basic principle behind this system can be conveyed in three steps:

Determine if frame is ready for transmission (if wire is “idle”); wait until it becomes open
Send frame

Run collision detection procedure if collision occurs

Note About How Ethernet Works: Notice that there is no “passing” of tokens through nodes in the Ethernet standard. So, it is very
possible that collisions occur. If they do occur, Ethernet simply waits a random “back off” period before reattempting transmission. After
too many failures, the attempts stop and the transmission itself is deemed a failure.

Also be aware: Ethernet has a feature called “promiscuous mode” in which nodes can receive all frames of information and not just those
passed along to those specific computers. This can be defeated by using switching.

Now, critics of the time charged that the Ethernet system was inefficient, that failing to prevent collisions would create excess network
traffic, and that the Ethernet standard would be inherently “slow” in nature. All of these concerns however proved to be unnecessary as the
Ethernet standard is still dominant today and has been since the early 1990’s.

Considerations with Ethernet

As with any networking technology, Ethernet has special facets and features you must take into account when troubleshooting it and
dealing with it. One of the most important features of Ethernet today is the ability to “auto-negotiate” network speed and duplex
mode. Duplex mode refers to whether the traffic is “one-way” (talk or listen) or “two-way” (talk and listen). Half duplex is akin to a one-
way radio. A node can transmit or receieve, but not do both at the same time. Full duplex allows for two-way communication, a node can
both transmit and receive at the same time. Auto-negotiation allows Ethernet devices to determine which mode to use. In addition, Ethernet
speeds vary depending on medium and the router or gateway employed; below is a table of Ethernet media and information you should
know concerning them.

Ethernet Media Table

Name/Max Length of Cable Type Speed Use
Special coaxial cable, needs “vampire taps”
10 Oldest technology and media; rarely employed
10Base5 / 500 m. (cut into wire to read), SHARED MEDIUM
Mbps today
(similar to bus)
Also old and rarely used, remember that it
Coaxial cable with BNC connector. 10
10Base2 (“ThinNet”) / 185 m. requires special circular BNC connector, similar
SHARED MEDIUM Mbps
to “cable TV connector”
Twisted Pair wire with EXCLUSIVE
10 Used RJ-45 connectors (look like large phone
10BaseT / 100 m. MEDIA (connected to hubs rather than to
Mbps line connector)
other nodes), RJ-45
100BaseTX (“Fast Ethernet”) / 100 Twisted pair wire, EXCLUSIVE MEDIA, 100 An improvement on speed of 10BaseT, capable
m. RJ-45 Mbps of auto-negotiation of speed
1000BaseT (“Gigabit Ethernet”) / Twisted pair wire, EXCLUSIVE MEDIA, 1000
Another speed improvement
100 m. RJ-45 Mbps
Faster Speed/Other media Ethernet
Uses next-generation fiber optic cabling to 10+ Another speed improvement and change in
(10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-CX4,
achieve 10+ Gbps speeds Gbps connectors, cabling
etc) / 2000+ m.

Note for the exam: You may see options such as “100BaseFX” – this simply means it is the same as 100BaseTX, but with a fiber optic
connection (media) and an SC or ST connector.

6. Understanding Wireless
The Network+ exam is becoming increasingly focused on wireless technology, so it is in your best interest to learn all of the current
wireless standards and implementations. As with almost everything you must learn for the Network+ exam, it is crucial that you learn the
differences between the standards/implementations and not just their features. Exam questions typically deal with “which one to
implement”, not “what this implementation does”. Read and study accordingly.
IrDA (Infrared Data)

IrDA technology allows for communication over network through infrared beams. Infrared (a specturm of light) does not pass through
solid objects, so a direct and clear path is essential for correct IrDA operation. IrDA typically operates at speeds around 16-25Mbps,
but is known to operate at faster speeds with specialized equipment. It is a rather uncommon wireless networking technology given its
inability to transmit signals where light is blocked. To do this, a lower frequency radio signal is necessary.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth (802.15.1) technology has received a lot of buzz lately, but it is basically a short-range wireless technology designed to allow
for connectivity between portable consumer wireless devices and Bluetooth enabled wireless access points. Because of the relatively
weak and low-frequency radio signal employed, Bluetooth is typically limited to a 20-35ft. access range. It is therefore usually limited to
applications involving those portable consumer devices and not LAN technology, the most common application of Wi-Fi.

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

Wi-Fi technology has really taken off in the last few years; it is probably almost as commonly known by its IEEE name, 802.11(letter). It
is a technology that utilizes low-frequency (2.4 and 5GHz.), mid-powered radio waves to transmit data across wireless networks. There
exist many “flavors” of the 802.11 standard; they differ primarily in speed and typical usage. These flavors are listed in a convenient
table below:

Name-Standard Speed (Mbps) Usage

802.11a 54 5GHz band; outdated; used for LAN networking in businesses; expensive
802.11b 11 Cheaper 2.4GHz mode;
802.11g 54/108 Cross between A and B flavors; 2.4GHz at fast speeds. Also offers backwards compatibility
Next-generation, designed for very fast, high-end operation (probably not tested on Net+, but you never
802.11n 300+
know!)

General Wireless Info

One of the major factors or considerations that many companies think about before employing wireless technology is its somewhat high
cost, though it is falling as time goes by. Still, cost is a major consideration. Wireless networks are also subject to interference from
microwaves, phones, and other radio devices. Wireless networks are compatible with Ethernet using a MAC bridge that translates wireless
frames into Ethernet frames.

Most wireless networks today connect using a sort of wireless “Star” topology – that is, in many setups, wireless devices all connect to a
single wireless access point. Wireless traffic can be (but is not necessarily) switched, so information is not easily “sniffed” from a
wireless network. However, Wi-Fi LAN’s have become somewhat notorious for their relative insecurities in terms of ease of access. Wi-
Fi LAN’s are by default accessible without any sort of authentication and therefore vulnerable to different types of attacks and of
course, mooching (wardriving). In addition, the built-in wireless encryption (WEP) is considered weak by today’s standards and has been
replaced by WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), the most common wireless access control system available today.

Wireless networks can also operate in “ad-hoc” mode, meaning that nodes can, if they so incline, connect to each other individually in a
sort of “mesh” scheme. This adds redundancy but makes management of such a network almost impossible.

Some Review
1. Which of the following IEEE standards specifies Wi-Fi networking?

a. 802.3

b. 802.5c

c. 802.5d

d. 802.11

e. 802.21

2. You have a large (500+ user) network and wish to link some nodes (laptops) to the network wirelessly, while leaving most connected to
existing hardware. Which of the following would be the most appropriate setup?

a. Connect the hubs and laptops in a wireless ring topology

b. Connect the laptops to the mainframe using 802.3 10BaseT

c. Employ ad-hoc mode between laptops

d. Employ a star topology, connecting the laptops to a WAP

e. Connect the laptops using IrDA

3. Which of the following is not a valid concern associated with Wi-Fi?

a. “War driving”
b. Limited signal range

c. Compatibility issues with Ethernet standard

d. Cost of Wi-Fi equipment

e. Interference

Answers
1. 802.11 defines Wi-Fi networking, so the answer is D.

2. The best choice is D, because it allows your network to retain the existing physical topology while allowing the new nodes (laptops) to
connect wirelessly in a manageable and scalable way.

3. All of the mentioned are concerns with the exception of C, which is absurd because Wi-Fi was specifically designed to work with 802.3
using a bridge.

7. TCP/IP Addressing and IPv6

The Network+ exam will contain a few questions on TCP/IP IPv4 addressing, which is a fairly simple subject matter to master and will
earn you some easy points. It is therefore recommended that you understand what an IP address is and how the numbering of the IP address
reveals network information.

The IPv4 Address

An IPv4 Address, often shortened to “IP Address,” is a numeric identifier of a network node that uniquely identifies that node either on a
LAN or on the wider Internet. Therefore, if two nodes on a network use the same IP address, a conflict will occur as the IP address reflects
a “one-to-one” relationship between hardware and logical address. As a result, neither of the two nodes with duplicate addresses will
receive full communications.

The IP address is 32-bit number comprised of four octets ranging from 0 to 255, or 256 numbers (numbers that range from 0 to 2^8-1,
hence the term "octet"). Given this, there are a limited number of IP addresses – at maximum, 256^4 or 4,294,967,296. This number is
inflated because certain IP addresses are reserved or unavailable. Given the rate of growth that the Internet is currently experiencing, it is
widely recognized that 4 billion IP addresses will not be enough to compensate for all of the nodes of the world. It is for this reason that
many advocate changing to IPv6, which is 128 bits and utilizes hexadecimal (base 16), rather than octal (base 8), numbers. IPv6 will be
covered briefly later. What you should know is that although IPv6 is superior in many ways to IPv4, IPv4 is the most commonly used
protocol for now and so is the one tested on the Network+ exam.

The IP address is comprised of two parts: the netid and the hostid. The netid indicates the network that a node is on while the hostid
indicates the actual, specific node. The number of octets dedicated to the netid varies based on the first number of the network. Actually,
that first number tells you quite a bit. The first number determines the size (Class) of the network and therefore both the number of octets
dedicated to the "netid" and the number dedicated the "hostid". Below is a table of the first octet numbers and information about their
classes:

The Class-Octet Table

Class First Octet Range Example Default Subnet Typical Application
A (netid . hostid . hostid . hostid) 1-126 [Link] [Link] University Network System
B (netid. netid. hostid. hostid) 128-191 [Link] [Link] Corporate System or Hospital Network
C (netid. netid. netid. hostid) 192-223 [Link] [Link] Small Business, Home Internet Connection

If you noticed, there is a column above for “Default Subnet.” Subnetting is a feature of TCP/IP whereby networks can be subdivided,
creating “logical networks” within a given network. This allows one, in effect, to create multiple networks on a single IP network by
routing the subnets (nodes connect via a default gateway which can find the router) necessary for communication with other logical
networks.

Note that there are some “reserved” IP address ranges:

IP Range And Purpose

Range Purpose
[Link] – [Link] Loopback (returns the node that requests it)
[Link] – [Link] Private Network (Class A)
[Link] - [Link] Private Network (Class B )
[Link] – [Link] Private Network (Class C)

([Link] is reserved as a “Broadcast” address, which sends information to all nodes on the same network)

Often times, a connection (through a router) to the Internet may be shared by multiple computers, which raises the question: What IP
addresses do the computers that connect to the Internet through the router take? Actually, they are assigned a “private” IP address in one of
the above reserved ranges for communication within the LAN; external communication is all channeled through the single “wide” IP
address. This is called Network Address Translation and don’t worry about it for now – we’ll cover it later.

IPv6
IPv6 addresses, as mentioned before, have yet to catch on in the mainstream, but it will not be long before they are employed. Actually,
much of the new software and hardware released these days will carry the banner “IPv6 compatible.” An IPv6 address is hexadecimal and
looks something like this: AAAA:BBB:CCC:D::E. Don’t worry much about the IPv6 for the Network+ exam – it isn’t tested.

Practicing What You Preach

Now, here are a few sample problems that should help you jog your knowledge on IP addressing.

1. A network has nodes on IP’s ranging from [Link] to [Link]. The router on this network is at [Link]. The IP
address of Node A is [Link]. What is the default gateway for Node A?

A. [Link]

B. [Link]

C. [Link]

D. [Link]

E. [Link]

2. Which of the following is a valid public Class A IP address?

A. [Link]
B. [Link]

C. [Link]

D. [Link]

E. [Link]

3. Which of the following is a not a possible subnet address?

A. [Link]

B. [Link]

C. [Link]

D. [Link]

E. [Link]

4. Which of the following is a valid IPv4 address?

A. 4:AC:AD:34

B. [Link]

C. [Link]
D. 10:0:0:1

E. 10:0:0:A

5. You install and configure a new computer. In doing this, you join the new computer to your IP-based network and assign it an IP
address. After restarting, you notice that the connection to the network is sporadic; in addition, another user calls you and complains that
his network connection is not functioning. What is the most likely explanation?

A. You configured the wrong default gateway

B. You configured a duplicate IP address

C. You used a unique IP address

D. You configured a duplicate subnet address

E. You used a unique subnet address

Answers
1. The default gateway for a node is the same as the router that connects the node to the other subnets on the entire LAN; therefore, because
the router is [Link], the default gateway is [Link]. The answer is (E)

2. Review the table to see the ranges for valid Class A IP addresses. Note that although ([[Image:|user posted image]] is in the range 1-126,
10.x.x.x is reserved for private Class A networks. Therefore (D) is the correct answer.
3. All of the above are possible except for (E), which is reserved as the broadcast address. Note that answer C is a possible subnet address;
subnet addresses need not be equivalent to the default address, so the replacement of 0 with 17 in the third octet is perfectly valid.

4. IP addresses are four octets (numbers within 0-255, normally 1-254) separated by periods. The only choice that satisfies this is choice C

5. After adding the new PC to the network, neither the new PC nor the complaining user’s PC is receiving full service. The only way that
the new PC would affect the user’s PC is if the new PC is using a duplicate IP address, which would deny service to either. Therefore the
answer is B.

8. TCP/IP stack
The TCP/IP stack has more than just the TCP and IP protocols; in fact, it is home to the most pervasive and prevalent protocols that cover
many layers of the OSI model. The Network+ exam will test you on your knowledge of the protocols of the TCP/IP stack (suite),
including information on the layers and uses of the individual protocols. Below is a list of the exam-tested protocols, arranged by place
in the OSI model.

Data Link
Because no “protocols” operate at the Physical layer of the OSI model, we begin at the Data Link layer.

The ARP (Address Resolution) protocol operates at the Network layer and is used to translate logical IP addresses into Data Link
(Physical) MAC (Media Access Control) addresses. It is basically the “translator” between Layers 2 and 3.

The RARP (Reverse ARP) is similar to the ARP protocol, but translates MAC addresses into IP addresses.
Network
The ubiquitous IP protocol allows for much of the routing capabilities of the Internet; specifically, it allows for the connectionless transfer
of packets. Most of the functionality concerning the IP protocol is actually centered on the concept of addressing, or assigning unique
logical identifiers to nodes.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) Is a connectionless protocolthat allows you to use functions such as ping to check if a route is
available to a certain network node. More generally, ICMP is used to manage control messages.

IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) is used to add, delete, and modify members of “multicast” groups. A multicast is a packet
sent to more than one user but not all users – distinguished, of course, from the broadcast, which is a message to all users.

The RIP (Routing Information Protocol) allows for the routing of internal (and also some Internet) traffic and adapting to changes in
network structure.

Transport
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is the connection-oriented protocol that allows for reliable data transfer and receipt of delivery
between two network nodes. One of the unique features of TCP is the concept of a port, or an opening into a node in which data is sent
and/or received. Higher-level protocols (especially Application layer protocols) depend on TCP ports to allow outside nodes to
communicate with specific services.A port number is always between 1 and 65536, inclusive.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is the connectionless equivalent of TCP – there is no guarantee, therefore, of data delivery. UDP is usually
seen as an unreliable protocol because of this but does facilitate several higher-level protocols and also utilizes the 1-65536 port system.
Make sure you understand that there is a distinction then between TCP and UDP ports – namely, the protocol employed.

Application
The Network+ exam will not test you very much on the individual application layer protocols, but you will need to know simple
information such as their purpose and port number. Remember that when it is said that a service operates on a certain port, it doesn’t mean
that the service cannot operate on a different port; it just means that is the default.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is the protocol that facilitates transfer of data via the “world wide web.” Typically, data is transferred
in the form of pages, or HTML markup. HTTP operates on TCP 80.

HTTPS (Secure HTTP) uses TCP 443 to securely transfer HTTP data, usually via SSL, or Secure Socket Layer. Sites that require
increased security, such as an online merchant, use HTTPS to protect user information.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) operates on TCP ports 20(data) / 21(transmission control). It is used in simple file transfers from one node to
another and is basically insecure, as information is transferred in clear text.

SFTP (Secure FTP) is a more secure version of FTP that operates on port 22 and uses SSH, or Secure Shell, to transfer data securely.

TFTP (Trivial FTP) is a UDP version of FTP that utilizes UDP port 69. It is called “trivial” because it is relatively unreliable and
inefficient and so is more often used for inter-network communication (along routers) than in real node-to-node file transfers.

Telnet (Telecommunications Network) is used to remotely connect to a node. It is called terminal emulation software because the remote
terminal is available upon connection. Telnet operates on TCP 23.

SSH (Secure Shell) is a secure replacement of Telnet. Telnet transfers information in plain or clear text, but SSH allows terminal
emulation in cipher text, which equates to enhanced and increased security. SSH operates on TCP 22.

NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used by client and server software to carry USENET (newsgroup) postings back
and forth over a TCP/IP network. NNTP operates on TCP port 119.

LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) is a “Directory Services” protocol that basically allows a server to act as a central
directory for client nodes. A famous implementation of LDAP is Microsoft’s Active Directory (Domain). LDAP operates on TCP and
UDP 389.
NTP (Network Time Protocol) allows for synchronizing network time with a server. NTP operates on UDP 123.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol) is the mailbox protocol of the Internet and allows users to receive mail. POP3 operates on TCP 110.

IMAP4 (The Internet Message Access Protocol) is a slightly better version of the mailbox protocol POP3 and allows for server-based
repositories of sent mail and other specialized folders. IMAP4 operates on TCP 143.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the “postman” of the Internet. It allows for mail to be sent. SMTP operates on TCP 25.

NAT & ICS

One of the main concerns with IPv4, as mentioned previously, is the relatively low number of IPv4 addresses available. One Internet
connection corresponds to one IP address – the IP address usually maps to the device connected to the Internet gateway (modem, cable
modem, DSL, etc.) However, in many cases, it is desirable to “share” a connection in such a way that multiple nodes can utilize the
connection from one node. For example, in many home networks, families do not wish to pay for an IP address per each computer that a
family member owns. Rather, the family would rather share one connection (one IP address).

The question that should immediately come to mind, however, is: How can multiple nodes communicate with the Internet without a unique
identifier? The answer is that through NAT, or Network Address Translation, it is very possible for one device to “share” its internet
connection with other networked devices. A large amount of real-world (not just Network+) troubleshooting is centered on the use of
NAT, so it would be to your advantage to fully understand NAT.

How Network Address Translation Works

Consider a home that receives postal mail. It has only one postal address and deals with other postal addresses. Now, how would a home
with five family members receive mail? They would use their names to specify who they are. So, mail might be directed to “Ken” or
“John,” not just to the address. In a similar way, NAT allows for the establishment of connections between internal (network) members and
the Internet. A typical scheme for this is below:
[Link] (Accounting) wants to connect to [Link] (Bank)

[Link] accesses default gateway, [Link]

[Link] connects to [Link] on [Link] (the “Wide” IP) Random Port

[Link] transfers data to [Link] ([Link])

[Link] transfers data to [Link] on Random Port

Considerations
As you can see, NAT is actually quite simple in application, but there are issues associated with NAT. Perhaps the most important (and
common) issue associated with NAT is the relative difficulty or even impossibility of opening a connection to a NAT-connected
computer from a remote host. “Remote-to-local” connections are prone to failure because no port is opened for communication between
that remote host and the local host. In contrast, when the local host wants communication, it is very possible because the NAT device
(usually the gateway/switch/router) will automatically create a temporary random port for communication. There are, however, ways
(such as Port Forwarding) to allow a remote host to connect to a PC behind an NAT device, but these are covered elsewhere.

Another consideration, of course, is that NAT is not a replacement for a firewall. Many people claim that they are “behind a firewall”
when in fact they are simply behind an NAT device. Just because NAT can “hide” a network doesn’t mean that NAT is capable of keeping
a network safe. If you remember correctly, a firewall performs a different function than does NAT; a firewall “filters” traffic, while an
NAT device (at best) blocks traffic.

ICS (Internet Connection Sharing)

Internet Connection Sharing is the built-in NAT feature in Microsoft Windows and allows a Windows PC to “share” its Internet
connection to other networked devices. In this configuration, the PC with ICS is directly connected to the Internet in some way (modem,
ISDN, etc.) and networked with other computers. The ICS-enabled PC can then share its connection with other Windows computers, acting
as an NAT device. In addition, the ICS-enabled PC can automatically assign IP addresses through DHCP, a feature covered in a different
article.

Quick Review
1. A user complains that he cannot access his office computer through “Remote Desktop.” He is certain that he has entered the
correct hostname to connect to and that “Remote Desktop” is listening on the office computer. What is the most likely explanation?

a. Remote Desktop has encountered an illegal exception

b. He needs to enable ICS on the remote PC

c. He needs to enable NAT on the remote PC

d. NAT on the office router/gateway is blocking his request to his office PC

e. His office router/gateway is down

2. Which of the following is not a reason that NAT is currently employed?

a. Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses

b. Ability to block incoming traffic from remote hosts

c. Ability to “share” an Internet connection

d. To minimize costs (for having extra IP addresses)

e. Allows automatic assignment of IPv4 addresses

Answers:
1. The user cannot access his PC because his PC is most likely behind an NAT-enabled device, which would prevent incoming traffic
because no port would be available by default. The answer is D.

2. DHCP allows automatic assignment of IPv4 addresses; this is not a feature of NAT. The answer is E.

9. DHCP, Port Forwarding, and DMZ Hosts

You will, as a Network administrator, probably deal with DHCP, port forwarding, and the DMZ more often than you may like. These
technologies are classically associated with NAT technology; so, many modern networks utilize them to provide various network
services and greater security.

DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, or DHCP, is the service that allows for the dynamic (often called auto-magical) IP configuration
of client nodes on a given network. Typically (in most home or small-office networks), DHCP is employed over manual configuration. In
larger networks, DHCP can be very advantageous because it allows network administrators to "kick back and relax" while addresses are
auto-magically assigned through a DHCP server. However sometimes a manual configuration may be more desirable so that administrators
know which computers correspond to which IP address – that is, so that the assignments are permanent.

DHCP works on a “release/renew” system. When an address is requested and assigned, it is actually “leased” to the requesting node for
a given period of time. After half of the lease time has expired, the requesting node will automatically request a “renewal” of the IP to the
original DHCP server. In most cases, the server will help the client renew the assigned IP address. If the server that the IP was originally
assigned from (the DHCP server that assigned the IP) is unavailable after around 87.5% of the lease time has expired, the client will send a
broadcast to all network nodes asking for an IP address. When the lease expires, however, the node will lose the IP address. Note that
DHCP operates in a client/server rationale, so a DHCP client requests an IP address from a willing DHCP server. DHCP assigns the:
  IP address
 Subnet mask
 Default gateway

Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Macintosh all offer built-in DHCP server functionality.

Port Forwarding
Most routers today offer a feature called port forwarding that works in conjunction with NAT (Network Address Translation) to provide
openings for incoming traffic to “internal network” nodes. A typical application of port forwarding is network configuration for a file
sharing program. The file sharing program on node [Link] may need a specific port open to accept incoming traffic – for example,
let’s say TCP 4444. Because of NAT, requests on TCP 4444 will not be handled because the traffic is being directed to the router, which
does not have any service operating on TCP 4444. However, the router can be configured to forward requests on port TCP 4444 to
[Link], which can handle the requests on TCP 4444, thus allowing for the incoming traffic to be handled on that port. The general
formulation for port forwarding is:

Port Request on (TCP/UDP) (Port Number) Forwards to (Internal IP Address)

DMZ Host
A DMZ (Demilitarized Zone) host is a special (security) feature in many modern routers. A DMZ host is basically a “catch-all” host for
requests on non-configured ports. For example, in the previous example, let’s say port forwarding is not configured, but a DMZ host on
[Link] is. Then, the request to the router on TCP 4444 (because it is not forwarded) will be automatically sent to [Link]:4444.
There are two main benefits associated with DMZ hosts.

1. Port forwarding doesn’t have to be configured for each individual service (though it is generally a BAD idea to setup an ordinary
PC as a DMZ host)
2. As a security feature (quite the opposite of number 1), so that all of the suspicious (non-port-forwarded) traffic can be directed to
a single sanitized host

Applying the Knowledge

1. Which of the following technologies allows a PC to forward incoming requests on certain ports to specific computers?

a. NAT

b. ICS

c. DMZ

d. Port Forwarding

e. DHCP

2. A user complains that he cannot connect to the network. You ask him for his IP information and he says that his IP is manually
assigned. Which of the following could be eliminated as cause of the problem?

a. The media may be faulty, severed, or incorrectly connected

b. His IP address, subnet mask, or default gateway may be wrong

c. His network card may not be functioning correctly

d. The DHCP server is down

e. The default gateway is down

Answers
1. Port forwarding allows for the forwarding of specific port requests to specific computers. The answer is D.

2. Because the IP address is manually assigned, the DHCP server could not be an issue because it is not being utilized. All of the other
choices, however unlikely, are possibilities. The answer is D.

10. TCP/IP Troubleshooting Tools

TCP/IP is a wonderful protocol suite; it comprises almost all of the functionality and the core services that make possible for the Internet
and its applications. However, with great power come many problems; so, knowledge of TCP/IP troubleshooting will be necessary in your
networking-related career and especially in your ability to pass the Network+ exam. In fact, you will probably encounter around four or
five questions on TCP/IP troubleshooting alone on the Network+ exam.

Your knowledge of TCP/IP troubleshooting depends on your command of TCP/IP tool usage. Many of the following tools are used in
typical troubleshooting operations, and almost all of them can be used to either identify or eliminate a potential problem in a
troubleshooting situation. We will go over general network troubleshooting in more detail in later articles.

To give an example of the way TCP/IP troubleshooting tools can help, consider the common tool “ping.” Ping operates over the ICMP
protocol (using ICMP Echo Request and Echo response) to attempt to contact a host given some kind of unique identifier (hostname,
domain, IP, etc.). If it is successful, it will return a reply from that IP address; if it is unsuccessful, it will inform you that the “destination
could not be reached.” Why is this useful? Suppose you are trying to determine why you are unable to access the company’s remote email
server through “Outlook.” The problem could stem from a number of issues, including

 The computer is not properly configured for the internal network (media problems, TCP/IP configuration issues, router is down,
etc.)

 The Internet connection is down

  There is an issue in connecting to the email server at the Application or Connection layers (maybe he is connecting to the wrong
port, NAT issues, email server is rejecting connections)

 The remote host is down or is unavailable in general (IP connection issues)

Obviously, these are only four of many possibilities, but they are four possibilities that can be further investigated through Ping. For
example, to ping your router would indicate to you if your router or network connection is down, or if the problem lies at the remote host
level. This kind of “step-by-step, process of elimination” process is how most troubleshooting takes place. Some other tools include:

 Tracert: Traces the connection path to a remote host, step-by-step. Allows you to see where the connection “is lost” – for
example, sometimes a connection to a remote host may stop at an ISP router, at which point you can determine that the issue is a
WAN problem.

 Netstat: Depending on the parameters, gives varying degrees of information about TCP/IP connections and protocols.
Examples include information such as all connections and listening ports, routing table etc

 Ipconfig: Displays IP configuration information with the switch (/all), which includes IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway. Ipconfig can also be used to force a DHCP release or renew operation, using the switches /release and /renew

 Winipcfg - the GUI-based Windows 9x-era ipconfig tool

 ARP – Returns the MAC address that maps from a given IP address

 RARP – Returns the IP address that maps to a given MAC address

 Nslookup – Used to troubleshoot DNS issues; can be used to find an IP given a DNS name

There are of course other TCP/IP tools, but they will be covered in other sections (i.e. NetBios). The most important things to remember
about the above TCP/IP tools are not the details of their functionality, but rather, remember the troubleshooting operations that they are
associated with. For example, if you read about some sort of DNS issue, you should immediately think Nslookup before considering other
tools.

Quick Practice
1. A user reports that he is unable to connect to your company’s network. The user is running Windows 98. Which of the following
commands would be most appropriate to run?

a. ipconfig

b. winipcfg

c. winipconf

d. ipconf

2. Which of the following commands can be used to renew a DHCP leased address?

a. Dhcp /renew

b. Dhcp /lease?extend

c. Ipconfig /renew

d. Ipconfig /extend

3. Which utility shows active connections on a host?

a. Netstat
b. Telnet

c. Tracert

d. ICMP

4. Which of the following uses ICMP echo requests to determine if a remote host is available?

a. Ping

b. Telnet

c. Arp

d. ICMP

Answers
1. Winipcfg is the equivalent of ipconfig for Windows 9x machines. The answer is B

2. Ipconfig with the switch “/renew” can renew a DHCP lease; the answer is C

3. Netstat shows active connections on a host. The answer is A

4. Ping uses ICMP echo requests to check if a host is reachable. The answer is A

11. NetBIOS
NetBIOS, or Network Basic Input/Output System, allows for session-layer communication on the OSI model. NetBIOS is primarily
concerned with two functions: naming and starting/stopping NetBIOS “sessions.” Since NetBIOS is not actually a networking
protocol (it's an API) it is not routable and therefore nodes are only visible to other nodes within the same subnet. It also provides for an
unreliable NetBIOS datagram service which is rarely utilized these days (and probably not on your Network+ exam). So, we will cover the
two basic aspects of NetBIOS: naming and sessions.

NetBIOS Naming
NetBIOS names are 16 bytes in length but usually consist of 15 characters, with the last being reserved for special purposes. You are
probably familiar with the “15 character limit” if you have any experiences with naming PC’s – almost all operating systems require the PC
name to be 15 characters in length or less. All NetBIOS names resolve to one or more IP addresses. If a NetBIOS name resolves to a
single IP address (that is, if the relationship is said to be “one-to-one”), it is called a Unique Name. If the name resolves to more
than one computer, it is said to be a Group Name. The Network+ exam tests you specifically on NetBIOS naming in Microsoft
Windows networks. Name resolution is an important feature of a NetBIOS network; after all, how would you know which NetBIOS
names correspond to given IP addresses? NetBIOS name resolution is handled through several means.

A broadcast is simply a request to all nodes on a network to resolve a given name. Think of it as calling out someone in a crowd.
Yelling “Is Anthony Parks here?” may result in someone who identifies himself as Mr. Parks to turn around and proclaim, “Yes, I am
Anthony!” Alternatively, perhaps nobody in the crowd bears that name, and the request may be forwarded to other people. Similarly, in a
NetBIOS network, broadcasts are sent to all nodes, asking for a response if a computer recognizes the name as its own.

However, broadcasts can be cumbersome and boggle down a busy network – imagine the amount of noise created if everyone is asking for
someone in a crowded room! To resolve this problem, several centralized NetBIOS name resolution services exist, including:

 DNS: The most common medium of name resolution. DNS stands for “Domain Name Service” and operates on the concept of
“domains,” or specific, named hosts or networks that can account for sub-domains. DNS actually is deserving of its own section, so
we will move on for now.
 NetBIOS Name Server: Stores NetBIOS names in a central location for easy name resolution. Returns an IP address based
on a NetBIOS name.
  WINS Server: Microsoft’s version of NetBIOS name server. What you have to know about for the exam is that it utilizes a
primary and optional secondary WINS server for redundancy and is considered wider in features than an ordinary NetBIOS name
server.

Microsoft Windows in particular allows you to save NetBIOS name entries in a file.

 LMHOSTS file: Has NetBIOS name entries for the local area network.
 HOSTS file: Has NetBIOS name entries for remote network hosts as well as local ones.

NetBIOS Sessions
The Network+ exam is far more concerned with NetBIOS naming, but here are some points to remember about NetBIOS sessions:

 Use TCP Port 139

 Provides Error Detection and Recovery
 Session Layer of OSI model
 Many Microsoft services utilize NetBIOS sessions

Quick Review
1. A user wishes to connect to ACCOUNTING on a Microsoft network without a WINS server. ACCOUNTING is on the same
subnet as the user’s computer. Which file should the user configure?

a. HOSTS

b. LMHOSTS

c. CONF
d. WINCONF

e. None of the Above

2. A user complains that he cannot communicate via NetBIOS to a remote host behind an NAT firewall. Which of the following
courses of action would allow for connection?

a. Use NetBEUI instead of NetBIOS

b. Enable DHCP at the Server level

c. Utilize NetBIOS naming

d. Forward (open) TCP Port 139

e. Enable Loopback

Answers:
1. LMHOSTS allows for the manual configuration of NetBIOS name resolution for local area network hosts. The answer is B.

2. The only option that would allow for communication through the NAT device is D, opening up TCP 139 and allowing the connection.
The answer is D.

12. Putting it in Perspective

As with virtually all troubleshooting, the fundamental rationale in network troubleshooting is to eliminate potential causes of the
issues by process of elimination. Before considering how you would go about network troubleshooting, consider something a bit more
familiar to you. For example, perhaps you could not call your Aunt Margaret. You begin to fear the worst – Margaret is over 90 years old
and lives in a nursing home. So, you try to go about reaching her. First, you attempt to call her again, but nobody picks up. Then, you call
the nursing home, but nobody picks up there as well. You breathe a sigh of relief because it now seems that the nursing home as a whole is
having issues with calls.

You then attempt to contact your friend Jane. However, Jane doesn’t pick up as well. You call her cell, and she still doesn’t pick up. You
try other friends to no avail. It now seems to you that your phone line connection as a whole is at fault.

The process described above was essentially a troubleshooting process. By calling different people until you arrived at a conclusion,
you were able to eliminate (or implicate) a point of failure. Of course, your efforts are not failsafe. Perhaps the reason that none of the
people are picking up is because they all suffered terrible and painful deaths, or perhaps (even more likely) they were simply unable to
reach the phone. The point is, troubleshooting is not an exact science, but by contacting all of the potential points of failure, you can usually
implicate a particular one (or particular ones).

The Real World

Let us now consider a more technical example. A coworker cries to you that she cannot access the Internet and therefore cannot complete
mission-critical work. The first thing that should come to your mind is not the fact that she cannot access the Internet, but that she cannot
access the company network. You then generate a list of potential failure points:

 PC TCP/IP is not configured

 PC TCP/IP is configured incorrectly
 IP address conflict
 DHCP issue
 Media issue
 Switch/hub issue
 Gateway issue
 WAN Issue
 Remote host issue
As you can see, there are quite a number of “potential points of failure” associated with the described issue; in fact, for the sake of brevity,
not all of them are included above. The point is that these potential points of failure can all be independently assessed by holding all others
the same. Typically, we work “bottom-up,” meaning first from the client PC and ending at the widest possible explanation (for example,
the faraway remote host).

So, first youproceed to test if TCP/IP is configured at all on the host computer. The easiest way to do this is to simply ping the local
host, or (if you remember your IP addressing), [Link]. Once the local host returns four replies, you then know TCP/IP is configured.

Upon checking the IP configuration, you determine that the IP address information is automatically configured by DHCP, so you
proceed to run ipconfig and check if the said information is actually configured. You further determine that the IP address is
[Link] and that the default gateway is [Link].

Running through our checklist of sorts, we next check if we can ping the default gateway. No replies are returned, however, which means
that there is a connection issue between the host and the gateway. Checking the media running from the host to the switch, everything
appears to be ok. From the switch to the gateway, however, there is a kink in the media caused by what appears to be excessive
wear and tear. After replacing the media, all is ok again and the world is once again a happy place.

This short lesson in troubleshooting should have taught you two basic lessons: first, that ping (if it's not turned off on the network for
security reasons) is without question your best friend, but second, that even with an almost endless number of potential causes, a network
issue can usually be spotted and corrected in a small number of steps.

In the following lessons we will return to Network+ related content, but remember the basic premise of network troubleshooting: identify
the issue, determine potential causes of the issue, and eliminate the causes by process of elimination to determine and correct the exact
cause of the issue.

Understanding Common Protocol Suites

Network+ will test you on your ability to differentiate between the more common protocol suites, or groups of protocols that are
interconnected and work together to provide network services on many different layers of the OSI model. Most of the protocols operate
between the Network and Application layers. The most common (and most tested on the exam) protocol suite is the TCP/IP suite,
which encompasses such widely pervasive protocols as TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, and many others. However, there exist other protocol
suites as well, and CompTIA expects you to be able to identify the proprietor, usage, and unique features of each of the protocol suites.

NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface)

NetBEUI is a Microsoft protocol suite designed to work within a small-sized, Windows-based LAN. In fact, the NetBEUI protocol is not
even routable, or able to transmit through routers. This is because the system of addressing that NetBEUI employs does not utilize
“unique” identifiers or addresses; instead, NetBEUI uses 15 character “names” that are not necessarily unique. Think of NetBEUI as
the system of communication you may use within your office – office mailboxes may address people on a first-name-last-name basis and in
communicating with people, you often will say, “Send this to John”. Yet, outside of your office your request is meaningless, because there
are millions of Johns throughout the world. So, that inter-office communication system is not “routable”.

AppleTalk
The AppleTalk protocol suite is used for communication within Apple (Macintosh) networks. Unlike NetBEUI, AppleTalk is routable
and can be employed in large LAN networks and even some WAN networks. However, this implementation is relatively uncommon as
most computers on most networks will not be Apple computers and therefore will not natively communicate with AppleTalk. However,
AppleTalk remains a viable option in large Macintosh networks.

IPX/SPX
Novell is no longer such an active purveyor of this protocol suite (at least not as much as they used to be), but IPX/SPX is still employed
on Novell (NetWare) networks. You should know that IPX (Internet Packet Exchange) is the Novell equivalent of the IP protocol of
the TCP/IP suite as it is connectionless and cannot guarantee data delivery, while SPX (Sequenced Packet Exchange) is the equivalent of
TCP and is connection-oriented. IPX is considered the fastest routable protocol available today, but the proprietary nature of the IPX/SPX
suite, as well as the lack of developer consensus on the protocol suite and network hardware available for the suite has historically kept it
from gaining widespread acceptance.
DLC
DLC (Data Link Control) is a specialized protocol used for communication between a PC and non-PC devices, such as an older IBM
PC, mainframe computer, or network-enabled printer. DLC is not designed for use between “normal” PC computers.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is by far the most common protocol suite today. There are several reasons for
this, including the amount of development and architecture dedicated to the suite, the non-proprietary nature of the suite, its large number
of application layer protocols, its use in the Internet, and its status as a relatively light-weight protocol suite. Key aspects of the TCP/IP
protocol suite include:

 IP Addressing Scheme
 Suite Protocols at the Network, Transport, Session, and Application layers
 TCP Ports
 ARP Protocol (Layer-2 to Layer-3 translation)
 DHCP (Ability to automatically assign IP addresses)

Each of these items requires a broader study and will be covered individually in other articles, but remember that the above constitute the
integral components of the TCP/IP stack.

Quick Review
1. You have recently switched the communication protocol in your network to IPX/SPX at the recommendation of an analyst. Your
network is directly connected to the Internet through a broadband connection. When you try to connect to the Internet, what will
happen?

a. The connection will not be any noticeably different than before

b. Some users will be unable to connect because of TCP/IP to IPX/SPX bridge issues

c. You will not be able to access the Internet

d. You will not be able to use the MAC sub-layer services

2. An IBM PC is unable to connect to Macintosh computers, but can connect to other Windows machines as well as the Internet.
Which of the following protocols should be installed to ensure that the PC can communicate with Macs?

a. TCP/IP

b. IPX

c. NetBeui

d. AppleTalk

3. Which two protocols can be used in conjunction to allow for communication between NT-based and Netware-based networks?

a. IP and TCP

b. IPX and SPX

c. IPX and IP
d. TCP and NetBeui

e. SPX and HTTP

f. IPX and NetBeui

Answers
1. Because the Internet is a TCP/IP-based inter-network, it only follows that an IPX/SPX network directly connected to the Internet would
not be able to communicate with the Internet because the protocols do not match. It would be akin to a Chinese manufacturer instructing
French manufacturers in Chinese. So, the answer is C; you would not, in that case, be able to access the Internet (understand the Chinese
manufacturer)

2. AppleTalk ensures communication with Macintosh computers, so the answer is D.

3. This one is tricky. Don’t be thrown off by NetBeui – it can only be used for communication with other Windows (Microsoft) computers.
So you can eliminate the choices with NetBeui (D and F). Next, you should recognize that HTTP is not a protocol that could be used at any
rate for communication between these networks and eliminate choice E. Choice B should immediately stand out as invalid because you
understand that IPX and SPX are part of the same (Novell) protocol suite and therefore could not help in communication between NT and
Novell networks. In a similar way, choice A can be eliminated because TCP and IP are both part of the TCP/IP stack. So, the only choice
remaining is actually C. IP can be understood by both Windows-based and Novell-based machines, so an IPX to IP gateway would allow
for communication between these networks.

13. DNS
DNS (Domain Name System) is the name resolution protocol of choice in the TCP/IP suite. It is responsible for name resolution as
it is commonly known; for example, most people know the website “ProProfs” as [Link], as opposed to its logical identity,
[Link]. Name resolution is essentially a service that allows for a more user-friendly experience and eliminates or at least reduces
the need of a user to memorize physical or logical addresses. The name resolution offered by DNS is provided by DNS name servers,
meaning that DNS operates in a client-server access method. The Network+ exam will test you on your ability to differentiate between
several types of name servers, domain names, and of course, name server records. Typically, the exam will have at least three questions on
or related to DNS name resolution.

Name Servers
DNS name servers are responsible for handling requests to translate user-friendly “domain names” into logical IP addresses.
Typically, a one-to-one correlation exists between a domain name and the IP address it maps to. However, the reverse is not always the
case: many domain names can point to a single IP address. The name resolution entries (DNS entries) are stored in a file on the DNS
name server, so requests to a server typically involve the server checking its DNS entries for the name; if the name server does not
have an entry for that name, it may try to forward the request to other DNS servers (hence, the Internet). If it is determined that no entry
exists for that name, the DNS server will return an error to the requesting client. Name servers are typically differentiated as either primary
or secondary:

 Primary name servers handle client requests, checking a request against the DNS entries stored in a local file.
 Secondary name servers provide redundancy and can allow for additional checking of DNS entries. Typically, a primary server that
is bogged down might forward the request to a secondary name server.

Hierarchy
Not all domain names are created equal. In fact, you’ve probably noticed before that domain names can be very long, like
[Link]. Or, account names can be very short, like [Link] or [Link]. Many websites use the
style [Link], but they are certainly not restricted to this form of naming (the “www.*” convention in particular).
Internet DNS names can be broken down into two basic categories: TLD, or Top Level Domains, and all the others, or subdomains.
TLD include such favorites as .com, .us, and .info, while sub-domains include such common entries as [Link] and uncommon
ones, like [Link]. In general, TLD are the final suffix of any domain, whereas subdomains are domains that fall
under a TLD.

DNS Records
At the core of the DNS experience are the DNS records, the data that is looked up by the name servers to return information to requesting
DNS clients. Different types of records hold different types of information. Below is a short list of the records that you will be expected to
know for the Network+ examination.

 Address (A) Record – This is by far the most important DNS record as it maps a given domain name (DNS name) into an IP
address. Note this is a one-to-one function.
 Pointer (PTR) Record – The opposite of the A record; translates IP addresses into DNS names
 Name Server (NS) Record – Identifies the DNS server that has authority over a particular domain
 Mail Exchange (MX) Record – Identifies the mail server that has authority for a particular domain
 Canonical Name (CNAME) Record – Used to map a subdomain (or another domain entirely) to a domain. In other words, it is used
to “alias” a domain. For example, most websites have a CNAME Record that maps [Link] to [Link]

Quick Review
1. A customer complains that his website ([Link]) is not working properly. He says, “I can visit the website
[Link], but when I type [Link], I get an error message.” Which of the following is most likely to be the
record that he needs to fix or add?

a. Name server is incorrect

b. TCP/IP issue
c. A Record

d. NS Record

e. CNAME Record

2. Which of the following is a TLD?

a. [Link]

b. [Link]

c. [Link]

d. .com

e. [Link]

f. All of the above

Answers
1. Because the alias www.* is not working, it is likely to be a CNAME issue. The answer is E.

2. Only .com is a TLD. The answer is D.

15. WAN
Now that you have a firm grip on the core of the Network+ exam, LAN administration and troubleshooting, you can begin to study the
various modes and methods of operation for WAN access. A WAN, or Wide Area Network, is a group of interconnected LAN’s;
usually, WAN access refers to Internet access. You are probably intimately familiar with some WAN access technologies, such as POTS
(Plain Old Telephone Service, or Dial-Up), but are less familiar with OC3 and FDDI. This section of our guide will help you understand
these widely varying Wide Area Network technologies.

POTS
Plain Old Telephone Service, or as it is affectionately known, POTS, is one of the oldest WAN access technologies and remains the most
popular in most parts of the world. It utilizes phone networks and analog-to-digital modems to send information over the telephone line.
One of the drawbacks of POTS WAN access is that in order to connect, you to have to establish a POTS “hand-shake” which takes around
one or two minutes. Additionally, POTS is a very slow access method; most people connect via POTS at a speed of about 56 Kb/S, or 7
KB/S. However, due to its inexpensive price and the fact that it uses existing infrastructure, it remains a viable option even today.

ISDN
Integrated Service Data Network (ISDN) is a now almost-obsolete technology that allows for an internet connection via a special,
reserved line set up by the telecommunications company. It usually consists of two 64 Kbps "B" channels for a maximum data transfer
rate of 128 Kbps, or 16 KB/S. Though fast as compared to older standards, this technology is outdated and has been replaced by newer
“broadband” technologies, such as DSL or cable.

DSL
Digital Subscriber Line, or DSL, is arguably the successor to ISDN. It also utilizes a special line set up by the telecom company, but
utilizes a special “DSL” modem to translate the high-speed DSL signal to a network-friendly language. DSL can be as slow as 256
Kbps and some of the fastest DSL lines operate at speeds exceeding 10 Mbps. DSL is generally used in small business/office or home
connection settings.
Cable
Cable utilizes a traditional coaxial cable to transmit network signals. Typically, one would sign up for a cable connection through a cable
company (the same ones who provide cable TV access). Cable requires a cable modem to translate between the cable signal and the
Layer 2 segments, and typically costs a bit more than its DSL counterparts. Cable can operate at speeds exceeding 60 Mbps and would be
used by small to medium-sized business applications and in many home settings.

T1/T2/T3
T(X) lines are dedicated lines set up by a telecom company between a remote site and the network backbone. T1 operates at 1.544 Mbps,
T2 at 6.312 Mbps, and T3 at 44.376 Mbps. All you have to know about T1/2/3 is that these lines are typically used by larger businesses and
are far more expensive than the traditional broadband connection as they are dedicated and always reliable.

ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode, or ATM, uses fiber optic cable to achieve speeds exceeding 600 Mbps, and is only used in large-scale,
“backbone” operations. ATM can accommodate such varying technologies as traditional phone service, data service, and even VOIP
service (Voice over IP).

OC1/OC3/OC(X)
OC(X), or “Optical Carrier” WAN access, utilizes SONET fiber-optic technology to allow for speeds exceeding 50 Gbps, though OC1
operates at “only” 51 Mbps. Only large companies or backbone operations would need such speed.

Review Time
1. Which of the following would you not recommend to a small business wishing for an affordable, “always-on” connection to the
Internet?
a. ISDN

b. Cable

c. DSL

d. OC3

2. Which of the following utilizes fiber optic technology?

a. POTS

b. T1

c. T3

d. ATM

e. T2

3. Which of the following does not require a dedicated physical line to the phone company?

a. T1

b. T2

c. T3

d. DSL
Answers:
1. OC3 is only used for Internet Backbone and would be too expensive for a normal small business to utilize. The answer is D

2. Only ATM uses fiber optic technology. The answer is D.

3. DSL, though called a “Digital Subscriber Line,” is not a truly “Dedicated” line in the same sense that T1, T2, and T3 are. The answer is
D.

16. Network Management

Network+ will feature a few questions testing your ability to discern between different network management technologies and their various
uses. Network administration refers to the day-to-day management, maintenance, and configuration of networks, and is one of the
most in-demand opportunities available to a Network+ professional today (though you may consider getting another certification in a
more specific subject area such as Cisco or Microsoft networks).

Microsoft Active Directory

Active Directory is an implementation of LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) created specifically by Microsoft to allow for
easier administration of Microsoft Windows networks. Through Active Directory, an AD Domain Server can be used to centrally
manage the Windows network, especially in Security, Access Control, and Windows-specific features like Group Policy. While Active
Directory is a Microsoft technology, Linux and *Nix users can connect to an AD server via SAMBA, which is an open-source *Nix
client to Microsoft LDAP (Active Directory).
VLAN
A Virtual LAN, or VLAN, is a logical network segment that operates on the same physical LAN (and probably connects to the same
physical network hub or switch) but is separated logically from other network segments for easier administration. For example,
though Accounting, Engineering, and Executive Departments may all connect to the same central Domain server, each of them may
constitute a VLAN so that one network administrator can focus on each department. A VLAN server can map certain physical addresses to
logical VLAN networks and appropriately load-balance the traffic originating from connected hosts.

Load Balancing
Load balancing is a feature that is something like a manager who delegates work across many employees so that no one employee becomes
overwhelmed. A load-balancing server can intelligently delegate traffic and requests from clients across the network and to other
servers in a way that maximizes network efficiency.

Redundancy
As the name suggests, redundancy is a feature that allows for data access even when one server is down, meaning that no one server can
become a choke or fail point. For example, in old Greek temples, the failure of one or two columns could bring the entire structure down.
In modern architecture, skyscrapers are designed to withstand multiple structural failures. At any rate, the idea of redundancy is clear:
redundancy is the ability of a system to maintain some function even after some of the components of the system have failed. In a
network application, this means multiple hard drives, multiple servers, and so forth. Another closely-related term is fault
tolerance, which refers to redundancy in cases of component failure.

Access Control
Access Control is a security technology closely intertwined with modern networking that prevents unauthorized access to network
resources and maintains the integrity of those resources through only allowing certain users to access information. There are different
types of access control, but two basic types are:

 User Level: In this setup, the user defines what he wishes to be accessed by other users.
 Mandated: In this formulation, a central server defines how access to various network resources takes place (for example, Active
Directory server)

There are different forms of access control as well. One that you are likely intimately familiar with is the ubiquitous login screen, which is
found in virtually any trustworthy network installation. However, other less familiar access controls exist. For example, you may have a
Windows share designed such that only users of a certain group can access the shared folder. This is certainly a type of access control
that differs from the simple login and password screen. If you would like to learn more about access control and other related subjects, the
Security+ certification might be a viable next option to pursue.

Quick Review
1. Your manager asks you to set up the email system such that even if one server goes down, the email remains working.
Essentially, he is asking for:

a. Access Control

b. Load Balancing

c. Fault Tolerance

d. Active Directory

e. Virtual LAN
2. You notice that at peak times, the network slows down considerably. After running a report on network utilization, you
determine that one of the network servers is operating at near 100% CPU utilization while the other is operating near 2%. What
would be favorable for you to implement in order to achieve better network efficiency?

a. Virtual LAN

b. Rack-mounted servers

c. Share-Level Access Control

d. Load Balancing

e. Mandated Access Control

3. After installing a new Active Directory Domain server and setting it up to be configured identically to the existing server with
redundancy employed, you receive a Windows user’s complaint that he can no longer connect to the domain. Which of the
following might be the source of the problem?

a. SAMBA client issues

b. One server has failed

c. DNS Registrar Issue

d. Both servers have failed

e. UNIX Issue
The Answers
1. The feature your manager describes is known as “Fault Tolerance,” which refers to a systems ability to remain working even if a
component fails. The answer is C.

2. Because one server is operating at full utilization and the other is not being utilized at all, you should spread the work between the
servers to achieve better network availability through Load Balancing. The answer is D.

3. If the servers have been set up for redundancy and the user is unable to access the servers, the only option (that is listed) that is possible
is that both servers failed. The answer is D.

17. Remote Access

One of the most ever-present and ancient uses of the Internet and networking has been to provide remote access to networks or network
resources. Since the early 1980’s, different remote access protocols have existed to allow users to remotely “dial in” to a network of
choice; while some of these protocols have come and gone, many of them remain widely in use even today in dial-up WAN access
and business VPN networks. The Security+ examination will test you on your ability to identify the security features, benefits, and costs
of several types of remote access protocols and services.

RAS
RAS, or Remote Access Service, is a rarely-used, unsecure, and outdated Microsoft offering in the area of remote access technology. You
should know for the exam that RAS provides dial-up access and once was the protocol of choice for connecting to the Internet.

PPP
RAS was eventually replaced by PPP, the most common dial-up networking protocol today. PPP, or point-to-point protocol, utilizes a
direct connection from a client to WAN over TCP/IP. This is advantageous for dial-up networking services as most people today wish
to be able to use the Internet, which of course requires TCP/IP networking. When you think dial-up access, think PPP.

Secure Connections
The next group of technologies is considered “secure” in that the technologies set up an encrypted, sometimes “tunneled,” and difficult-to-
intercept connection. These are the technologies typically employed in VPN (Virtual Private Network) applications and corporate
remote networks.

PPTP
Point-to-point tunneling protocol, or PPTP, is a tunneling protocol that can encapsulate connection-oriented PPP packets (which are
simple remote access packets) into connectionless IP packets. In doing so, the data remains within the “IP capsule,” which prevents
sniffing and other outside manipulation. PPTP is a client-server system that requires a PPTP client, a PPTP server, and a special network
access server to provide normal PPP service. PPTP is commonly used to set up “Virtual Private Networks,” which are like LAN’s that are
spread across the Internet so that multiple remote clients can connect to one logical network.

L2TP
Like PPTP, L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol) utilizes a tunneling protocol, but unlike PPTP, L2TP utilizes IPSec (IP Security) to
encrypt data all the way from the client to the server. Because of this, L2TP data is difficult to intercept. L2TP can accommodate for
protocols other than IP to send datagrams and is therefore more versatile; it is also common in VPN applications.
 Implementation of L2TP, a popular tunneling protocol

SSL
SSL, or Secure Sockets Layer, is a technology employed to allow for transport-layer security via public-key encryption. What you should
know about this for the exam is that SSL is typically employed over HTTP, FTP, and other Application-layer protocols to provide
security. HTTPS (HTTP over SSL) is particularly used by web merchants, credit card validation companies, and banks to ensure data
security (think: lock icon)

Kerberos
Kerberos is a *Nix (Unix-like) technology that is also being implemented in Microsoft technology to allow for client-server
authentication over a network based on a shared key system. Kerberos is a public-key encryption technology and therefore is
considered quite modern.

Quick Review
1. You wish to implement VPN access so that an attorney can connect to the firm’s network remotely. Which remote access
protocol might you use?

a. LDAP

b. PPTP

c. PPP

d. SSL

e. IPSec

2. A user complains that he cannot access a website because he does not have “some protocol” enabled. What is this protocol most
likely to be?

a. FTP

b. HTTP over SSL

c. FTP over SSL

d. PPTP
e. VPN

3. Your manager wants to make sure that when he dials in to a faraway corporate network, his connection is very secure and
reliable. Which of the following is the most secure and reliable RAS?

a. RAS

b. PPP

c. PPTP

d. L2TP

e. HTTP

Answers
1. Of the choices, only PPTP can be used to implement VPN. Note that IPSec is a feature of IP and not a remote access protocol in its own
right, though it is used by L2TP. The answer is B.

2. Websites are typically accessed through the HTTP protocol, so it is likely that the website is SSL-enabled and that he does not have that
technology enabled on his client PC. The answer is B.

3. L2TP is most secure as it features both tunneling and encryption, which none of the other protocols listed can provide. The answer is D.

18. Network Repair and Maintenance Tools

The Network+ exam will cover some of the physical tools that network technicians use to repair, configure, troubleshoot, and maintain
networks. Should you become a true network technician, you will no doubt some day have a need for these tools. While this portion of
the exam is arguably one of the least covered in terms of number of questions, you will likely see at least two or three questions on this
subject. So, it is to your benefit as a future test-taker and technician to learn all about these tools.

Crimping Tool
A crimping tool, or a “crimper” as it is widely known, is a small tool that allows you to connect media to a connector. For example,
many companies need long CAT5 media with RJ-45 connectors for traditional 100BaseTX Ethernet. Instead of purchasing this long media
at a discount media outlet, the company will instead use a long CAT5 media and crimp RJ45 connectors on each end of the media, which
can be cheaply obtained from various home improvement stores. This saves money and time. Most crimping tools are used for twisted pair
wires; to crimp connectors onto twisted pair cabling, you “untwist” the twisted pair so that all of the wires are able to be chosen
individually. Next, you place the wires snugly into the appropriate “hole,” which is actually a plated connector. Finally, when all of the
wires are securely in place, use the crimp tool to “punch” the connector onto the wire.

Punch Down Tool

A punch down tool is used to affix an untwisted twisted-pair cable onto a fixed connector, such as a wall jack, switch board, or like
device. Each individual wire is connected to the appropriate spot on the connector by being “punched” onto it. A punch down tool will
usually make a click when punched down.

TDR Tool
A TDR, or Time Domain Reflectometer, is a simple tool with a complex name. All this does is send a signal down the wire and time
how long it takes for the signal to bounce back. This tool might be used in assessing media issues, like shorts or breaks in wires.

Tone Generator
This tool is used to identify a cable by the tone generated and is usually used with twisted pair cabling.

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope can test media for shorts and other issues. It however does not time a signal’s reflection, making it different from a TDR
tool.

Network and Performance Monitoring Tools

These tools can be used to establish what is known as a “baseline,” or a control group in identifying network performance issues and
troubleshooting network problems. These tools typically track network traffic, use, utilization, and other indicators.

19. Quick Review

1. Which of the following tools might be used to establish a baseline for network performance?
a. Performance Monitoring Tool

b. Baseline Establishing Tool

c. Oscilloscope

d. NAT

e. Crimper

2. Which of the following tools would be used to attach a connector to media?

a. Network Monitoring Tool

b. Reflectometer

c. Crimper

d. Punch Down Tool

e. DHCP Tool

Answers
1. Only a performance monitoring tool (from the choices listed) would be an appropriate answer to the question, as it establishes a baseline
for network performance. The answer is A.

2. A crimper attaches a connector to media. The answer is C.

The Questions
1. Which of the following topologies require the least amount of cabling?

A. Star

B. Mesh

C. Ring

D. Bus

Answer: You can easily eliminate Mesh, as this is the most media-intensive topology. In the Mesh topology, every node needs a connection
to every other node! You can also eliminate the Star topology, which requires more cabling than Ring or Bus because every node
requires a connection to a central hub or switch rather than a connection to the next node. Finally, you know that Bus requires less
cabling than Ring because the ends of a Bus network only need be terminated. (D)

2. Which of the following is an objective of a fault-tolerant system?

A. Recovery of lost data

B. Efficiency in use of network resources

C. Multiple points of failure

D. Disk striping
Answer: Fault-tolerance refers to the ability of a system (a network, node, server, etc.) to remain available or operational even after
a component of that system has failed. For example, a club’s telephone tree may have two different root branches so that if one person is
not available, the other one should be. The only choice above that reflects this definition of fault tolerance is ( C ) “multiple points of
failure,” because having multiple points of failure would imply that no one failure of any component would fail the system.

3. Complete: A repeater operates in Layer ___ of the OSI model.

A. 1

B. 2

C. 3

D. 4

Answer: Well, you should know that all a repeater does is amplify a data signal on the wire. It has no conception of network traffic or
segments and is therefore only concerned with the physical electronic signals on the wire. Therefore, it operates in the Physical layer of the
OSI model, which is layer 1. (A)

4. Workstation A cannot access the email server. Workstation B, however, can access the email server. Which of the following
would be the most logical next step in troubleshooting workstation A’s issue?

A. Use Workstation B to attempt to connect to a different email server

B. Use a reflectometer to test the media that connects Workstation A to the network

C. Use Workstation A to attempt to connect to another network node

D. Use an outside host to attempt to connect to the email server

E. Use Workstation B to ping an outside host

Answer: In these types of questions, always remember that the only choices you are given are those following the question. Even if
you feel there is a better answer than the choices out there (and there may very well be a better answer), choose the “BEST” of the
given choices. You can easily eliminate choice A because Workstation B is essentially irrelevant to Workstation A’s issues. You can
eliminate choice B because this would not be a logical next step – you would only use a reflectometer to test media, and you would have no
idea (at this point) if the media was the issue. Choice D is totally irrelevant because it does not help in pinpointing the problem; in the
given situation, you are not trying to connect from an outside host. The same holds true for choice E. Therefore, the only relevant and
possible choice is choice C. By attempting to connect to another node, you could determine if A is totally disconnected from the network or
if its problems in connecting are limited to its access to the email server. ( C )

5. Which of the following name resolution services would a Nix host typically use?

A. DHCP

B. Proxy

C. SAMBA

D. DNS

E. HOSTS

F. LMHOSTS
Answer: Right away you can eliminate choices A, B, and C because you know that none of these services provide name resolution. So the
choice is between DNS, HOSTS, and LMHOSTS. The latter two are typically used in Microsoft Windows name resolution. The answer
therefore is DNS, or domain name resolution service. This is used in both Nix and Windows environments and is also the correct
answer. (D)

6. One user complains that he cannot access one application on a server but can access the other one. Four other users you ask say
they can access both of the applications. What is the most logical next step?

A. Reboot the server

B. Reformat the workstation of the complaining user

C. Check the access permissions of the user

D. Reformat the server

E. Unpower the network hub

Answer: Again, remember that on questions like this, you have to choose the BEST ANSWER FROM THE ONES GIVEN. I cannot
stress this enough. So, even if you feel that there are better choices than those out there, just assess each choice in comparison to the others.
Obviously, choices B and D are rather drastic (in general, reformatting will never be a correct answer). Choice E will do absolutely
nothing to correct the problem or even identify it. The choice is therefore between A and C. Rebooting the server could potentially solve
the problem, but it is more likely that checking the access permissions of the user could identify why just that user is experiencing
difficulties. The answer is therefore ( C ).

7. Where does a packet go if the destination is not on the local subnet?

A. DNS Server

B. Default Gateway

C. Repeater

D. Switch

E. Application-Level Firewall

Answer: Looking at the choices, you should be able to eliminate answers like A, C, D, and E. None of those choices are involved with the
delivery or routing of packets. A Default gateway, as its name suggests, is the default place that a packet will go to when it doesn’t know
where to go (when the destination is not the subnet). (B)

8. Which authentication/LAN access security system does Windows 2000 natively use?

A. Kerberos

B. IPSec

C. L2TP

D. PPTP

Answer: Some questions on the exam are simply knowledge based. You just have to know that Kerberos is used in Windows 2000; no
amount of logical reasoning can get you to arrive at this answer. (A)