Unit 2- Ecosystem

Definition and concept of ecosystem

The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to encompass
the interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a given site. The
living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic components,
respectively.

Ecosystem was defined in its presently accepted form by Eugene Odum as, ―an unit that includes
all the organisms, i.e., the community in a given area interacting with the physical environment
so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity and material
cycles, i.e., exchange of materials between living and non-living, within the system‖.

1. The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.

2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that complex
ecosystem have high species diversity.

3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and outside the
system.

4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.

Types of Ecosystem:

We can classify ecosystems as follows:

Types of Ecosystem

(a) Natural Ecosystems:

These ecosystems are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.

A classification based on their habitat can further be made:

1. Terrestrial ecosystems: forest, grassland and desert.

2. Aquatic ecosystems: fresh water ecosystem, viz. pond, lake, river and marine ecosystems, viz.
ocean, sea or estuary.

(b) Artificial Ecosystem:

These are maintained by man. These are manipulated by man for different purposes, e.g.,
croplands, artificial lakes and reservoirs, townships and cities.

Basic Structure of an Ecosystem:

Every ecosystem has a non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic) components.

Abiotic Components:

Basic inorganic compounds of an organism, habitat or an area like carbon dioxide, water,
nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, etc. that are involved in the material cycles are
collectively called as abiotic component. The amount of these inorganic substances
present at any given time, in an ecosystem is called as the standing state or standing
quality of an ecosystem.

Whereas, organic components e.g., proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and lipids that are
synthesized by the biotic counterpart of an ecosystem make the biochemical structure of
the ecosystem. The physical environment, viz. climatic and weather conditions are also
included in the abiotic structure of the ecosystem.

Biotic Components:

From the trophic (nutritional) point of view, an ecosystem has autotrophic (self-nourishing) and a
heterotrophic (other nourishing) components:

(a) Autotrophic component (Producers):

This component is mainly constituted by the green plants, algae and all photosynthetic
organisms. Chemosynthetic bacteria, photosynthetic bacteria, algae, grasses, mosses,
 shrubs, herbs and trees manufacture food from simple inorganic substances by fixing
energy and are therefore called as producers.

(b) Heterotrophic component (Consumers):

The members of this component cannot make their own food. They consume the matter built by
the producers and are therefore called as consumers. They may be herbivores, carnivores
or omnivores. Herbivores are called as primary consumers whereas carnivores and
omnivores are called as secondary consumers. Collectively we can call them as macro-
consumers.

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called her-bivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the pri-mary carnivores. Examples are cats,
foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves,
lions and tigers.

(c) Decomposers:

Heterotrophic organisms chiefly bacteria and fungi that breakdown the complex compounds of
dead protoplasm, absorb some of the products and release simple substances usable by
the producers are called as decomposers or reducers. Collectively we call them as micro
consumers.
Ecological Pyramid Definition

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different

organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a
different trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of
energy. Energy moves up the pyramid, starting with the primary producers, or autotrophs, such
as plants and algae at the very bottom, followed by the primary consumers, which feed on these
plants, then secondary consumers, which feed on the primary consumers, and so on. The height
of the bars should all be the same, but the width of each bar is based on the quantity of the aspect
being measured.

Types of Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of numbers

This shows the number of organisms in each trophic level without any consideration for their
size. This type of pyramid can be convenient, as counting is often a simple task and can be done
over the years to observe the changes in a particular ecosystem. However, some types of
organisms are difficult to count, especially when it comes to some juvenile forms. Unit: number
of organisms.

Pyramid of number in pond ecosystem

 Pyramid of number in 1) parasitic and 2) forest ecosystem

Pyramid of biomass

This indicates the total mass of organisms at each trophic level. Usually, this type of pyramid is
largest at the bottom and gets smaller going up, but exceptions do exist. The biomass of one
trophic level is calculated by multiplying the number of individuals in the trophic level by the
average mass of one individual in a particular area. This type of ecological pyramid solves some
problems of the pyramid of numbers, as it shows a more accurate representation of the amount of
energy contained in each trophic level, but it has its own limitations. For example, the time of
year when the data are gathered is very important, since different species have different breeding
seasons. Also, since it‘s usually impossible to measure the mass of every single organism, only a
sample is taken, possibly leading to inaccuracies. Unit: g m-2 or Kg m-2.
 Pyramid of biomass in grassland

Pyramid of biomass in pond is inverted

Pyramid of energy

The pyramid of productivity looks at the total amount of energy present at each trophic level, as
well as the loss of energy between trophic levels. Since this type of representation takes into
account the fact that the majority of the energy present at one trophic level will not be available
for the next one, it is more accurate than the other two pyramids. This idea is based on
Lindeman‘s Ten Percent Law, which states that only about 10% of the energy in a trophic level
will go towards creating biomass. In other words, only about 10% of the energy will go into
making tissue, such as stems, leaves, muscles, etc. in the next trophic level.

Pyramid of energy

Function of ecosystem

The functional attributes of the ecosystem keep the components running together. Ecosystem
functions are natural processes or exchange of energy that take place in various plant and
animal communities of different biomes of the world.

For instance, green leaves prepare food and roots absorb nutrients from the soil, herbivores feed
on the leaves and the roots and in turn serve as food for the carnivores.

Decomposers execute the functions of breaking down complex organic materials into simple
inorganic products, which are used by the producers.

Fundamentally, ecosystem functions are exchange of energy and nutrients in the food chain.
These exchanges sustain plant and animal life on the planet as well as the decomposition of
organic matter and the production of biomass.
All these functions of the ecosystem take place through delicately balanced and controlled
processes.

Food Chain

The order of living organisms in a community in which one organism consumes other and is
itself consumed by another organism to transfer energy is called a food chain. Food chain is also
defined as ―a chain of organisms, existing in any natural community, through which energy is
transferred‖.

Every living being irrespective of their size and habitat, from the tiniest algae to giant blue
whales, need food to survive. Food chain is structured differently for different species in
different ecosystems. Each food chain is the vital pathway for energy and nutrients to follow
through the ecosystem.

A food chain starts with a producer such as plants. Producers form the basis of the food chains.
Then there are consumers of many orders. Consumers are organisms that eat other organisms.
All organisms in a food chain, except the first organism, are consumers.

Plants are called producers because they produce their own food through photosynthesis.
Animals are called consumers because they depend on plants or other animals for food to get
energy they need.

In a certain food chain, each organism gets energy from the one at the level below. In a food
chain, there is reliable energy transfer through each stage. All the energy at one stage of the
chain is not absorbed by the organism at the next stage.

Food Web

The word ‗web‘ means network. Food web can be defined as ‗a network of interconnected food
chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst different organism of a biotic
community.

A food chain cannot stand isolated in an ecosystem. The same food resource may be a part of
more than one chain. This is possible when the resource is at the lower tropic level.
A food web comprises all the food chains in a single ecosystem. It is essential to know that each
living thing in an ecosystem is a part of multiple food chains.

A single food chain is the single possible path that energy and nutrients may make while
passing through the ecosystem. All the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an
ecosystem make up a food web.

Food webs are significant tools in understanding that plants are the foundation of all ecosystem
and food chains, sustaining life by providing nourishment and oxygen needed for survival and
reproduction. The food web provides stability to the ecosystem.

The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers. For example, a hawk that eats owls.
Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies (such as an
alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

Productivity of ecosystem

The rate of biomass production or the amount of food energy produced or obtained or stored by
a particular trophic level per unit area in a unit time is called productivity. It can also be defined
as the energy accumulated in plants by photosynthesis. The unit of productivity is gm/m2/year
or kcal/m2/year.

1. Primary Productivity:
Primary productivity is the productivity at the producer level. It can be termed as the amount of
organic matter produced by the plants from solar energy in a given area during a given period of
time. Approximately 1-5% of solar energy that falls on the plant is converted to organic matter.

Primary productivity is of two types:

i. Gross Primary Productivity (GPP):
This refers to the total amount of organic matter produced. This also includes what is used by the
producer in respiration. This can also be defined as total energy captured by the photosynthetic
organism. This will depend on the photosynthetic capacity of the producer and environmental
factors. Mean net primary production is high in tropical rain forest while it is the lowest in
deserts.
ii. Net Primary Productivity (NPP):
This productivity refers to the gross production minus the loss by respiration and decomposition.
This is also called as apparent photosynthesis or net assimilation.

NPP = GPP – Respiration

It can also be defined as the balance energy or biomass remaining after meeting the cost of
respiration of producers. It is the net stored energy in the green plants. This is the net
accumulation of biomass which serves as food for herbivores and decomposers. NPP is said to be
a measure of amount of organic matter produced in a community in a given time available to the
heterotrophs.

Type # 2. Secondary Productivity:

This refers to the productivity at the consumer level. The secondary productivity reflects only the
utilisation of food for production of consumer biomass. It can be referred to as the net rate of
increase in biomass of heterotrophs. The secondary productivity acts as food to the next trophic
level.

Energy Flow in Ecosystem:

The main function of an ecosystem is to transfer energy from one level to the other level. The
flow of energy is based on the two laws of thermodynamics. First law of thermodynamics states
that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can however be transformed from one
form to the other.

For example, solar energy changes into energy of food and heat. Second law of thermodynamics
states that during this transformation some amount of energy is always lost in the form of heat.
For example, when energy in the form of food is transferred from one organism to the next, some
energy is lost at every step.

Sun is the only source of energy for all living organisms. Sunlight can be divided into three
categories – UV light which is reflected back by ozone, infrared light which helps in heating and
visible light which is also called as photo synthetically active radiation (PAR). Out of the
incident solar radiation, 30% of it is reflected back, 20% gets absorbed in the atmosphere and
50% is visible light.

Out of this 50% of visible light only 2-10% is utilised for photosynthesis for gross primary
productivity. Remaining 40-48% gets dissipated on the Earth as heat. Some energy is utilised by
the plants and what is left behind is net primary productivity which is only 0.8-4% of incident
solar radiation.

Grazing Food Chain

The grazing food chain is one of the major types of food chain that is seen as a food chain
process dominantly occurring in organisms. The grazing food chain starts from the autotrophs
(green plants), the major energy for this chain is taken from the sun as the plants carry out the
process of photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. The green plants work as the primary
producer of this type of food chain; later the herbivores get fed upon the green plants. The chain
goes on further as the primary consumers (herbivores) are eaten by the secondary consumers
(omnivores) in this type of food chain. This food chain doesn‘t consist of microbes or other
decomposers; it is carried out by the macroscopic organisms. The grazing food chain is the
simpler type of food chain as it begins from the primary producers (green plants), who are the
dominant producers in different ecosystems across the globe. The name of the food chain itself
tells that it possess the green plants as a major source or the one starting off the chain.

Detritus Food Chain

The detritus food chain is the type of food chain that ensures maximum utilization and minimum
wastage of the available material. This food chain starts from the dead organic matter or other
such wastes; further, this material is eaten by the animal, and later this animal gets eaten by
another animal in the soil. The chain keeps on going until the organic matter is composed. This
type of food chain is quite handy in fixation of inorganic nutrients and utilizing up to the
maximum. Detritus food chain has the remains of detritus as the major source of energy, and this
process gets completed by the subsoil organisms, which can either be macroscopic or
microscopic. Unlike the grazing food chain, the detritus food chain produces a large amount of
energy to the atmosphere.

Key Differences

The grazing food chain starts from the autotrophs (green plants), whereas the detritus food chain
begins from the detritivores.

In grazing food chain the energy is taken from the sunlight as green plants prepare food in the
presence of it while in the detritus food chain the main energy source is remain of detritus.

In grazing food chain macroscopic organisms are involved, on the other hand, in the detritus
food chain, subsoil organisms are involved, which can either be macroscopic or microscopic.

Unlike the grazing food chain, the detritus food chain produces a large amount of energy to the
atmosphere.

Type of ecosystem

Forest Ecosystems
Forest ecosystems are classified according to their climate type as tropical, temperate or boreal.
In the tropics, rainforest ecosystems contain more diverse flora and fauna than ecosystems in
any other region on earth. In these warm, moisture-laden environments, trees grow tall and
foliage is lush and dense, with species inhabiting the forest floor all the way up to the canopy.
In temperate zones, forest ecosystems may be deciduous, coniferous or oftentimes a mixture of
both, in which some trees shed their leaves each fall, while others remain evergreen year-
round. In the far north, just south of the Arctic, boreal forests – also known as taiga – feature
abundant coniferous trees.

Grassland Ecosystems

Different types of grassland ecosystems can be found in prairies, savannas and steppes.
Grassland ecosystems are typically found in tropical or temperate regions, although they can
exist in colder areas as well, as is the case with the well-known Siberian steppe. Grasslands
share the common climactic characteristic of semi-aridity. Trees are sparse or nonexistent, but
flowers may be interspersed with the grasses. Grasslands provide an ideal environment for
grazing animals.

Desert Ecosystems

The common defining feature among desert ecosystems is low precipitation, generally less
than 25 centimeters, or 10 inches, per year. Not all deserts are hot – desert ecosystems can
exist from the tropics to the arctic, but regardless of latitude, deserts are often windy. Some
deserts contain sand dunes, while others feature mostly rock. Vegetation is sparse or
nonexistent, and any animal species, such as insects, reptiles and birds, must be highly adapted
to the dry conditions.

Tundra Ecosystems

As with deserts, a harsh environment characterizes ecosystems in the tundra. In the snow-
covered, windswept, treeless tundra, the soil may be frozen year-round, a condition known as
permafrost. During the brief spring and summer, snows melt, producing shallow ponds which
attract migrating waterfowl. Lichens and small flowers may become visible during this time of
year. The term ―tundra‖ most commonly denotes polar areas, but at lower latitudes, tundra-like
communities known as alpine tundra may be found at high elevations.

Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems can be found in streams, rivers, springs, ponds, lakes, bogs and
freshwater swamps. They are subdivided into two classes: those in which the water is nearly
stationary, such as ponds, and those in which the water flows, such as creeks. Freshwater
ecosystems are home to more than just fish: algae, plankton, insects, amphibians and
underwater plants also inhabit them.

Marine Ecosystems

Marine ecosystems differ from freshwater ecosystems in that they contain saltwater, which
usually supports different types of species than does freshwater. Marine ecosystems are the
most abundant types of ecosystems in the word. They encompass not only the ocean floor and
surface but also tidal zones, estuaries, salt marshes and saltwater swamps, mangroves and coral
reefs.

Biogeochemical cycle,

any of the natural pathways by which essential elements of living matter are circulated. The
term biogeochemical is a contraction that refers to the consideration of the biological, geological,
and chemical aspects of each cycle.

Elements within biogeochemical cycles flow in various forms from the nonliving (abiotic)
components of the biosphere to the living (biotic) components and back. In order for the living
components of a major ecosystem (e.g., a lake or a forest) to survive, all the chemical elements
that make up living cells must be recycled continuously. Each biogeochemical cycle can be
considered as having a reservoir (nutrient) pool—a larger, slow-moving, usually abiotic
portion—and an exchange (cycling) pool—a smaller but more-active portion concerned with the
rapid exchange between the biotic and abiotic aspects of an ecosystem.
Biogeochemical cycles can be classed as gaseous, in which the reservoir is the air or
the oceans (via evaporation), and sedimentary, in which the reservoir is Earth‘s crust. Gaseous
cycles include those of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and water; sedimentary cycles include those
of iron, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, and other more-earthbound elements.

Why Biogeochemical Cycles Are Important

• Biogeochemical cycles help explain how the planet conserves matter and uses energy.
The cycles move elements through ecosystems, so the transformation of things can
happen. They are also important because they store elements and recycle them.
Moreover, biogeochemical cycles can show you the connection among all living and
nonliving things on Earth.
• Understanding these cycles is crucial because people affect them. Human activity is
disturbing some of these natural cycles and hurting different ecosystems. By paying
attention to how these pathways work, humans may be able to stop the harmful impact.
Nitrogen cycle
Hydrological cycle
Phosphorus cycle
oxygen cycle
The importance of the biogeochemical cycles

• Biogeochemical cycles play important role in the survival of various organisms including
humans.
• 1. It will transform the matter from one form to another which helps in the optimization
of matter in a form specific to particular organism. For Example- Water in liquid form
utilize by the Human.
 • 2. It facilitates the storage of the elements. For Example- the Nitrogen cycle help in the
nitrogen fixation.
• 3. It will help in the functioning of ecosystem.
• 4. It connects different variants of the ecosystem such as living organism to another
living organism, living organism to non-living organism.
• 5. It regulates the flow of substances through the cycles like sedimentary cycles and
Gaseous cycles.

Homeostasis

any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to maintain stability while adjusting
to conditions that are optimal for survival. If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if
unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues. The stability attained is actually a dynamic equilibrium, in
which continuous change occurs yet relatively uniform conditions prevail.

The control of body temperature in humans is a good example of homeostasis in a biological

system. In humans, normal body temperature fluctuates around the value of 37 °C (98.6 °F), but
various factors can affect this value, including exposure, hormones, metabolic rate, and disease,
leading to excessively high or low temperatures. The body‘s temperature regulation is controlled
by a region in the brain called the hypothalamus. Feedback about body temperature is carried
through the bloodstream to the brain and results in compensatory adjustments in
the breathing rate, the level of blood sugar, and the metabolic rate. Heat loss in humans is aided
by reduction of activity, by perspiration, and by heat-exchange mechanisms that permit larger
amounts of blood to circulate near the skin surface. Heat loss is reduced by insulation, decreased
circulation to the skin, and cultural modification such as the use of clothing, shelter, and external
heat sources. The range between high and low body temperature levels constitutes the
homeostatic plateau—the ―normal‖ range that sustains life. As either of the two extremes is
approached, corrective action (through negative feedback) returns the system to the normal
range.
Ecosystem Restoration

Ecosystem Restoration is the ―process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been
degraded, damaged or destroyed‖

Ecosystem Restoration should be an important component of conservation and sustainable

development programmes so that the livelihoods of people depending on these degraded
ecosystems can be sustained.

Ecosystem Restoration is thus a significant contribution to the application of the

Ecosystem Approach, e.g. in informing the negotiation of land use options and
enhancement of healthy ecological networks.

Ecological succession,

the process by which the structure of a biological community evolves over time. Two different
types of succession—primary and secondary—have been distinguished. Primary
succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil is incapable of
sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly formed sand dunes,
or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession occurs in areas where
a community that previously existed has been removed; it is typified by smaller-scale
disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment.

Primary succession

is ecological succession that begins in essentially lifeless areas, such as regions in which there is
no soil or where the soil is incapable of sustaining life (because of recent lava flows,
newly formed sand dunes, or rocks left from a retreating glacier). The first species to
arrive are fast-growing ―weedy species,‖ such as lichens or small annual plants, which
create the first layers of soil as they decompose. These plants also provide habitats for
small animals and other forms of life. These plants are replaced by grasses and shrubs,
which shade out the first colonizers and alter the soil further, before large trees and more
 shade-tolerant species replace the community of sun-loving grasses and shrubs. Each
community may support different collections of animal species.

Secondary succession

occurs in areas where a biological community has already existed but some or all of that
community has been removed by small-scale disturbances that did not eliminate all life
and nutrients from the environment. Although fire, flooding, and other disturbances may
drive out many plants and animals and set back the biological community to an earlier
stage, the community does not ―start from scratch‖ as it would during primary succession
because the soil, which contains many nutrients provided by the former biological
community, remains.

Autogenic succession:

After the succession has begun, in most of the cases, it is the community itself which, as a result
of its reactions with the environment, modifies its own environment and thus causing its
own replacement by new communities. This course of succession is known as autogenic
succession.

Allogenic succession:

In some cases, the replacement of the existing community is caused largely by any other external
condition and not by the existing organism. Such a course is referred to as allogenic
succession.

General Process of Succession:

The whole process of a primary autotrophic succession is actually completed through a number
of sequential steps, which follow one another. These steps in sequence are as follows:

I. Nudation:

The development of bare area is the initial prerequisite. The cause of nudation may be
topographic (soil erosion, landslide, volcanic activity, etc), climatic and biotic (human
be-ings and pathogens).
II. Invasion:

This is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species actually reaches this
new site from any other area. This whole process is completed in the following three
successive stages.

(i) Migration:

When the area becomes bare, some plants from the nearby localities move into it in the form of
propagules. Several agencies help in the migration.

(ii) Ecesis:

It is a process of establishment of immigrants. It is not necessary that all the mi-grated

propagules must stabilize. The stabilization process depends greatly on the condi-tions
prevailing in that area.

(iii) Aggregation:

After ecesis, as a result of reproduction, the individual of the species increase in number, and
they come close to each other. This process is known as aggregation.

III. Competition and coactions:

After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the species at the limited place, there
develops competition mainly for space and nutrition. Individuals of a species affect each
other‘s life in various ways and this is called coactions. The species, if unable to compete
with other species, if present, would be discarded.

IV. Reaction:

This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of the modification of the
environment through the influence of living organisms on it, is known as reaction. As a
result of reaction, changes takes place in soil, water, light conditions, temperature etc. of
the environment. Due to all these the environment is modified, becoming unsuitable for
the exist-ing community which sooner or later is replaced by another community (seral
 community). The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another in the given
area is called a sere, and various communities constituting the sere as seral communities.

V. Stabilization (climax):

This is the final stage of development. Climax community is nearly stable and will not change so
long as the climate and physiographic remain the same. However, the environment as
well as the community are in a dynamic state.

Hydrosere

It is succession occurring in the aquatic environment. Such a type of succession does not
necessarily lead the aquatic communities toward the development of land communities.

The process of aquatic succession completes in the following stages:

1. Phytoplankton stage:
In the initial stage of succession algal spores are brought in the body of water. The simple forms
of life like bacteria, algae and many other aquatic plants (phytoplankton) and animals
(zooplankton) floating in water are the pioneer colonizers.
2. Submerged stage:
The phytoplankton stage is followed by submerged plant stage. When a loose layer of mud is
formed on the bottom of the pond, some rooted submerged hydrophytes begin to appear on the
new substratum.

The pioneers are Elodia, Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Ranunculus, Utricularia, Ceratophyllum,

Vallisnena, Chara, etc.

3. Floating stage:
When the depth of water reaches about 4 to 8 feet, the submerged vegetation starts disappearing
from its original place and then the floating plants make their appearance gradually in that area.
In the beginning the submerged and floating plants grow intermingled but in the course of time
the submerged plants are replaced completely.

Important floating plants that replace the submerged vegetation are Nelumbmm, Trapa, Pistia,
Nymphaea, and Limnanthemum etc.

4. Reed-swamp stages:
When the ponds and lakes become too shallow (water depth one to three feet) and the habitat is
changed so much that it becomes less suited to the floating plants some other plants which are
well adapted to new environment will then come in .Under these conditions, the floating plants
start disappearing gradually and their places are occupied by amphibious plants which can live
successfully in aquatic as well as aerial environment Important examples are Bothrioclova,
Typha, Phragmites (Reed), etc.

5. Sedge Marsh or Meadow stage:

The filling process finally results in a marshy soil which may be too dry for the plants of pre-
existing community. Now the plants well adapted to new habitat begin to appear in the pre-
existing community in mixed state. Important plants that are well suited to marshy habitat are the
members of cyperaceae and grammeae. The species of sedge (Carex) and rushes (Juncus),
species of Themeda, Iris, Dichanthium, Eriophorum, Cymbopogon, Campanula, Mentha, Caltha,
Gallium, Teucrium, Cicuta, etc. are the first invaders of marshy area.
6. Woodland stage:

In the beginning some shrubs and later medium sized trees form open vegetation or woodland.
These plants produce more shade and absorb and transpire large quantity of water. Thus,
they render the habitat more dry. Shade loving herbs may also grow under t e trees and
shrubs. The prominent plants of woodland community are species of Buteazon, Acacia,
Cassia, Terminalia, Salix, Cephalanthus, etc.

7. Climax forest:

After a very long time the hydrosere may lead to the development of climax vegetation. As the
level of soil is raised much above the water level by progressive accumulation of humus
and soil particles, the habitat becomes more dry and certainly well aerated. In such a
habitat, well adapted self-maintaining and self-reproducing, nearly stable and uniform
plant community consisting mostly of woody trees develops in the form of mesophytic
forest.

Xerosere

This is a type of xerosere originating on bare rock surfaces. The original substratum is deficient
in water and lacks any organic matter, having only minerals in disintegrated unweathered
state.

The various stages in xerosere can be enumerated as follows—

1. Lichen stage:
Due to great exposure to sun and extreme deficiency of water, the first pioneers on the bare rock
area are a few simple organisms. The most successful of such organisms are crustose lichens.
These are able to withstand extreme desiccation due to excessive dryness. During rainy season
they absorb large quantities of water and flourish rapidly.

As soon as little soil is formed by the activity of crustose lichens, higher forms of lichens such as
folisoe-lichens appear. These include Dermatocarpon, Parmelia, Umbilicana etc. These have
large leafy thalli which overlap the crustose-lichens and cause their gradual death and decay. In
this way more and more humus accumulates and gradually a thin layer of soil is forrrled which
consists of rock particles, remains of lichens, dust particles and moisture. Associated with the
lichens a few mites make their appearance. Along with them a few spiders also make their
appearance in cracks and crevices of the rock.

2. Moss stage:
With the accumulation of dust and humus in small quantities the environment is altered enough
to allow the establishment of secondary communities in a rather definite sequence. Scattered
patches of mosses such as Tortula, Crimmia byrum and Barfula etc. begin to invade the
environment that had so far been dominated by lichens. Later on, mosses like Funaria,
Sphagnum and Polytrichum make their appearance.

3. Herbaceous stage:
As the mats of mosses become more extensive, more soil accumulates; much of the soil is blown
in from surrounding area during windy periods. More mineral material is added to the soil as
acid leaches out from the overlying vegetation and increases the depth of the mineral soil layer.
Many annual weeds develop which are, later on, followed by biennial and finally perennial
grasses. Andropogon commonly known as broom sedge becomes; dominant grass in many areas.

4. Shrub stage:
Further modification of the environment provides conditions for the germination and growth of
shrubs and perennial wood plants such as Acacia, Prosopis, Capparis, Zizyphus etc.

With the approach of shrubs, the animals also become vivid and numerous, and join hands with
the vegetation in altering the environment.

5. Climax forest:
With the establishment of shrubs, more and more soil is formed and environment becomes
increasingly humid. This favours the growth of woody trees. In the beginning, trees show stunted
growth and are sparsely placed. Finally a climax forest community is established. The climax
community is the last aggregation in the successional series. If the climax condition do change
and no catastrophic event alters the area, the community maintains indefinitely.
On the basis of habitat

• Hydrosere
• Xerosere
• Psammosere
• Lithosere
• Halosere

Significance of ecological succession

Ecological succession is a very important form of grown and development of an ecosystem as a

whole. It is the process by which communities of an ecosystem changes in a defined and
directional way over time.
Through this process, a relatively unlivable land is slowly converted into a thriving and vibrant
ecosystem in a matter of years.

It allows new areas to be colonized, and damaged ecosystems to be recolonized, so organisms

can adapt to the changes in the environment and continue to survive.