Psychological Development
Dr. Amro Alomari, MD
Psychiatrist
• Development occurs as a series of progressive stages. Each is
necessary for the occurrence of subsequent one.
• The culmination of developmental processes is termed maturity,
which can be described more specifically as physical, intellectual
or sexual maturity.
Attachment
• John Bowlby coined the term ‘attachment’ to describe a child’s
connection to its mother.
• Specific attachment does not seem to take place before 6
months. The time from 6 months to 36 months is known as the
critical period. During this time a child is most vulnerable to
interruptions in its attachment.
• When an infant is separated from their main carer it is common for
them to become anxious (aka separation anxiety).
• The quality of a persons early attachments appears is associated
with their adult behaviour.
• Poor attachments tend to lead to withdrawn individuals who
struggle to form relationships.
• Good attachments are associated with socially competent adults
who are able to form healthy relationships.
• Attachment behaviour tends to be stable over the lifetime.
• Attachment behaviour is displayed by the infant towards the
attachment figure, from whom affection, comfort and warmth are
sought even in preference to food (Harlow’s monkey
experiment).
Harlow’s monkey experiment
• Harlow separated baby monkeys from their
mothers and provided them with two
surrogate mothers.
• One made of wire that provided food, and
another made of soft cloth that provided no
food.
• The monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, seeking
comfort and warmth from it, even though it did not provide
nourishment.
• This experiment demonstrated that the need for affection and comfort is
more fundamental to attachment than the need for food
Strange Situation experiment
• Mary Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" experiment was designed to
observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and child.
• In this study, a child is placed in a room with their caregiver and then
exposed to a series of separations and reunions with the caregiver
and a stranger.
• The child's reactions are observed to determine the nature of their
attachment.
Ainsworth classified the infants into three
groups of attachment
• Secure attachment (70%): The child feels safe and confident with
the caregiver, showing distress when separated but happy upon
reunion
• anxious-avoidant (20%): The child tends to avoid or ignore the
caregiver, showing little emotion when separated or reunited
• anxious-ambivalent (10%): The child may show anxiety, clinginess,
or resistance towards the caregiver, often feeling uncertain about
their availability
Temperament
• Temperament includes aspects such as activity level, emotional
reactivity, and sociability. For example, some children may be
naturally more energetic and active, while others may be more calm
and reserved.
• It represents basic dimensions of personality and thought to have
a biological basis.
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT (Freud)
Stage Age Description
Oral phase 0–18 months pleasure is derived from oral
activity and there is a
preoccupation with feeding.
Anal phase 18–36 months Attention is focused on
excretory processes.
Phallic phase 3–6 years increasing focus on genitalia
Oedipal / Electra complex
Latency phase 6–12 years Involves the recognition,
acknowledgement and
acceptance of reality.
Genital phase 12 years–adult Acquisition of sexual maturity.
Increasing identification with
same-sex parent.
Oedipal Complex
• This complex involves a boy's unconscious sexual desire for his
mother and feelings of jealousy and rivalry towards his father.
• The boy views his father as a competitor for his mother’s affection.
• The resolution of this complex typically occurs when the boy begins
to identify with his father, adopting his values and
behaviors (masculine gender identity).
Electra Complex
• This complex is the female counterpart to the Oedipal complex. It
involves a girl's unconscious sexual attraction to her father and
hostility towards her mother.
• The girl views her mother as a rival for her father's affection.
• The resolution of this complex occurs when the girl begins to identify
with her mother, adopting her values and behaviors (feminine gender
identity).
MORAL DEVELOPMENT (KOHLBERG)
• Preconventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is based
primarily on self-interest and avoiding punishment.
• Conventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is guided by social
expectations, relationships, laws, and societal order.
• Postconventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is guided by
higher ethical principles and individual rights beyond societal laws.
COGNITIVE MODEL (PIAGET)
• Children are not passive recipients of knowledge but actively
construct their understanding of the world through interaction and
experience.
• Their thinking is qualitatively different from adults, not just less
developed.
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):
• Learning in this stage is through senses and motor actions (touching,
looking, grasping, sucking).
• Object Permanence – understanding that objects continue to exist
even when out of sight (e.g., peek-a-boo). It develops around the age
of one year.
Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):
• Learning is through development of symbolic thought (language,
pretend play, drawing).
• Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing things from another's perspective.
• Animism: Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects.
• Centration: Focusing on only one aspect of a situation
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):
• Learning through logical thinking about events and objects.
• Less egocentric, more empathetic.
• Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite
changes in appearance (e.g., same amount of water in different
shaped glasses).
• Decentration: Ability to consider multiple aspects of a situation.
Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up):
• Learning through abstract, hypothetical, and deductive reasoning.
• Can think systematically about possibilities.
• Engage in scientific reasoning and problem-solving.
Parenting styles
During the 1960s, psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study
on more than 100 preschool-age children. She identified four
important dimensions of parenting:
• Disciplinary strategies
• Warmth and nurturance
• Communication styles
• Expectations of maturity and control
1. Authoritarian Parenting
This style is characterised by strict rules and punishment if the
rules are not adhered to.
Explanations behind the rules are often lacking. These parents
are focussed on status and obedience.
Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are
obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social
competence and self-esteem.
2. Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parents are similar to authoritarian parents except
they tend to be more responsive to their children.
There are strict rules but explanations behind them are given.
When children fail to meet expectations they are nurtured rather
than punished. The focus here is on setting standards but also
being supportive.
Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are
happy, capable and successful.
3. Permissive Parenting
These parents rarely discipline their children. They avoid
confrontation and allow their children to self regulate.
Permissive parents prefer to take the role of a friend rather than a
disciplinarian.
Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in
happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to
experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly
in school.
4. Uninvolved Parenting
This style of parenting is characterised by little involvement and few
demands.
Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains.
These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem
and are less competent than their peers.
Gender development
Gender identity is the sense of oneself as a male or female.
This is different to a person’s sex which is assigned at birth (as on XX
or XY).
Gender dysphoria refers to situations where a person's gender does
not match their sex.
For the majority of pre-pubertal children, gender dysphoria does not
persist into adolescence. Only in a minority (15%) does gender
dysphoria persist.
By 18-24 months, children develop the ability to label gender.
Between 2-4 years, most children recognise gender differences, use
gendered pronouns.
By age 5 to 6 years, most children declare a gender identity of male
or female.
Many children experiment with gender expression and roles, this is
part of normal development.
Development of fear