Decline of the Mughal Empire – Important Points
A Period of Transition
• Transition from Medieval to Modern Period began with the
decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the 18th
century.
• Followed by English East India Company’s territorial conquests
and the beginning of political domination in the mid-18th
century.
• During the first half of the 18th century, the Mughal Empire
decayed and disintegrated.
• Emperors lost power, empire shrank to a few miles around
Delhi.
• Unity and stability shaken during Aurangzeb’s long reign (about
50 years).
• Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 led to a war of succession among
three sons; Bahadur Shah ascended the throne, becoming the
first of the Later Mughals.
Later Mughals (1707–1857)
1. Bahadur Shah (1707–12)
2. Jahandar Shah (1712–13)
3. Farrukhsiyar (1713–19)
4. Muhammad Shah (1719–48)
5. Ahmad Shah (1748–54)
6. Alamgir II (1754–59)
7. Shah Alam II (1759–1806)
8. Akbar II (1806–37)
9. Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837–57)
Reasons for Decline
1. Politics in the Mughal Court
• Nobles were divided into four groups – Iranis, Turanis, Afghans,
Hindustanis.
• Court sharply divided → constant struggle for power.
• Jealousies and rivalries harmed the administration and prestige
of the emperor.
2. Jagirdari Crisis
• Scramble for best and most profitable jagirs among nobles.
• Few jagirs left by late 17th century → crown lands converted to
jagirs.
• Led to loss of revenue for royal treasury and further decline of
emperor’s power.
3. Weak Military Organisation and Administration
• Mansabdari system broke down by late 17th century.
• Increase in mansabdars + shortage of jagirs → corruption and
inefficiency.
• Mansabdars failed to maintain quota of troops.
• Army became obsolete and ineffective; warfare equipment
outdated.
4. Wars of Succession
• Every emperor’s death followed by civil wars among royal
claimants.
• Wars drained resources, caused political upheavals, made
empire unstable and weak.
5. Economic Bankruptcy
• Huge sums spent by Shah Jahan on monuments like Taj Mahal
drained treasury.
• Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns were costly.
• Financial disaster made collapse inevitable.
6. Aurangzeb’s Policies
• Failure to maintain unity and stability.
• Religious intolerance reduced support from people.
• Costly Deccan campaign.
• Wars with Sikhs, Marathas, Jats, Rajputs.
• Loss of Rajput support turned them into foes.
7. Foreign Invasions
• Nadir Shah (Persia) and Ahmad Shah Abdali (Afghanistan)
looted Delhi, took treasures (e.g., Kohinoor Diamond, Peacock
Throne).
• Plunder weakened Mughal prestige and drained resources.
8. Weak Successors
• Successors after Aurangzeb were weak, pleasure-loving,
inefficient.
• Controlled by powerful nobles.
• Provincial governors became independent, leading to break-up
of empire.
End of the Empire
• British exploited Mughal weakness, challenged and removed
their authority.
• Rivalry among ambitious nobles filled political vacuum.
• 1857 Revolt marked the end — Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to
Rangoon.
• Fall of Mughal Empire → Beginning of the Modern Period in
Indian history.
The American Civil War – Important Points
New Developments in USA
• First half of the 19th century saw big changes in the USA.
• Two major developments:
1. Great westward expansion
2. Industrial growth and development
Background
• North:
o Developed as manufacturing and shipping centres.
o Did not depend on slave labour.
o Did not approve of slavery.
• South:
o Depended on plantation industries, especially cotton-
growing.
o Cotton exported to Lancashire (England) – high demand
for raw material.
o Plantation work done mostly by African slaves.
o Slavery seen as necessary and defended by southerners.
• Slavery issue became a threat to American unity.
Abolition Movement
• By mid-19th century, slavery abolished in the British Empire.
• In northern USA, anti-slavery movement demanded abolition.
• Slavery was looked down upon in most other countries.
Harriet Beecher Stowe
• In 1852, wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
• Exposed horrors and misery of slavery.
• Influenced northern states to join anti-slavery campaign.
• Southern states felt threatened; moved to secede from Union
→ formed Confederate States of America.
• Jefferson Davis became President of Confederacy.
Abraham Lincoln
• Became 16th US President in 1861.
• Took charge during a critical time – country divided over
slavery.
• Opposed slavery, called it a vicious and brutal system.
• Believed in the idea: “All men are created equal.”
• Wanted to prevent slavery’s expansion in new western states.
• Determined to save the Union at any cost.
• Civil War began in 1861.
• 1863: Lincoln abolished slavery in the South.
Gettysburg Address (1863)
• Lincoln justified abolition on principles of liberty and equality.
• Famous lines: government “of the people, by the people, for
the people.”
The Civil War (1861–65)
• One of the most bitter civil wars in history.
• Nearly 700,000 lives lost.
• Fought not directly over slavery, but over secession – southern
states leaving the Union.
• Lincoln: No state had the right to secede.
• War ended April 1865 – North, with superior resources,
defeated South.
• Led to impoverishment of the South.
• Lincoln worked to repair war damages.
End and Aftermath
• April 1865: Lincoln assassinated by John Wilkes Booth.
• Civil War confirmed USA as an indivisible Union.
• Slavery permanently abolished.
The Union Legislature
The Indian Government
• Parliamentary form of government at both central and state
levels.
• President of India = nominal head (Head of State), acts on
advice of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.
• Prime Minister = real head of government, most powerful
political leader.
• Powers/functions divided into Legislature (makes laws),
Executive (enforces laws), Judiciary (interprets laws).
• Parliamentary democracy: People elect representatives;
Parliament holds supreme power in law-making.
• General elections → people elect members to Lok Sabha.
• President appoints leader of majority party/group as Prime
Minister.
• Council of Ministers responsible to Lok Sabha.
Distribution of Power
• Union List (97) – National matters (Defence, Foreign affairs,
Banking, etc.) → Only Union Parliament can make laws.
• Concurrent List (47) – Both Union & State can make laws
(Education, Marriage, Electricity, etc.).
• State List (66) – Regional matters (Police, Public health,
Agriculture, etc.) → State legislatures make laws.
The Union Parliament
• Law-making body of central government.
• Bicameral: Lok Sabha (House of the People) + Rajya Sabha
(Council of States).
• President is integral part.
Lok Sabha (Lower House)
Composition
• Max strength: 550 members.
• Max 530 elected from states, 20 from union territories.
• Current: 543 members.
Qualifications
• Citizen of India.
• ≥ 25 years old.
• Registered voter.
Elections
• Secret ballot in electoral constituencies.
• One candidate elected per constituency.
Term
• 5 years (can be dissolved earlier by President if govt. loses
majority).
• Can be extended during national emergency.
The Speaker
• Presides over Lok Sabha.
• Conducts meetings, maintains discipline, supervises work.
Rajya Sabha (Upper House)
Composition
• Max: 250 members.
• 238 from states/UTs, elected by State Legislative Assemblies.
• 12 nominated by President (arts, literature, science, social
service).
Qualifications
• Citizen of India.
• ≥ 30 years old.
• Registered voter.
Term
• Permanent House, not dissolved.
• Members serve 6 years; 1/3 retire every 2 years.
Functions of Parliament
Law-making
• Make new laws or amend existing ones (Union & Concurrent
list; sometimes State list).
• Only Parliament can amend Constitution.
• Money bills only in Lok Sabha.
Budget
• Estimates annual income/expenditure.
• Govt presents budget → Lok Sabha passes it (can be altered or
rejected).
Control over Executive
• Council of Ministers responsible to Lok Sabha.
• Lok Sabha can reject decisions.
Judicial
• Can impeach/remove President, VP, SC & HC judges.
Elective
• Elects President & Vice President.
Sessions
• At least twice a year.
• Quorum: 10% of total members.
Age of Revolution – Important Points
1. Introduction
• The period between 1775 and 1848 saw a series of revolutions
that changed the political, social, and economic structures of
the world.
• These revolutions were influenced by Enlightenment ideas of
liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• The main revolutions of this period were:
o American Revolution (1775–1783)
o French Revolution (1789–1799)
o Industrial Revolution (economic transformation)
o Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe.
2. American Revolution (1775–1783)
• Conflict between the 13 American colonies and Britain.
• Causes:
o British imposed taxes (e.g., Stamp Act, Tea Act) without
giving colonists representation in Parliament.
o Colonists believed in the principle of "No taxation
without representation".
o Trade restrictions by Britain.
• Course:
o War began in 1775.
o Colonists, with help from France, defeated Britain.
• Outcome:
o America became an independent republic (United States
of America).
o Adopted the Declaration of Independence (1776) drafted
by Thomas Jefferson.
o Introduced a written constitution and democratic ideals.
3. French Revolution (1789–1799)
• Causes:
o Social inequality in France — divided into Three Estates
(clergy, nobility, commoners).
o Heavy taxation on the Third Estate.
o Influence of Enlightenment thinkers (Voltaire, Rousseau).
o Economic crisis due to wars and lavish spending by
monarchy.
• Events:
o Revolution began in 1789 with the storming of the
Bastille.
o Abolition of monarchy; establishment of a republic.
o Execution of King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.
• Outcomes:
o Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.
o Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
o Spread of revolutionary ideas across Europe.
4. Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in Europe
• 1830:
o Revolutions in France, Belgium, Poland, Italy.
o Aimed at ending monarchy and foreign control.
• 1848:
o Known as the Springtime of Nations.
o Demands for democracy, national unification, and
workers’ rights.
o Many revolutions failed, but they inspired future
movements.
5. Impact of the Age of Revolution
• Spread of democracy and nationalism.
• Decline of absolute monarchies in Europe.
• Growth of liberalism and human rights.
• Inspired independence movements in Latin America and other
colonies.