CONTENTS

1.0. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1

2.0. Observations ................................................................................................................... 2
3.0. Calculations..................................................................................................................... 2
4.0. Results ............................................................................................................................. 3
5.0. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 4
5.1. Yarn Count ...................................................................................................................... 4
5.2. Filament Count ................................................................................................................ 5
5.3. Turns per inch (Twist) ..................................................................................................... 6
5.4. Yarn Diameter ................................................................................................................. 7
5.5. Twist Angle ..................................................................................................................... 8
5.6. Yarn Density ................................................................................................................. 10
5.7. Packing Density............................................................................................................. 10
6.0. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 11
7.0. References ..................................................................................................................... 12

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1.0. Introduction

Yarns form an important intermediate stage in many methods of textile production. They may
be defined as long, fine structures capable of being assembled or interlaced into such textile
products as woven and knitted fabrics, braids, ropes, and cords. The study of yarn is thus
necessary part of textile technology. For many theoretical studies it is useful to adopt the
idealized helical yarn geometry. This practical will be focusing on analysis of helix model.
The helix is a curve drawn on a circular cylinder such that the tangent drawn at any given point
makes a constant angle with the generator of the cylinder. It is a simplified model to represent
wherein filaments or fibers are held by twisting the yarns together. The below diagram shows
the idealized helical yarn geometry.

Let :
h – Axial length of one turn of twist (cm)
l – Length of fiber in one turn of twist at radius r (cm)
 - Helix angle
r – Radius of the cylinder containing the helix

Assumptions made in order to construct the helix model

1. The packing density of the fibers is constant throughout the yarn.
2. The yarn consists of very large number of filaments.
3. The yarn is circular in cross-section.
4. Each filament follows a helical path concentric to axis.
5. The twist is constant for all the helices in the yarn.
The yarn is assumed to be circular in cross-section, and composed of a series of concentric
cylinders of differing radii. Each fiber follows a uniform helical path around one of the
concentric cylinders, so that its distance from the yarn axis remains constant. A fiber at the
center will follow the straight line of the yarn axis; but, going out from the center, the helix
angle gradually increases, since the number of turns of twist per unit length remains constant
in all the layers. The density of packing of fibers in the yarn remains constant throughout the
model; and the structure is assumed to be made of a very large number of filaments, so that
various complicating effects, which are due to the special ways of packing a limited number of
fibers together, do not arise (Hearle, 2012).
In this practical we will be calculating the values for twist angle, yarn density and packing
density using the parameters such as yarn count, filament count, turns per inch and yarn
diameter. The yarn package which was given for the practical is Nylon. Therefore, the goal of
the practical is to analyze the given yarn package assuming the helix model and comparing the
practical values with actual values.

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[Link]
Refer to the observation sheets

[Link]

YARN COUNT
Average weight in 100m = ( 4.6773 + 4.6680 + 4.6728 + 4.6902 + 4.6737 + 4.6932 + 4.6896
+ 4.6920 + 4.6940 + 4.6889 + 4.7047 + 4.7025 + 4.6850 + 4.7028
+ 4.7108 + 4.7028 + 4.7054 + 4.7013 + 4.6954 + 4.7066 )  20
= 93.857 / 20 = 4.69285g
Yarn Count (1 tex) = Weight (g)/ Length of 1000m of yarns
Average yarn count = 4.69285*( 1000 / 100 ) = 46.9285 tex

TURNS PER INCH

1 inch = 2.54 cm
Average no. of Turns per 10 inch = ( 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 3 +1 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 + 1
+ 1 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 0 ) / 20 = 17 / 20 = 0.85
Average no. of turns per a unit length ( 1 cm) = 0.85 / ( 2.54 × 10 ) = 0.0335 turns per cm

FILAMENT COUNT
Average no. of Filaments = ( 47 + 50 + 52 + 48 + 48 + 48 + 48 + 49 + 48 + 50 ) / 10 = 488 /
10 = 48.8
Filament Count ( tex ) = Yarn Count / No. of filaments
Average yarn count = 4.69285*( 1000 / 100 ) = 46.9285 tex
Average Filament Count = 46.9285 / 48.8 = 0.96165 tex

YARN DIAMETER
Average yarn diameter = ( 0.36 + 0.47 + 0.57 + 0.22 + 0.46 + 0.38 + 0.73 + 0.59 + 0.36 +
0.43 + 0.73 + 0.34 + 0.44 + 0.50 + 0.51 + 0.58 + 0.39 + 0.38 +
0.36 + 0.44 ) / 20
Average yarn radius = ( 9.24 / 20 ) *0.5 = 0.231 mm

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 a. Twist angle
tan α = 2π R n
Where, R = Yarn radius (cm)
n = Number of turns of twist per unit length (cm-1 )
α = Twist angle (degrees)

tan α = 2 π × ( 0.0231 cm ) × ( 0.03346 cm-1 ) = 4.856 ×10-3

α = tan-1 ( 4.856×10-3) = 0.2783 ֯

b. Yarn Density
ρ = Ty / (π R2× 105)

Where, R = Yarn radius (cm)

Ty = Yarn count (tex)
ρ = Yarn Density (g/cm3)

ρ = 46.9285 / ( π × (0.0231)2 × 105) = 0.139969 g/cm3

c. Packing Density
Ø = Ty / ( Tf π R2)
Where, Ø = Packing density
Ty = Yarn Count (tex)
Tf = Filament Count (tex)
R = Yarn Radius (cm)

Ø = 46.9285tex / ( 0.96165tex × π ×(0.0231)2 ) = 29110.24 cm-2

4.0. Results

Parameters Calculated Values Actual Values

Yarn Count (tex) 46.9285 48

Filament Count (tex) 0.96165 Not Available

Turns per cm 0.03346 -

Yarn Diameter (mm) 0.231 Not Available

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5.0. Discussion

Under the discussion we will be discussing the each laboratory test we performed and the
impacts of those parameters on calculated equations.

5.1. Yarn Count

The yarn count is a number giving a measure of the yarn linear density. The linear density is
defined as the mass per unit length. In System International (SI) units, the mass is in grams,
and the unit length is meters. In textiles, a longer length is used for greater meaningful
measurements, since this would average the small, random, mass variations along the length
that are characteristic of yarns. There are two systems by which the count is expressed as direct
count and indirect count. Direct count represent the weight per standard length and indirect
count represent the length per standard weight. Yarn count can be measured with a high degree
of accuracy if a sufficient length of yarn is used(Lawrence, 2003). In reality, there is an
unevenness along the yarn length. This unevenness leads to a count variation. Spun yarn has
high fluctuations in the uniformity than filament yarns. So count of spun yarn may vary slightly.
While variation in yarn linear density is the fundamental cause of twist variation, concentration
of twist in the thin places will make those places even thinner, exacerbating the problem of
yarn unevenness. When yarn count increase twist angle increases if the yarn density is a
constant. Variation of yarn count is affected to the fabric defects. Such as fabric weight
variation, color shading and strength variation.
In here 100m of yarn samples were taken and measured their weights for 20 times from various
parts of the given yarn cone. In here the target was to get the most appropriate value for the
yarn count. So it is not fair to take all 20 values from the same portion of the yarn package.
Because there can be slight variations in the yarn in yarn corn along yarn’s length. And also it
is not a justifiable to take small length of yarn for measuring it’s weight because yarn is very
light in weight and we can only measure up to 1/10000 grams using the balance so should have
to take large length of yarn as a sample like 100m to gain considerable amount of weight of
yarn.
It is more practical to specify a yarn in terms of its count, namely its mass per unit length or
linear density. The reasons for this are twofold: the count is better defined than the radius,
especially in yarns with a diffuse hairy surface and an indefinite density of packing, and the
count is easier to measure and to control during manufacture.
Possible Errors

 If the yarn path is not set correctly, tension can be varied and the wrapped length may
vary.
 While the yarn package handling, it can get the dirt and moisture therefore errors may
occur.

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  Humidity level could affect to weight of package due to factors such as moisture regain.
 Human errors can occur when obtaining readings.
 There wrap reel and analytical balance is placed bit far away. So as we touch the sample
there is Possible to add sweat to it when carrying sample by hand to measure the weight.
So measured weight can be inaccurate.
 We did the practical using electrical Wrap Reel and manually operated wrap reel. In
case of manually operated wrap reel the testing laboratory conditions may not be
applied while electric wrap reel was done in the conditioned atmosphere. But in both
cases the weighing was done in the normal lab atmosphere.
Precautions to be taken

 When we insert the sample into the electronic balance we shouldn’t put our hand into
it.
 We should close the glass of the electronic balance after mounting the samples in order
to prevent the influence from air.
 When winding the yarn around the wrap reel, we should check whether the yarns have
been passed through the tension bars to make sure that the correct tension has been
applied on the yarns.
 The hands must be cleaned before doing the practical in order to prevent changing the
results due to adding some contaminant.
 We should have to leave the yarn from the package of at least 1 meter gap, whenever
we take specimen to obtain the accurate results.
According to our practical, we got 46.9285tex as our yarn count while the specification of the
package mentions it as 48tex. So there is a slight variation in the values. This is may be due to
some reasons. Since this particular package has been used over a long period, it has been passed
in the hands of many students. Therefore there is an impact due to the moisture content and
moisture regain on the count of the yarn package. The first 10 readings were obtained using
the electronic wrap reel while the rest were taken from the manual wrap reel. The electronic
wrap reel is kept in the conditioned room. In the case of electronic wrap reel, the winding
tension is kept constant which is very much vary in the manual device. This variation depends
on the person who performed the test. So these have the direct impact on the variation of the
actual and the calculated values.
5.2. Filament Count

Filament count cannot be measured directly by taking filaments. Count of one filament refers
to the filament count. Also it can be considered as linear density of one filament. In the case of
finding filament count, we can do it by taking one filament for a measured length (10cm long)
and measure the weight and calculate the count but it can be give more errors. Filament count
is can be taken as the division of yarn count from the number of filaments over cross section.

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Since we don’t have a standard way of performing this practical, we used the manual way to
count the filaments. We kept the specimen on a glass with a black background and rub the yarn
surface with the piece of chalk. As a result, the filaments became visible and countable. From
that we manually counted the number of filaments.

Possible Errors

Errors encountered for the filament count is depend on the 2 factors. Those are errors
occurring during measuring the yarn count as well as the counting the number of filaments
over the cross section.
 Human errors while counting number of filaments over the cross section
 All the samples taken for the sample does not represent the whole yarn corn
 Uneven packing density of the fibers throughout the yarn
 The yarn consists of limited number of filaments
 All the errors which can be occurred during the yarn count measuring process also
directly affected to the filament count calculations.

Precautions that can be taken

 Increase the number of samples taken to counting the filaments

 Samples need to be taken at different places of the yarn corn by including start, middle
and end
 Do the practical inside a best conditioning room which control the humidity and
temperature

5.3. Turns per inch (Twist)

Twist is the number of spiral turns given to the yarn in order to hold all the fibers / filaments
together. Some yarn characteristics such as strength, softness and bulkiness can be changed by
the amount of twist given to it. Normally a higher twist is given for the staple spun yarns
compared to continuous filament yarns.

Straightened fiber method was used to measure the yarn twist in this practical. Here, a particular
length was clamped under a standard tension and then one of the clamps is rotated until a
dissecting needle can be inserted at one clamp and run to the next clamp. When the twist is
totally removed, the filaments in the yarn should be parallel. The yarn we have selected a
continuous filament yarn. So, 10 inches should be selected as the specimen length. Number of
turns in one inch can be obtained by this and it can be converted into tpm value by calculating
the relevant number of turns in a meter.

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Errors and Precautions

 Human errors
 When unwinding the yarn from the package, we should make sure not to remove
the twist.
 And also the yarn should be clamped before cut it from the package.
 Reading should be taken when the yarn is totally untwisted.
 Twist is not distributed uniformly along a yarn. Because higher levels of twist are found
in thin places and the twist can be lesser in thick places.
 This error can be eliminated by avoiding at least 1 meter between consecutive
twist tests
 The amount of twist value obtained can be differ from the yarn withdrawing method
(over end unwinding and unrolling unwinding)
 Over end unwinding will affect it slightly. But unrolling wouldn’t affect it
much. So, by using the second method, a higher accuracy can be obtained.
 Entanglements, neps and broken filaments can cause problems in moving the needle
and then it will give wrong results.
 When selecting the specimen, a better part with no defects should be selected.
 When the tension applied on yarn is changing, the actual (initial) length of yarn changes
and wrong values may obtain for twist.
 A proper value should be kept for tension and it should not be change
throughout the practical.

5.4. Yarn Diameter

Diameter of the yarn is varying from yarn to yarn depending on the number of filaments in the
cross section, twist factor, draft applied on the yarn and some other processing parameters.
Diameter at different places in the same yarn can be different due to defects such as thick
places, slubs, knots and impurities.

Prepare the specimen according to the diagram.

Glass plate
Adhesive tape

Filament yarn

Place the prepared glass plate correct position and prepare the machine to see the filament
yarn better. Then adjust the Vernier scale and get the readings.

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Errors and precautions

 Human errors
 Test for higher number of specimens.
 The diameter values for different places in the same yarn can be different due to
number of filaments in the cross section, twist factor and drafting variations.
 The error percentage can be minimized by getting the average value of higher
number of observations.
 Try to select specimens with minimum defects.
 Impurities on the yarn surface may change diameter values.
 Make sure to use clean yarn specimens.
 Before starting the test, remove some yarn from the package to remove the
yarns in outer surface of package.
 Incorrect readings will be having if the vernier scale is not taken to exact initial
position.
 Use accurate testing instruments.

5.5. Twist Angle

The twist angle θ is the angle between a tangent to the helix formed by the fiber and the yarn
axis. By “unrolling” the surface layer we see that the fibers become the hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle.

This is the angle of fibers to yarn axis, and this angle varies throughout yarn, from zero at centre
to maximum at yarn surface. The fibers on yarn surface are the most important, as they bind
the others into the yarn (refer to self-locking effect discussed earlier). While it is not common
practice to measure the yarn twist angle, the surface twist angle made by the surface fibers in
relation to yarn axis is a very important parameter. It determines the essential yarn
characteristics such as yarn softness, yarn bulk etc., which in turn govern many essential fabric
properties.

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To measure the twist, we use simple twist tester. We measure the number of turns in 10 inches
to find the twist.

Errors can be happened

 Time consuming & wastage is high.
 Supportive adjustable magnifying glass is provided which we can observe the yarn.
 Expansion of the yarn during untwisting is not counted in this method.
 Since this is a manual process human errors will affect to the final results.
 Continuous twist method is less time consuming and untwist-twist method focuses on
the yarn length variation when removing the twist. It can count expansion or
contraction of the thread during test.
 At the point of total twist removal, the fibers in the yarn are tending to lose them self.
Hence tension in the yarn will make the fibers to slip past one another increasing the
yarn length.
 When the twist is removed the amount of twist to bring it back to the same length will
not be equal to the twist taken out.
Precautions
 Withdrawal of yarn should be carried out from the side of the package as twist is
changed by over-end withdrawal of yarn from a package.
 Test specimens should be taken at random intervals of at least 1m to minimize the
effect of any cyclic variations introduced during the manufacturing process of the
yarn.
 Test specimen length should be set according to the standard. In our test, as we tested
a plied yarn, we had to test the length for 10inches.
 When obtaining yarn specimen for this test, first few lengths of yarn should be
removed from the cone (sort of a relaxing) because they may have been subjected to
forces & get untwisted.
 Yarn specimen should not be touched or extended.
 We should find out the yarn twist direction before the practical because rotation
direction of the device depends on the direction of the twist of the yarn.
Once the yarn density is considered there is a slight difference between the values since the
unevenness of the yarn along the length due to the different drawing in the spinning and non-
uniformity of the fiber density. Packing density is consider as the number of filaments per unit
area perpendicular to the yarn axis. To calculate yarn density, need to find yarn count and yarn
diameter. By measuring the weight of 100m yarn and then calculate the yarn count. For

9
calculate packing density we need to find filament count and it can calculate from yarn count.
We need to measure yarn diameter. Packing density or the packing fraction of yarn is the
number of filaments occupying a unit are perpendicular to the filament axis. The yarn we have
tested consists of six plies. Plied yarn is expected to have a higher packing density than single
yarn especially if it is z over z. (Ishtiaque, Subramani, Kumar, & Das, 2009) Furthermore, their
findings show that packing density of single yarn in doubled yarn increases significantly upon
doubling possibly because untwisting and re-twisting reduces air pockets. However,
measurement of packing density in plied yarn is difficult as yarn does not have a circular cross-
section. Moreover, shape of cross-section varies from place to place.
The calculated packing density for the measure and actual values of the parameters shows
significant variation due to the variation obtained in yarn count.
5.6. Yarn Density

Once the yarn density is considered there is a slight difference between the values since the
unevenness of the yarn along the length due to the different drawing in the spinning and non-
uniformity of the fiber density. Packing density is consider as the number of filaments per unit
area perpendicular to the yarn axis. To calculate yarn density, need to find yarn count and yarn
diameter. By measuring the weight of 100m yarn and then calculate the yarn count. For
calculate packing density we need to find filament count and it can calculate from yarn count.
We need to measure yarn diameter. Packing density or the packing fraction of yarn is the
number of filaments occupying a unit are perpendicular to the filament axis. The yarn we have
tested consists of six plies. Plied yarn is expected to have a higher packing density than single
yarn especially if it is z over z. (Ishtiaque, Subramani, Kumar, & Das, 2009) Furthermore, their
findings show that packing density of single yarn in doubled yarn increases significantly upon
doubling possibly because untwisting and re-twisting reduces air pockets. However,
measurement of packing density in plied yarn is difficult as yarn does not have a circular cross-
section. Moreover, shape of cross-section varies from place to place.
5.7. Packing Density

The fiber packing density is defined as the number of fibers per unit area perpendicular to fiber
axis. Packing density is an important parameter because it determines the bulkiness, feel,
warmth and dyeing characteristics of yarn and can make a great influence on the quality of the
yarn. It also influences the amount of yarn that can be put on a package.

Yarn density increases with the twist and asymptotically approaches a value. Twist and count
have the maximum influence on packing density. The fiber-packing density of high-twist yarn
is, in general, greater than that of low-twist yarns. Yarns made from finer fibers and higher
density have higher packing density. Packing density is higher and diameter lower with finer
fibers. Yarn packing density increases with increasing the spinning tension as the fibers get
closely packed. Packing density in the whole yarn is estimated from the ratio of fiber area to
yarn area. This method is however not recommended for fibers like cotton and wool, which
have a high variation in linear density from fiber to fiber. This is a continuous filament yarn
and it is not a huge problem here.

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[Link]

Helix model is depending on twist angle, packing density and yarn density. Since we did not
received the actual values of twist angle, packing density and yarn density we are not able to
compare our testing outcomes with actual values and express an idea about the deviations
between them. There is a significant variation between the measured yarn count and given yarn
count, and measured twist and given twist values. Thus there is a variation which led to the
changes in the calculated values. There is a possibility of making mistakes while performing
the tests as it has the impact on the reading. The assumptions we considered in the Helix model
are unethical in practical scenario. Therefore the Results are vary from the theoretical values.

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[Link]

 JWS Hearle, P Grosberg, S Backer (1969). Structural Mechanics of Fibers, Yarns,

and Fabrics. Volume 1.
 Supplier Sticker on the Yarn package.
 Test results and invoice provided by the suppliers.
 Lawrence, C. A. (2003). Fundamentals of Spun Yarn Technology. CRC Press.

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