Chapter 2: The Component in System Unit
2.1. The System Unit
The system unit is a box-like case housing the electronic components of a computer
that are used to process data. System unit components include the processor, memory
module, expansion cards, and ports and connectors. Many
components reside on a circuit board called the motherboard or system board. The
motherboard contains different types of chips, or small pieces of semiconducting material
on which one or more integrated circuits (IC) are etched. One of the
more important chips is the central processing unit.
2.2 Central Processing Unit
The central processing unit (CPU), sometimes referred to as the processor, interprets
and carries out the basic instructions that operate a computer. That is, most of the
devices connected to the computer communicate with the CPU in
order to carry out a task (Figure 2-1). The CPU contains the control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit.
Figure 2-1 Most of the devices connected to the computer communicate with the
CPU in order to carry out a task. The arrows in this figure represent the flow of
data, instruction, and information.
2.2.1 The Control Unit
The control unit, one component of the CPU, directs and coordinates most
of the operations in the computer. For every instruction, the control unit repeats
a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle (Figure 2-
2): (1) fetching the instruction or data item from memory, (2) decoding the
instruction into commands the computer understands, (3) executing the commands,
and, if necessary, (4) storing, or writing, the result to memory.
Figure 2-2 this figure shows the four steps involved in a machine cycle for a
student wanting to solve a math problem on the computer. Once the result is in
memory, it can be displayed on the screen of a monitor, print, or stored on a
disk
2.2.2 Arithmetic/Logic unit
The arithmetic/logic unit, another component of the CPU, performs the
arithmetic, comparison, and logical operations. Arithmetic operations include
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Comparison operations
involve comparing one data item to another to determine if the first item is
greater than, equal to, or less than the other item. Logical operations work with
conditions and logical operators such as AND, OR, and NOT
2.2.3 Registers
The CPU uses temporary storage locations called registers, to hold data
and instructions. The function include storing location of where instruction was
fetched storing an instruction while it is being decoded, storing data while the
ALU processes it, and storing the results of a calculation.
2.3. Microprocessors Comparison
A personal computer’s CPU usually is contained on a single chip called a
microprocessor. Early Intel microprocessors were identified with numbers, but a more
recent series is known as Pentium® processors. Intel processors with MMX™
technology have a built-in set of instructions that can be used to manipulate and process
multimedia data more efficiently.
Intel-compatible microprocessors have the same internal design as Intel
processors and perform the same functions, but are made by other companies and often
are less expensive. The Motorola microprocessor is an alternative to the
Intel-style microprocessor and is found in Apple Macintosh and Power Macintosh
systems. The Alpha microprocessor, from Digital Equipment Corporation, is used
primarily in workstations and high-end servers.
2.4 Types of Microprocessors
2.4.1 Parallel Processing
Some computers use more than one processor to speed processing times. Known
as parallel processing, this method use multiple processors simultaneously to
execute a program (Figure 2-3) Requires special software designed to recognize
how to divide up the problem and then bring the results back together again.
Figure 2-3 Parallel processing divides up a problem so that multiple
processors work on their assigned portion of a problem at the same time.
2.4.2 Coprocessors
Another way to increase the performance of a computer is through the use
of a coprocessor, which is a special processor chip or circuit board
designed to assist the processor in performing specific tasks. User running
engineering, scientific, or graphics applications, for instance, will notice a
dramatic increase in speed with a floating-point coprocessor
2.5. Data Representation
Most computers are digital, meaning they understand only two discrete states: on and off.
These states are represented using two digits, 0 is used to represent the electronic state of
off (absence of an electronic charge) and 1 is used to represent the electronic state of on
(presence of an electronic charge) (Figure 2-4).
Figure 2-4 A computer circuit represents the binary digit 0 or 1 electronically by the
presence or absence of an electronic charge.
Each on or off value is called a bit (short for binary digit), which is the smallest
unit of data a computer can handle. Eight bits grouped together as a unit are called
a byte. A byte can represent 256 individual characters including numbers, letters
of the alphabet, punctuation marks, and other characters. Combinations of 0s and
1s used to represent data are defined by patterns called coding schemes, the number 1
is represented as 00110001, the number as 00110010, and the capital
letter M as 01001101 (Figure 2-5). Popular coding schemes are ASCII, EBCDIC, and
Unicode.
Figure 2-5 eight bits grouped together as a unit are called a byte. A byte is used to
represent a single character in the computer and represents one storage location
2.5.1 ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is the most
widely used coding system to represent data. Is used on many personal
computers and minicomputers.
2.5.2 EBCDIC
The Extended Binary Code Decimal Interchange Code, is used primarily on
mainframe computers
2.5.3 Unicode
Is coding scheme capable of representing all the world’s current
languages.
Coding schemes such as ASCII make it possible for humans to interact with s
digital computer that recognizes only bits. When you press a key on a keyboard,
the electronic signal is converted into a binary firm the computer understands and
is stored in memory. That is, every character is converted to its corresponding
byte. The computer then processes that data in terms of bytes, which actually is a
series of on/off electrical states. When processing is finished, the bytes are converted
back into numbers, letters of the alphabet, or special characters to be displayed on a
screen or be printed (Figure 2-6). All of these conversions take
place so quickly that you do not realize they are occurring.
2.6. Different Types of Memory
In the system unit, a computer’s memory stores data, instructions, and
information. Memory stores three basic items: The operating system and other system
software that control the usage of the computer equipment; Application programs
designed to carry out a specific task such as word processing; and The data being
processed by application programs. The number of bytes it can store measures memory
size a kilobyte (KB) is approximately one thousand bytes, and
a megabyte (MB) is approximately one million bytes.
2.6.1 RAM
RAM (random access memory) is a memory chip that the processor can
read from and write to. RAM is volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost
when the computer’s power is turned off.
(Figure 2-7) Multiple programs can be loaded into RAM simultaneously,
provided you have enough RAM to accommodate all the programs. The
program with which you are working currently displays on the screen.
Two basic types of RAM exist: dynamic RAM and static RAM. When
discussing RAM, users normally are referring to dynamic RAM, also
called DRAM, a type of memory that must be re-energized constantly or it loses it
contents. One type of DRAM, called Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), is much
faster than DRAM because it is synchronized to
system clock. RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) is a newer type of DRAM that
is even faster than SDRAM. Double-data rate (DDR SDRAM), also called
SDRAM II, also faster than SDRAM. Most computers today use some type of
SDRAM and RDRAM.
Static RAM, also called SRAM, is faster and more reliable than any form
of DRAM. The term static refers to the fact that it does not have to be re-
energized as often as DRAM. SDRAM, however, is used for special purposes
because it is much more expensive than DRAM.
2.6.2 ROM
ROM (read-only memory) is a memory chip that only can be read and
used; that is, it cannot be modified. ROM is nonvolatile memory, meaning that its
contents are not lost when the computer’s power is turned off.
Commonly used for storing of program instructions that are not subjected
to change. Generally provided by manufacturer. RON clips that contain
permanently written data, instruction, or information are called firmware.
Another type of ROM clip, called programmable read only memory (PROM)
clip, is a blank ROM chip on which you can permanently place items. The
instructions used to program a PROM clip are called micro code. Once the
micro-code is programmed into the PROM clip, it
functions like a regular ROM clip and cannot be erased or changed.
2.6.3 Flash memory
Another type of nonvolatile memory is called flash memory or flash
ROM. Unlike a PROM clip that can be programmed only once, flash memory can
be erased electronically and reprogrammed. Flash memory is used to store
programs on personal computers, as well as cellular
telephones, printers, digital cameras, pagers, and personal digital assistant. Flash
memory is available in sizes ranging from 1 to 40 MB.
2.6.4 CMOS
Another of memory clip in the memory unit is complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS). CMOS memory is nonvolatile memory used to
store configuration information about the computer, such as the type of disk
drives, keyboard, and monitor; the current date and time; and other startup
information needed when the computer is turned off. CMOS use
battery power to retain information even when the power to the computer
is turn off. Battery-backed CMOS memory thus keeps the calendar, date, and
time current even when the computer power is off. Unlike ROM, information
stored in CMOS memory can be changed, such as when you change from
standard time to daylight saving time.
2.6.5 Memory Access Times
The speed at which the processor can access data from memory directly affects
how fast the computer process data. This speed often is defined as access time.
Access time is measured in fractions of a second. For
memory, access times are measured in terms of a nanosecond, which is one
billionth of a second.
Figure 2-7 show how application programs transfer in and out of RAM
2.7. Expansion Slots and Expansion Boards
An expansion slot is an opening, or socket, where a circuit board can be inserted into
the motherboard. These circuit boards, sometimes referred to as expansion boards or
expansion cards, add new devices or capabilities to the computer, such
as a modem or more memory. Plug and Play refers to a computer’s capability to
automatically configure expansion boards and other devices as they are installed.
2.8 Port
A cable often attaches external devices to the system unit. The interface, or point
of attachment, to the system unit is called a port. Ports have different types of
connectors used to join a cable to a device.
2.8.1 How Is a Serial Port Different from a Parallel Port?
ß Serial Port
A serial port is one types of interface used to connect a devices to the
system unit. Because a serial port transmits only one bit of data
at a time, it usually is used to connect devices that do not require
fast data transmission rates, such as a mouse, keyboard, or modem
(figure 2-7). A modem, which connects the system unit to a
telephone line, uses a serial port because the telephone line expects the
data in a serial form. Serial ports conform to either the RS-232
or RS422 stand, which specifies the number of pins used on the port’s
connector. Tow common connectors for serial ports are a male 25-pin
connector or a male 9-pin connector.
Figure 2-7 A serial port transmits data one bit at a time. One wire is used to
send data, another is used to receive data, and the remaining wires are used
for other communications operations.
ß Parallel Port
Unlike serial port, a parallel port is an interface used to connect devices
that are capable of transferring more than one bit at a time. Parallel ports
originally were developed as an alternative to the slower speed serial ports.
Many printers connect to the system unit using a parallel port with
a 25-pin female connector. This parallel port can transfer eight bits
of data simultaneously through eight separate lines in a single
cable (Figure 2-8). A parallel port sometimes is called a Centronics
interface, after the company that first defined the standard for
communication between the system unit and a printer. Two newer types of
parallel ports, the EPP (Enhanced Parallel Port) and the
ECP (Extended Capabilities Port), use the same connectors as the
Centronics port, but are more than ten times faster.
Figure 2-8 A parallel port is capable of transferring more than one bit
at a time. The ports shown in this figure has eight wires that transmit data,
the remaining wires are used for other communication operations.