Vectors and the geometry of space

Three-dimensional coordinate systems

Innocent Harvey Gondwe

Mzuzu University
Department of Mathematics and Statistics

December 19, 2022

 Three-dimensional coordinate systems
We locate a point in a plane as an ordered pair (a, b) of real
numbers, where a is the x -coordinate and b is the y -coordinate.
A plane is called two-dimensional.
We locate a point in space by an ordered triple (a, b, c) of real
numbers.
We draw the orientation of the axes as in Figure 1.

Figure: Coordinate axes

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d
The direction of the z-axis is determined by the right-hand rule
as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure: Right-hand rule

The three coordinate axes determine the three coordinate

planes. The xy -plane, the yz-plane and the xz-plane.
These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts,
called octants as in Figure 3 below.
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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Figure: Coordinate planes

To locate the point P(a, b, c), start at the origin O and move a
units along the x -axis, then b units parallel to the y -axis, and
then c units parallel to the z-axis as in Figure 4 below.

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Figure: Locating point P(a, b, c).

Example
Locate the following points on a three-dimensional coordinate system
(a) (−4, 3, −5)
(b) (3, −2, −6).
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 Solution
(a) To locate the point (−4, 3, −5), start at the origin O and move
−4 units along the x -axis, then 3 units parallel to the y -axis,
and then −5 units parallel to the z-axis as in Figure 5 below.

Figure: Locating a point (−4, 3, −5).

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 Solution cont’d
(b) To locate the point (3, −2, −6), start at the origin O and move
3 units along the x -axis, then −2 units parallel to the y -axis,
and then −6 units parallel to the z-axis as in Figure 6 below.

Figure: Locating a point (3, −2, −6).

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

The Cartesian product R × R × R = {(x , y , z) | x , y , z ∈ R} is

the set of all ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted by
R3 .
Points P in space and ordered triples (a, b, c) in R3 form a
three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.

Note
In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of an equation
involving x and y is a curve in R2 .
In three-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of an equation
involving x , y and z is a surface in R3 .

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Example
Draw surfaces in R3 which are represented by the following
equations.
(a) z = 3
(b) y = 5
(c) z = 6 − 3x − 2y .

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Solution
(a) The equation z = 3 represents the set {(x , y , z) | z = 3}, which
is the set of all points in R3 whose z-coordinate is 3.

Figure: z = 3, a plane in R3 .

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 Solution cont’d
(b) The equation y = 5 represents the set {(x , y , z) | y = 5}, which
is the set of all points in R3 whose y -coordinate is 5.

Figure: y = 5, a plane in R3 .

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 Solution cont’d
(c) We first find the intercepts. Putting y = z = 0 in the equation,
we get x = 2 as the x -intercept. Similarly, y = 3 in the
y -intercept and z = 6 in the z-intercept.

Figure: z = 6 − 3x − 2y , a plane in R3 .

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Distance formula in three dimensions

The distance |AB| between the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
q
|AB| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

Example
Find the distance from the point P(2, −1, 7) to the point Q(1, −3, 5).

Solution
q √
|PQ| = (1 − 2)2 + (−3 + 1)2 + (5 − 7)2 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 3.

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 Three-dimensional coordinate systems cont’d

Equation of a sphere
An equation of a sphere with centre C (h, k, l) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − l)2 = r 2 .

In particular, if the centre is the origin O(0, 0, 0), then an equation of

the sphere is
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2.

Example
Show that x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4x − 6y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation of
the sphere, and find its centre and radius.

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 Solution
Rewrite the equation to be in the form

(x 2 + 4x ) + (y 2 − 6y ) + (z 2 + 2z) = −6

and complete the squares to get

(x 2 + 4x + (2)2 ) + (y 2 − 6y + (−3)2 )
+(z 2 + 2z + (1)2 ) = −6 + (2)2 + (−3)2 + (1)2
(x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 + (z + 1)2 = 8. (1)

Comparing Equation (1) with the standard form, we observe that it is

the equation of the sphere with

centre = (−2, 3, −1) and

√ √
radius = 8 = 2 2.
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 Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
A vector is often represented by an arrow or a directed line
segment.
A vector, say v , is denoted by v̂ or ~v or v or v.
For example, A particle that moves along a line segment from
point A to point B is illustrated below:

Figure: Displacement vector from A to B.

The displacement vector ~v = AB ~ has initial point A (the tail)

and terminal point B (the tip).
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 Vectors cont’d
Equivalent (equal) vectors
Vectors are said to be equivalent (equal) if they have the same length
and the same direction. For example, ~v = AB ~ and ~u = CD~ below

Figure: Equivalent (equal) vectors

Zero vector
A zero vector is a vector with length 0. It is denoted by 0.
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 Zero vector cont’d
It is the only vector with no specific direction.

Triangle Law of vector addition

If ~u and ~v are vectors positioned so that the initial point of ~v is at
the terminal point of ~u , then the sum ~u + ~v (i.e. the resultant
vector) is the vector from the initial point of ~u to the terminal point
of ~v . See Figure below

Figure: The triangle law

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 Parallelogram Law of vector addition
Starting with the vectors ~u and ~v and drawing another copy of ~v with
the same initial point as ~u and completing the parallelogram, we
observe that the resultant vector ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u lies along the
diagonal of the parallelogram. See Figure below

Figure: The parallelogram law

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 Example
Draw the sum of the vectors ~a and ~b below

Figure: Vectors ~a and ~b

using
(a) triangle law.
(b) parallelogram law.

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 Solution
(a) Translate the vectors without changing length and direction to
get the resultant vector ~a + ~b as below.

Figure: Resultant vector ~a + ~b

(b) Translate the vectors without changing length and direction to

get the resultant vector ~a + ~b = ~b + ~a as the diagonal of the
parallelogram.

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 Solution cont’d

Figure: Resultant vector ~a + ~b = ~b + ~a

Scaler multiplication
If c is a scaler and ~v is a vector, then the scaler multiple c~v is the
vector whose length is |c| times the length of ~v and whose direction
is the same as ~v if c > 0 and is opposite to ~v if c < 0. If c = 0 or
~v = ~0, then c~v = ~0.

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 For example, see Figure below

Figure: Scaler multiples of ~v

Parallel vectors
Two nonzero vectors are parallel if they are scaler multiples of one
another.

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 Example
If ~a and ~b are the vectors shown in the Figure below, draw ~a − 2~b.

Figure: Vectors ~a and ~b

Solution
Draw the vector −2~b pointing in the direction opposite to ~b and
twice as long. Translate −2~b and use Triangle Law to draw
~a + (−2~b) as below

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 Figure

Components of a vector
Here, we introduce a coordinate system and treat vectors
algebraically.
If we place the initial point of vector ~a at the origin of a
rectangular coordinate system, then the terminal point of ~a has
coordinates of the form (a1 , a2 ) or (a1 , a2 , a3 ), depending on
whether the coordinate system is two-dimensional or
three-dimensional.

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 (a) Components in two-dimension (b) Components in three-dimension

Figure: Components of ~a in two- and three-dimensional coordinate system

These coordinates are called the components of ~a and we write

~a = ha1 , a2 i or ~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i

Position vector
A vector from the origin O to a point P(a1 , a2 , a3 ) is called the
position vector of the point P. It is denoted by OP. ~
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 Given the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ), the vector ~a with
~ is
representation AB

~a = hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 i.

Example
Find the vector represented by the directed line segment with initial
point A(2, −3, 4) and terminal point B(−2, 1, 1).

Solution
~ is
The vector corresponding to AB

~a = h−2 − 2, 1 − (−3), 1 − 4i = h−4, 4, −3i.

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 Vectors cont’d

Magnitude/length of a vector
The magnitude or length of the vector ~v is the length of any
of its representations.
It is denoted by |~v | or ||~v ||.
The length of a two-dimensional vector ~a = ha1 , a2 i is
q
|~a| = a12 + a22 .

The length of a three-dimensional vector ~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i is

q
|~a| = a12 + a22 + a32 .

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 Addition and subtraction of vectors
To add/subtract algebraic vectors, we add/subtract their
components.
If ~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i and ~b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i, then

~a + ~b = ha1 , a2 , a3 i + hb1 , b2 , b3 i = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 i

~a − ~b = ha1 , a2 , a3 i − hb1 , b2 , b3 i = ha1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 i.

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

To multiply a vector by a scalar, we multiply each component by
that scalar.
If ~a = ha1 , a2 i, ~b = hb1 , b2 , b3 i and c is a constant, then

c~a = cha1 , a2 i = hca1 , ca2 i

c ~b = chb1 , b2 , b3 i = hcb1 , cb2 , cb3 i.
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 Example
If ~a = h4, 0, 3i and ~b = h−2, 1, 5i, find
(a) |~a|
(b) ~a + ~b
(c) ~a − ~b
(d) 2~a + 5~b.

Solution
√ √
(a) |~a| = 42 + 02 + 32 = 25 = 5
(b) ~a + ~b = h4, 0, 3i + h−2, 1, 5i = h2, 1, 8i
(c) ~a − ~b = h4, 0, 3i − h−2, 1, 5i = h6, −1, −2i
(d) 2~a + 5~b = 2h4, 0, 3i + 5h−2, 1, 5i = h−2, 5, 31i.

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 Properties of vectors
If ~a, ~b and ~c are vectors in Vn (i.e. the set of all n-dimensional
vectors) and c and d are scalars, then
1 ~a + ~b = ~b + ~a
2 ~a + (~b + ~c ) = (~a + ~b) + ~c
3 ~a + ~0 = ~a
4 ~a + (−~a) = ~0
5 c(~a + ~b) = c~a + c ~b
6 (c + d)~a = c~a + d~a
7 (cd)~a = c(d~a)
8 1~a = ~a.

Proof
We prove Property 1 and the rest are left as exercises.
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 Proof cont’d

~a + ~b = ha1 , a2 , a3 i + hb1 , b2 , b3 i = ha1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 i

= hb1 + a1 , b2 + a2 , b3 + a3 i = hb1 , b2 , b3 i + ha1 , a2 , a3 i
= ~b + ~a.

Note
Property 1 is called the commutative property.
Property 2 is called the associative property.

Standard basis vectors

The vectors
~i = h1, 0, 0i, ~j = h0, 1, 0i and ~k = h0, 0, 1i

are called the standard basis vectors.

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 Standard basis vectors cont’d
Standard basis vectors have length 1 and point in the directions
of positive x -, y - and z-axes.

Figure: Standard basis vectors

If ~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i, then we can write

~a = ha1 , a2 , a3 i = ha1 , 0, 0i + h0, a2 , 0i + h0, 0, a3 i
= a1 h1, 0, 0i + a2 h0, 1, 0i + a3 h0, 0, 1i
= a1~i + a2~j + a3~k.
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 Similarly, in two-dimensions

~a = ha1 , a2 i = a1~i + a2~j.

Example
If ~a = ~i + 2~j − 3~k and ~b = 4~i + 7~k, express the vector 2~a + 3~b in
terms of ~i, ~j and ~k.

Solution

2~a + 3~b = 2(~i + 2~j − 3~k) + 3(4~i + 7~k)

= 2~i + 4~j − 6~k + 12~i + 21~k
= 14~i + 4~j + 15~k.

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 Unit vector
A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.
For example, ~i, ~j and ~k are all unit vectors.
In general, if ~a 6= ~0, then the unit vector that has the same
direction as ~a is
1 ~a
~u = ~a = .
|~a| |~a|

Example
Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2~i − ~j − 2~k.

Solution
q √
|2~i − ~j − 2~k| = 22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 9=3
1 1 2~ 1~ 2~
~u = ~a = (2~i − ~j − 2~k) = i− j− k.
|~a| 3 3 3 3
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