Dynamics

Newton’s law of
Momentum
motion

State State State Linear

Newton’s Newton’s Newton’s Conservation of
momentum momentum
first law second law third law
෍ 𝑃𝑖 = ෍ 𝑃𝑓
Elastic Inelastic
Same collision collision
Object remain Force = rate magnitude
stationary / of change of of force but
uniform momentum opposite
motion unless direction
exert by a force
Change in Total
momentum momentum
LEARNING OUTCOMES!
Understand that mass is the property of an object that
resists change in motion.
Momentum and
Recall F = ma and solve problems using it,
Newton’s laws of
understanding that acceleration and resultant force are
always in the same direction.
motion
Define and use linear momentum as the product of
mass and velocity.
Define and use force as rate of change of momentum.
State and apply each of Newton’s laws of motion.
Describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a
gravitational field on a mass and recall that the weight
of a body is equal to the product of its mass and the
acceleration of free fall.
 Newton’s laws of motion
Newton’s 1 st law Newton’s 2nd law Newton’s 3 rd law
For a body of constant mass, When two bodies interact,
An object will remain at
its acceleration is directly the forces they exert on
rest or in a state of uniform
proportional to the resultant each other are equal in
motion unless it is acted on
force applied to it. magnitude and opposite in
by a resultant force.
direction.
𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚
 Sir Isaac Newton
1642-1727

Newton has been regarded as The Father of

Modern Physics.

Among other great contribution to Science, two

of his greatest contributions are the three laws
of motion and his universal law of gravity.
 An object will
remain at rest or in
a state of uniform
motion unless it is
acted on by a Newton’s
resultant force.
First Law
• Known as the law of inertia
• An object at rest stays at rest
until an outside forces causes it
to move
• An object in motion continues to
move in the same speed until a
force stops it or changes its
direction
• So, an object at rest will stays at
rest, object in motion will remain
in motion unless acted by an
outside force
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

• An object will remain at rest or in a state of uniform motion unless it is

Definition acted on by a resultant force.

• The findings on inertia and uniform motion can be summarized as Newton’s first law of motion.
𝐹
 The equation 𝑎 = relates acceleration, resultant force and mass.
𝑚

 If no resultant force acts on an object (F = 0), it will not accelerate (a = 0). The object will either
remain stationary or it will continue to travel at a constant velocity.
 The greater the mass m, the smaller the acceleration a produced by a force F.
 Hence, the bigger the force F since the acceleration is directly proportional to a force (𝑎 ∝ 𝐹).
 Newton’s First Law is also called the Law of Inertia
Definition of inertia:

A measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object, or change its speed or
direction. It is a measure of the mass of an object; a massive object has large inertia.

The tendency of a moving object to carry on moving is sometimes known as inertia.

• An object with a large mass is difficult to stop moving – catching a football,
compared with a less massive tennis ball moving at the same speed.
• A stationary object with a large mass is difficult to start moving – pushing a car to
get it started.
• All of these examples suggest another way to think of an object’s mass; it is a
measure of its inertia – how difficult it is to change the object’s motion.

• Uniform motion is the natural state of motion of an object.

• Here, uniform motion means ‘moving with constant velocity’ or ‘moving at a steady speed in a straight line’.
Which vehicle has more inertia? And why?
• Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
• The more mass an object has, the more inertia the object has.
• Bigger, more massive objects are harder to start and stop because they have more mass and therefore
more inertia.
 Examples

• When the cardboard is pulled away quickly, the coin drops straight into the glass.
• The coin falls into the glass due to gravity.

The inertia of the coin maintains its state at rest.

• At first, the bus is moving with uniform motion in a straight line and
the passenger has the same motion.
• When the bus stops, the part of the body (lower part) in contact
with bus stops, but due to inertia the upper part continues to move
forward and thus he moves forward.

The inertia of a body is the resistance of any physical object to

any change in its velocity.
Exercise

1. Use the idea of inertia to explain why some large cars have
power-assisted brakes.
2. A car crashes head-on into a brick wall. Use the idea of
inertia to explain why the driver is more likely to come out
through the windscreen if he or she is not wearing a seat
belt.
 For a body of
constant mass, its
acceleration is
directly proportional
to the resultant force Newton’s
applied to it.
Second Law
• Effect of a body if force is exerted
• Causes the velocity to change One newton is defined as the force
• Defines the magnitude of the acceleration which will give a mass of 1kg an
acceleration of 1ms−2 in the
• Introduces the idea of the mass of a body direction of the force.

force = mass × acceleration

F = ma
• Unit: 𝐤𝐠𝐦𝐬−𝟐 @ Newton, N
 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

• For a body of constant mass, its acceleration is directly proportional to

Definition the resultant force applied to it.

• The equation, 𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚, is a simplified version of Newton’s second law of motion.

𝐹
 The equation 𝑎 = relates acceleration, resultant force and mass.
𝑚

 If no resultant force acts on an object (F = 0), it will not accelerate (a = 0). The object will either
remain stationary or it will continue to travel at a constant velocity.
 The greater the mass m, the smaller the acceleration a produced by a force F.
 Hence, the bigger the force F since the acceleration is directly proportional to a force (𝑎 ∝ 𝐹).
 • Figure shows how the force that the motors on a train provide to cause it
A force is needed to make the train a accelerate, and b decelerate.
to accelerate.
• The resultant force is represented by a green arrow. The direction of the
arrow shows the direction of the resultant force.
𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐮𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚

 To calculate the acceleration (a) of the train produced by the resultant force (F), we must also know the train’s mass (m). These quantities are
related by:
𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚
 In this example, we have F = 20 000 N and m = 10 000 kg, and so:
𝐅
𝐚=
𝐦
𝟐𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐚= = 𝟐 𝐦𝐬 −𝟐
𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎
 In Figure (b), the train is decelerating as it comes into a station. Its acceleration is −3 ms −2 . What force must be provided by the braking system
of the train?
𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚 = 𝟏𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 × −𝟑 = −𝟑𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐍
The minus sign shows that the force must act towards the right in the diagram, in the opposite direction to the motion of the train.
• For a given object, the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force:

𝑎∝𝐹
 The equation also shows that the acceleration produced by a force depends on the mass of the object.
 The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia, or its ability to resist any change in its motion.
 The greater the mass, the smaller the acceleration that results.
 Example: If you push your hardest against a small car (which has a small mass), you will have a greater
effect than if you push against a more massive car (as in figure).
• So, for a constant force, the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass:

1
𝑎∝
𝑚
 The train driver knows that when the train is full during the rush hour, it has a smaller acceleration.
 This is because its mass is greater when it is full of people. Similarly, it is more difficult to stop the
train once it is moving.
 The brakes must be applied earlier to avoid the train overshooting the platform at the station.
• Some specific forces that need to be considered – such as weight and friction.
Weight Friction

The name for a resistive force when

The force of an object caused by a two surfaces are in contact and
gravitational field acting on it. tending to slide over one another.

Isaac Newton From this, he developed his theory of gravity that relates the motion
noticed the fall of of falling objects here on Earth to the motion of the Moon around the
an apple from a
tree. Earth, and the planets around the Sun.
• The force that caused the apple to accelerate was the pull of the
Earth’s gravity.
• Another name for this force is the weight of the apple.
• The force is shown as an arrow, pulling vertically downwards (W) on
the apple as in figure below. It is usual to show the arrow coming
from the centre of the apple – its centre of gravity.
• The centre of gravity of an object is defined as the point where its
entire weight appears to act.

W
Large and small
• A large rock has a greater weight than a small rock, but if you push both rocks over a cliff at the same time, they will fall at the
same rate. In other words, they have the same acceleration, regardless of their mass.
• A feather drifts down to the floor, while a stone falls quickly. But this is because of air resistance. The force of air resistance has
a large effect on the falling feather, and almost no effect on the falling stone.
• When astronauts visited the Moon (where there is virtually no atmosphere and so no air resistance), they were able to show
that a feather and a stone fell side-by-side to the ground.
• The force causing this acceleration can be found by using 𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚. This force is the object’s weight. Hence, the weight W of
an object is given by:
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐖 = 𝐦𝐠
On the Moon
• The Moon is smaller and has less mass than the Earth, and so its gravity is weaker.
• If you were to drop a stone on the Moon, it would have a smaller acceleration.
• The acceleration of free fall on the Moon is about one-sixth of that on the Earth:
𝐠 𝐌𝐨𝐨𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝐦 𝐬−𝟐
• It follows that objects weigh less on the Moon than on the Earth. They are not completely weightless, because the Moon’s
gravity is not zero.
Some important forces:
Galileo and Gravity

In 1588, Galileo discovered that different objects fall at the

same speed.
• Galileo, by dropping a heavier and lighter cannon ball
from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, demonstrated that
both objects fall at the same rate, despite their weight
difference.
• From this it can be concluded that the acceleration due
to gravity for all objects is same and does not depend
on mass of the object.
 Guinea and feather
• All objects have the same acceleration of free fall (ignore air resistance).

This Free Fall Tube provides a compelling visual demonstration of Galileo’s

principle that all objects, regardless of mass, fall at the same rate in the absence
of air resistance.
• In a vacuum (where air resistance is absent), a guinea and a feather will fall
together at the same rate. This is because the force of gravity acting on them
is proportional to their mass, but their mass also determines how difficult it is
for them to accelerate.
• In the presence of air resistance would make the feather fall slower than the
guinea because the air would create a drag force on the feather.
• This classical experiment reinforces Newtonian mechanics and helps debunk
the myth that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones—a misconception
once held since Aristotle’s time.
 Apollo 15 hammer-feather • Astronaut dropped a hammer and a feather
simultaneously on the Moon's surface.
The Apollo 15 hammer-feather drop • The Moon has no atmosphere, meaning there's no
experiment, conducted by astronaut air to provide resistance to the falling objects.
David Scott on the Moon, • The Result: Both the hammer and feather fell at the
demonstrated a fundamental principle same rate and landed on the ground at the same
of physics: in the absence of air time.
resistance, all objects fall at the same • Significance: This confirmed that the acceleration
rate, regardless of their mass. due to gravity is the same for all objects, regardless
of their mass, in a vacuum. This was a direct visual
demonstration of a principle previously established
by Galileo.

Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop

 When two bodies
interact, the forces
they exert on each
other are equal in
magnitude and
opposite in direction.
Newton’s
Third Law
• When two bodies interact,
each exerts a force on the
other
• Whenever one body exerts a
force on another, the second
exerts an equal and opposite
force on the first
 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW When two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each
other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

The two forces that make up a ‘Newton’s third law pair’ • Two objects may attract each
The type of
have the following characteristics: other because of the gravity of
interaction which
causes the forces to their masses – these are
They act on two different objects. appear. gravitational forces.
• Two objects may attract or
repel because of their electrical
They are equal in magnitude. charges – electrical forces.
• Two objects may touch –
contact forces.
They are opposite in direction. • Two objects may be attached
by a string and pull on each
other – tension forces.
They are forces of the same type. • Two objects may attract or
repel because of their magnetic
fields – magnetic forces.
 For each of the forces that the
Earth exerts on you, an equal and
opposite force acts on the Earth.

Figure shows a person standing on the Earth’s

surface.
• The two gravitational forces are a Newton’s
third law pair, as are the two contact forces.
• (Don’t be misled into thinking that the person’s
weight and the contact force of the floor are a
Newton’s third law pair.)
• Although they are ‘equal and opposite’, they do
not act on different objects and they are not of
the same type.
Action and reaction
 Elevator
• When the elevator accelerates upwards, you weigh more than you actually do, and when the elevator decelerates, you weigh less. To explain this
phenomenon, we have to apply Newton's Laws of Motion.
• Suppose a person of weight is standing on a weighting machine in an elevator. The weighting machine and the person interact with the action-
reaction pair of force and as shown in figure.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 Reaction

Reaction
R force

R force

𝑎>0

𝑎=0
Weight

Weight
W
(Free body diagram of a man)
W
(Free body diagram of a man)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
(a) When the elevator is not accelerating, 𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 b) When the elevator accelerates
the scale registers the true weight
upward, the apparent weight
𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑊
(W = 700 N) of the person. 𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 (1000 N) exceeds the true
• Suppose the elevator is at rest or 𝑅−𝑊 =0 weight.
moving with constant velocity
(𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = 𝟎 ). By Newton's 𝑅=𝑊 • In other words, the person
weighs more in the elevator!
second law, the resultant force acting
on the person is zero.
 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 Reaction

Reaction
R force

R force

𝑎 = −𝑔
𝑎<0
Weight

Weight
W
(Free body diagram of a man)
W
(Free body diagram of a man)

c) When the elevator 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

d) The apparent weight is 0 N
accelerates downward, the 𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚(−𝑎) if the elevator falls freely— 𝑅 − 𝑊 = 𝑚(−𝑔)
apparent weight (400 N) is 𝑅 = 𝑊 − 𝑚𝑎 that is, if it falls with the 𝑅 = 𝑚 −𝑔 + 𝑊
less than the true weight. acceleration due to gravity. 𝑅 = −𝑚𝑔 + 𝑚𝑔
• Thus, the person weighs less
in the elevator! 𝑅=0
Skateboards

Newton’s third law of

• The green arrows represent
motion explains how Jordan
the forces with which the
starts his skateboard moving.
skateboarders push against
This law states that every
each other. This is the action.
action has an equal and action
opposite reaction. This • The red arrows represent the
means that forces always act forces with which the
in pairs. skateboarders move apart.
• First an action occurs— This is the reaction.
Jordan pushes against the reaction • Compare the green and red
Action
ground with his foot. arrows. They point in
Jordan pushing • Then a reaction occurs— different directions, but they
on ground
Jordan moves forward on are the same length.
his skateboard. • This shows that the reaction
• The reaction is always forces are equal and
Reaction equal in strength to the opposite to the action forces.
Ground pushing action but in the opposite
on Jordan
direction.
 The Sun and Earth

There are equal and opposite forces between the sun and the earth, why do we orbit the sun and not the other way around?
Answer:
While both the Sun and Earth exert gravitational forces on each
other, the Earth orbits the Sun, not the other way around. This is
because the Sun's mass is vastly larger than Earth's, resulting in a
much stronger gravitational pull.
• Newton's Third Law: Newton's Third Law of Motion states
that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. This means that the Earth pulls on the Sun with the
same force that the Sun pulls on the Earth. However, the
effects of this force are not the same for both bodies.
• Mass and Acceleration: The mass of an object affects how much it accelerates in response to a force. A more massive object
will accelerate more slowly than a less massive object when the same force is applied. The Sun's immense mass means it
accelerates negligibly in response to the Earth's gravitational pull, while the Earth, being much less massive, experiences a
much greater acceleration.
• Centripetal Force: The Sun's gravity provides the centripetal force necessary to keep the Earth in orbit. Centripetal force is the
force that causes an object to move in a curved path, like a circular orbit. The Earth's inertia (its tendency to move in a straight
line) combined with the Sun's gravity results in this circular motion.
Newton vs Elephant
Who will move fastest?

• Both objects accelerate.

• The amount of acceleration depends on the mass of the object.
F
a=
𝐦
• Small mass More acceleration
• Large mass Less acceleration
 Billiard balls Skaters

Collision between moving 7-ball and an 8-ball at rest. Pair figure skaters – what happens when he gracefully throws her
• Each ball experiences an equal force directed in through the air onto the ice?
opposite directions. • She experiences a forward force which causes her to accelerate
• Each ball experiences the same acceleration. (speed up)
• He experiences a backward force which causes him to decelerate
(slow down)
• Her acceleration is greater than his deceleration due to her smaller
mass.
 A bat/racket

How does a bat or racket cause a ball to move? In each case the two forces are equal and opposite, but according to
𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚 the difference in masses produce different amounts of acceleration.

Answer:
When a bat or racket hits a ball, the equal and opposite forces of Newton's Third
Law cause the ball to move. While the forces are equal, the ball accelerates more
due to its lower mass compared to the bat or racket, according to Newton's
Second Law (F=ma).
• The bat/racket applies a force to the ball, accelerating it in the direction of the hit.
• The ball applies an equal and opposite force to the bat/racket, causing a small deceleration.
• For the ball: The force from the bat/racket acts on the much smaller mass of the ball. According to 𝐅 = 𝐦𝐚, if F is
constant and m is small, then its acceleration will be large. This large acceleration is what causes the ball to go from rest
(or slow movement) to a high velocity very quickly.
• For the bat/racket: The equal and opposite force from the ball acts on the much larger mass of the bat/racket (and the
player holding it). Because the mass is large, the acceleration of the bat/racket (and player) will be very small.
• The difference in acceleration is due to the significant difference in masses: the lighter ball experiences a much greater
acceleration than the heavier bat/racket, even though the forces exchanged are equal and opposite.
Horse and carriage

A horse can pull a carriage even though the forces on the

carriage and horse are equal and opposite due to Newton's
Third Law of motion, which states that for every action,
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
• The horse pushes on the ground.
• The ground pushes back on the horse with a force that is
greater than the force the carriage pulls back on the
horse. This is the net forward force on the horse, causing
it to accelerate.
• Because the horse is accelerating forward, it applies a
force to the carriage. As long as this force is greater than
the friction acting on the carriage, the carriage will also
accelerate forward.
Exercise
−2
1. An object of mass 1.5 kg is to be accelerated at 2.2 ms . What force is required?
(Ans: 3.3N)

2. A car of mass 1.5 tonnes (1.5 x 103 kg) travelling at 80 kmh−1 , is to be stopped in 11s.
What force is required?
(Ans: 3.0 x 103N)

3. A force of 5.0 N is applied to a body of mass 3.0 kg. What is the acceleration of the body?
(Ans: 1.7 ms −2 )

4. A stone of mass 50 g is accelerated from a catapult to a speed of 8.0 ms −1 from rest over a
distance 0f 30 cm. What average force is applied by the rubber of the catapult?
(Ans: 5.3N)
Difference between
mass and weight
 Mass and Weight
• Weight: also known as gravitational force
• Difference between mass and weight
• Mass
– Defined as the amount of matter contained in a body
– Measured in kg
• Weight
– Gravitational force
– Unit : Newton (N)
Mass Weight
• The mass of an object is the property of a body
and is a measure of its resistance to acceleration. • The weight of an object is the gravitational force
experienced by it, and varies depending on the
• Scalar quantity. strength of the gravitational field the object is in.
• The larger the mass of an object, the smaller the • Vector quantity.
acceleration it experiences for a given resultant
force experienced. • The weight of a body on Earth can be calculated by:
• 𝐖 = 𝐦𝐠
Example: Object 1 has a mass of 1 kg and object 2 has a • 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐚𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐟𝐚𝐥𝐥
mass of 10 kg and they both experience a resultant
force of 10 N.
By using equation, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
10 = 1 𝑎 , 𝑎 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 Object 1
10 = 10 𝑎 , 𝑎 = 1 𝑚𝑠 −2 Object 2
 Weight

• The weight of an object is a force (N)

• It is a force acting on the object

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙)

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
 Weight

• Gravitational force is always act vertically

downwards
• Usually arrow coming from the centre of gravity of
an object, where the point where its entire weight
appears to act.
 Air resistance
• Large and small
– Comparing heavier object and
lighter object
– Considering air resistance, heavy
ball will drop faster than the light
ball Air resistance
– The force of air resistance has large
effect on the light ball
Exercise

• The mass of a spacecraft is 70kg. As the spacecraft takes off from the
Moon, the upwards force on the spacecraft caused by the engines is
500N. The gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.6Nkg-1.
Determine
– The weight of the spacecraft on the Moon
– The resultant force on the spacecraft
– The acceleration of the spacecraft
• Answer: 112N, 388N, 5.54ms-2
LEARNING OUTCOMES!
Show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces
and viscous/drag forces including air resistance.
Describe and explain qualitatively the motion of
Non-uniform
objects in a uniform gravitational field with air
motion
resistance.
Understand that objects moving against a resistive
force may reach a terminal (constant) velocity.
Balanced and unbalanced forces
• If an object has two or more forces acting on it, we have to consider
whether or not they are ‘balanced’. Forces on an object are balanced when
the resultant force on the object is zero. The object will either remain at
rest or have a constant velocity.
• The resultant force can be calculated by adding up two (or more) forces
that act in the same straight line.
• The direction of each force needs to be accounted. In the examples in
Figure, forces to the right are positive and forces to the left are negative.
• When a car travels slowly, it encounters little air resistance. However, the
faster it goes, the more air it has to push out of the way each second and so
the greater the air resistance.
• Eventually, the backwards force of air resistance equals the forwards force
provided between the tyres and the road, and the forces on the car are
balanced. It can go no faster–it has reached its top speed.

Resultant force: The single force that has the same

effect as all of the forces acting on an object.
 Free fall
• Skydivers are rather like cars–at first, they accelerate freely.
• The idea of a parachute is to greatly increase the air resistance.

1. At the start of the fall, the only force acting on the diver is his or her
weight.
The acceleration of the diver at the start must therefore be gravity.
Then increasing air resistance opposes their fall and their
acceleration decreases.
2. Eventually, they reach a maximum velocity, known as the terminal
velocity.
At the terminal velocity, the air resistance is equal to the weight.
The terminal velocity is approximately about 50 ms−1 , but it
depends on the skydiver’s weight and orientation.
3. Then terminal velocity is reduced, and the parachutist can land safely.

Terminal velocity: The maximum velocity reached by an

object falling under gravity or accelerated by a constant force.
Figure shows how a parachutist’s velocity might change during descent.

• Terminal velocity depends on the weight and

surface area of the object.

 For insects, air resistance is much greater

relative to their weight than for a human being
and so their terminal velocity is quite low.
 Insects can be swept up several kilometers into
the atmosphere by rising air streams.

 The velocity of a parachutist varies during a descent.

 The force arrows show weight (downwards) and air resistance
(upwards).
 EXAMPLE:
• A body falling in a uniform gravitational field will experience a constant weight as the strength of
an uniform gravitational field is constant. Below is a description of the motion of an object, with an
initial velocity of 0 𝑚𝑠 −1 , in a uniform gravitational field:
 The object experiences weight downwards and air resistance upwards.
As the magnitude of weight is larger than air resistance, it will
accelerate downwards as there is a resultant force (Newton’s 2nd law).
 As the object’s velocity increases, the magnitude of air resistance
increases, therefore the resultant force and acceleration downwards
will decrease.
 Air resistance will continue increasing up until the point where the
magnitude of weight and air resistance is equal. As there is no
resultant force, the object travels at a constant velocity, know as the
terminal velocity.
Air resistance will affect both the vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion as shown in the diagram below:
Exercise

1. If you drop a large stone and a small stone from the top of a tall building, which one will
reach the ground first? Explain your answer.
2. Skydivers jump from a plane at intervals of a few seconds. If two divers wish to join up as
they fall, the second must catch up with the first.
a) If one diver is more massive than the other, who should jump first? Use the idea of forces and
terminal velocity to explain your answer.
b) If both divers are equally massive, suggest what the second might do to catch up with the first.
• Air resistance is just one example of the resistive force (or viscous force) that objects
experience when they move through a fluid, a liquid or a gas.
• Example: If you have ever run down the beach and into the sea, or tried to wade quickly through
the water of a swimming pool, you will have experienced the force of drag.
 The deeper the water gets, the more it resists your movement and the harder you have
to work to make progress through it. In deep water, it is easier to swim than to wade.

Resistive force: A backwards force in the opposite direction to

movement caused by friction or some other viscous force.

Drag force: A force that resists the movement of a body through a fluid.
Moving through air
1
• Rarely experience drag in air since air is much less dense than water; its density is roughly that of water.
800

A racing cyclist adopts a posture that helps to reduce A runner making use of air resistance to build up his
drag. Clothing, helmet and even the cycle itself are muscles. The parachute provides a backwards force
designed to allow them to go as fast as possible. against which his muscles must work.
Contact forces
• When two objects touch each other, each exerts a force on the other. These are called contact forces.

• For example, when you stand on the floor, your feet push
downwards on the floor and the floor pushes back upwards on your
feet. This is a vital force – the upward push of the floor prevents you
from falling downwards under the pull of your weight.
• Where do these contact forces come from?

Equal and opposite When you stand on the floor, the floor becomes
contact forces act
when you stand on slightly compressed. Its atoms are pushed slightly
the floor. closer together, and the interatomic forces push back
against the compressing force. At the same time, the
atoms in your feet are also pushed together so that
they push back in the opposite direction.
Upthrust
• When an object is immersed in a fluid (a liquid or a gas), it experiences an upward force.
• Upthrust: the force upwards in a liquid or gas caused by the pressure in the gas or liquid.

• The upthrust of water on a boat can be thought of as the

contact force of the water on the boat. It is caused by the
Without
sufficient pressure of the water pushing upwards on the boat.
upthrust from
the water, the • Pressure arises from the motion of the water molecules
boat would sink. colliding with the boat and the net effect of all these collisions
is an upwards force.
Exercise

1. Name these forces:

a) the upward push of water on a submerged object
b) the force that wears away two surfaces as they move over one another
c) the force that pulled the apple off Isaac Newton’s tree
d) the force that stops you falling through the floor
e) the force in a string that is holding up an apple
f) the force that makes it difficult to run through shallow water.
2. Draw a diagram to show the forces that act on a car as it travels along a level road at its top speed.
3. Imagine throwing a shuttlecock straight up in the air. Air resistance is more important for
shuttlecocks than for a tennis ball. Air resistance always acts in the opposite direction to the velocity
of an object.
Draw diagrams to show the two forces, weight and air resistance, acting on the shuttlecock:
a) as it moves upwards
b) as it falls back downwards.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES!
3.3
3.3.1 State the principle of conservation of momentum.
3.3.2 Apply the principle of conservation of momentum to
solve simple problems, including elastic and inelastic
Linear
interactions between objects in both one and two
momentum and its
dimensions.
conservation
3.3.3 Recall that, for a perfectly elastic collision, the relative
speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of
separation.
3.3.4 Understand that, while momentum of a system is
always conserved in interactions between objects, some
change in kinetic energy may take place.
•The rate of change of
momentum.
mv − mu
Force =
Δt
Δp
=
Δt
• The linear momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity

𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲

p = mv
• Unit is kgms-1 or Ns
• Vector quantity
• Relation with Newton’s first law – momentum of a particle remains constant unless an
external force acts on the particle
 𝐩 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭  only applied for a single particle
 Relation with Newton’s Second Law, the resultant force acting on a body is equal
to the rate of change of its momentum (Impulse)

F = ma
Δp
Δ(mv) F=
= Δt
Δt

 Relation with Newton’s Third Law, when two bodies exert action and reaction
forces on each other, their changes of momentum are equal and opposite
 Principle of
conservation of
momentum
• The conservation of momentum can be expressed as follows:

For a where no resultant force acts, in any direction:

total momentum of objects before collision = total momentum of objects after collision

• Total momentum of a system of interacting bodies remains constant in a closed/isolated system

– Example of interaction:
• Collision Conservation of momentum:
• Explosion the sum or total momentum of the A system of
bodies in a closed system is constant
• Coupling provided no resultant external force acts.
interacting objects
in which there are
• Firing
no external forces.
• Initially at rest, so 𝐮 = 𝟎
• Total momentum = 𝟐𝐦𝐯𝟏 + (−𝐦𝐯𝟐)
• Initially at rest, so 𝐮 = 𝟎, 𝐦𝐮 = 𝟎
• Total momentum after: 𝟓𝐯𝟏 + (−𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐯𝟐)
Elastic and inelastic
collision
 Collision

Elastic Inelastic
(Perfectly elastic)
• The principle of conservation of momentum is used to analyse a system consisting of two colliding particles.
• According to the principle of conservation of momentum, the total momentum of this isolated system
remains constant.

Before After
u1 u2 v1 v2

A B A B

m1 u1 + m2 u2 −m1 v1 + m2 𝑣2

• Thus, the total momentum before the collision must be equal to the total momentum after the collision:

𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 = −𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐
 Elastic collision:
The kinetic energy before
collision is equal to the
kinetic energy after collision

• By conservation of kinetic energy, total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies before and
after collision is the same as the total kinetic energy afterwards.
• No energy is lost
• Transformation of energy

Kinetic energy Elastic potential energy Kinetic energy

u1 u2 v1 v2

A Before B A After B

1 1 1 1
m1 u1 + m2 u2 2
2 m1 v1 + m2 v2 2
2
2 2 2 2
• Do they stick together after impact?
• What is the total kinetic energy before and after impact?
• What is the total momentum?
 Application of the two conservation conditions show that
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
2 2 2 2
 Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and direction of travel is
irrelevant
 Elastic collision occur in the collisions of atoms and molecules
(kinetic theory of gases)
 Exercise

1. In figure, trolley A of mass 0.80 kg travelling at a

velocity of 3.0 ms−1 collides head-on with a stationary
trolley B. Trolley B has twice the mass of trolley A. The
trolleys stick together and have a common velocity of
1.0 ms−1 after the collision. Show that momentum is
conserved in this collision.
 Exercise

2. Calculate the momentum of each of the following objects:

a) A 0.50 kg stone travelling at a velocity of 20 ms−1
b) A 25 000 kg bus travelling at 20 ms −1 on a road
c) An electron travelling at 2.0 × 107 ms−1 .
(the mass of the electron is 9.1 × 10−31 kg.)
3. Two balls, each of mass 0.50 kg, collide as shown in figure below. Show that their total momentum before
the collision is equal to their total momentum after the collision.
Relative speed in
elastic collision
Only apply in elastic collision
• In a perfectly elastic collision, of two bodies, the relative speed of the body’s
approach is equal to the relative speed of their separation.
relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation

𝐮𝟏 − 𝐮𝟐 = 𝐯𝟐 − 𝐯𝟏
 Example
Before
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐛𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
= momentum of A + momentum of B = k. e. of A + k. e. of B
1 1
= 𝑚𝑣 + −𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
= 0 2 2
= 𝑚𝑣 2

After
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐚𝐟𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧
= momentum of A + momentum of B = k. e. of A + k. e. of B
1 1
= 𝑚 −𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
= 0 2 2
= 𝑚𝑣 2

 So the total momentum and the total kinetic energy are

unchanged. They are both conserved in a perfectly elastic 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝:
collision. relative speed of approach = relative speed of seperation
 In this collision, the objects have a relative speed of 2v before the 𝑣1 + (− 𝑣2 ) = (−𝑣1 ) + 𝑣2
collision. 𝑣1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 + 𝑣2

 After their collision, their velocities are reversed so their relative 2𝑣1 = 2𝑣2
speed is 2v again. This is a feature of perfectly elastic collisions.
• Example:

equation: 𝐔𝐀 + 𝐔𝐁 = 𝐕𝐁 − 𝐕𝐀
Exercise
Inelastic collision
 • Total energy must be conserved
• In an extreme case, all the kinetic energy may be lost
• Although kinetic energy may or may not be conserved in a collision,

The kinetic energy before collision is NOT equal to the kinetic energy after collision

During an inelastic collision,

the total kinetic energy of
the bodies becomes smaller.
 Exercise

1. In the game of bowls, a player rolls a large ball towards

a smaller, stationary ball. A large ball of mass
5.0 kg moving at 10.0 ms−1 strikes a stationary ball of
mass 1.0 kg. The smaller ball flies off at 10.0 ms −1 .
a) Determine the final velocity of the large ball after
the impact.
b) Calculate the kinetic energy ‘lost’ in the impact.
 Exercise

2. Figure shows two identical balls A and B about to make a head-on collision. After
the collision, ball A rebounds at a speed of 1.5 ms −1 and ball B rebounds at a speed
of 2.5 ms −1 . The mass of each ball is 4.0 kg.
a) Calculate the momentum of each ball before the collision.
b) Calculate the momentum of each ball after the collision.
c) Is the momentum conserved in the collision?
d) Show that the total kinetic energy of the two balls is conserved in the collision.
e) Show that the relative speed of the balls is the same before and after the
collision.
3. A trolley of mass 1.0 kg is moving at 2.0 ms −1 . It collides with a stationary trolley
of mass 2.0 kg. This second trolley moves off at 1.2 ms −1 .
a) Draw ‘before’ and ‘after’ diagrams to show the situation.
b) Use the principle of conservation of momentum to calculate the speed of the
first trolley after the collision. In what direction does it move?
 Difference
between elastic
and inelastic
collision
Elastic: 𝐦𝐮 = −𝐦𝐮
Inelastic: 𝐦𝐮 ≠ −𝐦𝐯
• Elastic collision
– Sphere X will stop
– Sphere Y will move with speed v

• Inelastic collision
– EITHER sphere X and Y will stick
together and travel with new
speed OR
– Sphere x will rebound with its
speed and sphere Y will travel to
right with its speed.
𝐦𝟏 𝐮𝟏 − 𝐦𝟐 𝐮𝟐 = −𝐦𝟏 𝐯𝟏 + 𝐦𝟐 𝐯𝟐
 Example
• What is the magnitude of the momentum of an α particle of mass 6.6 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
travelling with a speed of 2.0 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 ?
– (𝐴𝑛𝑠: 1.3 × 10−19 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 )
• A cannon of mass 1.5 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠 (1.5 × 103 𝑘𝑔) fires a canon-ball of mass 5.0 𝑘𝑔. The
speed with which the ball leaves the cannon is 70 𝑚𝑠 −1 relative to the Earth. What is the
initial speed of recoil of the cannon?
– (𝐴𝑛𝑠: 0.23 𝑚𝑠 −1 )
• What is the magnitude of the momentum of an electron of mass 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
travelling with a speed of 7.5 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1 ?
– (𝐴𝑛𝑠: 6.8 × 10−24 𝑁𝑠)
• An ice-skater of mass 80 𝑘𝑔, initially at rest, pushes his partner, of mass 65 𝑘𝑔, away
from him so that she moves with an initial speed of 1.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 . What is the initial speed
of the first skater after this maneuver?
– (𝐴𝑛𝑠: 1.2 𝑚𝑠 −1 )
Change in momentum
Change in momentum = impulse
Graph of momentum
• From Newton’s second law, force acting on a body is equal to the rate of change
of momentum of the body
• Also known as average force
• The equation; Δ𝑝 If a constant force F acts on a
𝐹= body for a time ∆t, the impulse
Δ𝑡 of the force is given by F∆t.
• Multiply both side with Δt; 𝐹Δ𝑡 = Δ𝑝
• FΔt impulse of the force
• Δp change of the momentum
• Therefore,
 𝚫𝐩 = 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦 = 𝐦𝐯 − 𝐦𝐮

• Change momentum is a scalar (magnitude only)

• Elastic : 𝟐 𝐦𝐯 to the left

• Inelastic :
Force and momentum
graph over time
• Force proportional to acceleration
• Acceleration constant, velocity
increase linearly
• Force negative, deceleration occur
• Momentum and velocity are
related
• Velocity constant when
acceleration is 0
 Example
• Some tennis player can serve the ball at a speed of 55ms-1. The tennis ball has a
mass of 60g. In an experiment it is determined that the ball is in contact with the
racket for 25ms during the serve. Calculate the average force exerted by the racket
on the ball.
– (Ans:132N)
• A golfer hits a ball of mass 45g at a speed of 40ms-1. The golf club is in contact with
the ball for 3.0ms. Calculate the average force exerted by the club on the ball.
– (Ans:600N)
Type of collision ෍ Momentum Kinetic energy Total energy

Perfectly elastic Conserved Conserved Conserved

Inelastic Conserved Not conserved Conserved
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