Week 5

Dmitry Savransky

Cornell University

MAE 2030, Spring 2024

©Dmitry Savransky 2023-2024

Work
A force does work on a body when it displaces the body along a trajectory
The work performed on particle P by force
FP from time t1 to t2 is the integral of the
component of the force tangential (FP · r̂P/O )
to P ’s trajectory (γP ) from position rP/O (t1 )
to rP/O (t2 ):
Z
FP
WP (rP/O ; γP ) ≜ FP · I drP/O
γP | {z }
Path Integral over trajectory Differential Displacement

• The component of force perpendicular to the trajectory (FP ⊥ r̂P/O )

does no work

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More Work

• Work is not (in general) simply force times distance: it depends on the
specific trajectory
• Work is a scalar quantity, but depends on integration of vector
quantities in an inertial frame
• Work is only done when the body is moving. As long as the body does
not stop moving between t1 and t2 (e.g. IvP/O (t) ̸= 0 for t1 ≤ t ≤ t2 ), we
can change the work integral to be with respect to time:
Z t2
FP
WP (rP/O ; γP ) = FP · IvP/O dt
t1

Power

• The power done by a force acting on a body is equal to the

instantaneous rate of change of the work done by the force:

d
PF
P (t1 ) ≜
P
WPFP (rP/O ; γP )
dt t=t1

• If the velocity is always non-zero:

PF I
P (t1 ) = FP (t1 ) · vP/O (t1 )
P

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Units

• Force is mass times acceleration

• SI units are Newtons: N = kg m s−2
• Work is force integrated over displacement
• SI units are Joules: J = N m
• Power is work per unit time
• SI units are Watts: W = J s−1

Total Work

• We can use the definition of work along with Newton’s second law to
define total work—the work due to the sum of all forces acting on a
body:
X
≡ FP
P
Z z }| {
FP
tot
WP (rP/O ; γP ) ≜ WP (rP/O ; γP ) = mP IaP/O ·I drP/O
γP
Z I Z
dI 1I
= mP vP/O · I drP/O = mP I
dvP/O · drP/O
γP dt γP dt
| {z }
≡ IvP/O

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A Brief Aside
• Note that differentials essentially follow the same rules as derivatives
(including chain rule and product rule). Therefore:

≡ ∥IvP/O ∥2
z }|
{ I I
I
d vP/O · vP/O = d vP/O · IvP/O + IvP/O · I d IvP/O
I I

= 2 I d IvP/O · IvP/O

• Why is this important? Because we can now write our total work
expression as:
Z Z
I I mP I
tot
WP (rP/O ; γP ) = mP dvP/O · vP/O = d∥IvP/O ∥2
γP 2 γP
• We are now integrating an exact differential and therefore our integral
no longer has path dependence!

Kinetic Energy (KE)

• Our total work expression is now:
Z IvP/O (t2 )
mP I mP I mP I
tot
WP = d∥IvP/O ∥2 = ∥ vP/O (t2 )∥2 − ∥ vP/O (t1 )∥2
2 IvP/O (t1 ) |2 {z } |2 {z }
≜ TP/O (t2 ) ≜ TP/O (t1 )
1
• TP/O ≜ mp (IvP/O · IvP/O ) is the kinetic energy of our particle/body
2
• The change in kinetic energy from time t1 to t2 is equal to the total work
done on the particle/body in that interval:
TP/O (t2 ) = TP/O (t1 ) + WPtot (t1 , t2 )
• Even though work is path dependent, the change in kinetic energy (and
total work) depends only on path endpoints
• The velocity used to calculate kinetic energy must be with respect to an
inertial frame

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Work and Impulse

• Recall that our model of impulse is that the body does not move while
the impulse is being applied
• This implies that no work is being done
• To fix this, we define work due to an impulse by the change in
velocity/KE:

mp IvP/O (t2 ) = mP IvP/O (t1 ) + FP (t1 , t2 )

=⇒ WPFP (t1 , t2 ) = TP/O (t2 ) − TP/O (t1 )

Conservative Forces
• We now consider a special class of forces called conservative forces
• Work done by a conservative force depends only on the endpoints of the
path

• If the force on the particle is

non-conservative, different amounts of work
will be done on 1 → 2 vs 2 → 1
• If the force is conservative, the work done on
both paths is the same and total work over
the round trip (1 → 2 → 1) is zero

I
FP · I drP/O = 0 ⇐⇒ FP is conservative

Closed Path Integral

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Potential Energy
• It is useful to split total work as:
(tot) (c) (nc)
WP (rP/O ; γP ) = WP (t1 , t2 ) + WP (rP/O ; γP )
| {z } | {z }
Work due to Work due to
conservative forces non-conservative forces
• The work due to conservative forces is how we define potential energy:

 
(cons)
Z (cons)
FP (cons) (cons) FP
UP/O (rP/O ) ≜ − FP · I drP/O =⇒ FP = −∇UP/O

• The change in potential energy is equal to the work done by conservative

forces:
(c)
UP/O (t2 ) = UP/O (t1 ) − WP (t1 , t2 )

Total Energy
• The total energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic and potential
energy:

EP/O (t) ≜ TP/O (t) + UP/O (t)

• Recalling our previous definitions:

TP/O (t2 ) UP/O (t2 )

z }| { z }| {
tot (c)
EP/O (t2 ) = TP/O (t1 ) + WP (t1 , t2 ) + UP/O (t1 ) − WP (t1 , t2 )
(c)
= TP/O (t1 ) + UP/O (t1 ) + WPtot (t1 , t2 ) − WP (t1 , t2 )
| {z } | {z }
EP/O (t1 ) (nc)
WP (rP/O ; γP )
• Change in total energy is due to non-conservative forces only

6
Gravity
• Constant field forces (modeled as
independent of mass location) are
conservative
• An example of this is our gravity model
for objects near the surface of the Earth
• g is approximated as constant so the
force is constant at all positions
• The potential energy associated with this force is:
Z Z
Fg
UP/O (rP/O ) = − Fg · drP/O = − (−mP gê2 ) · I d (xê1 + yê2 + zê3 )
I

Z
= mP g ê2 · I d (yê2 ) = mP gy + c
| {z }
≡ dyê2

Gravity Continued
• NB: We get to choose the value of the constant of integration to make
the potential energy behave the way we want it to (e.g. so that it equals
zero at some convenient location)
Fg
• For gravity, we typically choose c such that UP/O (rP/O ) = 0 for y = 0.
Thus:

F
g
UP/O (rP/O ) = mP gy

• Potential due to constant gravity is proportional to height

• We can also check that we can recover the force from the potential:
 
Fg ∂ (mP gy) ∂ (mP gy) ∂ (mP gy)
Fg = −∇UP/O = − ê1 + ê2 + ê3 = −mP gê2
∂x ∂y ∂z

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Linear Springs

• Define x′ ≜ (x − x0 ) such that Fs = −kx′ ê1

Z Z
F
• UP/O
s
(rP/O ) = − Fs · drP/O = − (−kx′ ê1 ) · I d ((x′ + x0 )ê1 ) =
I

k(x′ )2
+c
2

Linear Springs Continued

Fs
• Select c such that UP/O = 0 when x′ = 0:

Fs 1
UP/O (rP/O ) = k(x − x0 )2
2

• Checking the reverse operation:

  k(x′ )2   ′ 2
k(x )
 ′ 2 
k(x )
∂ 2
∂ 2
∂ 2
Fs = −∇UP/OFs
= − ê1 + ê2 + ê3  = −kx′ ê1
∂x ∂y ∂z

= −k(x − x0 )ê1

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Our Old Friend, the Simple Pendulum

• Remember: we get to choose where the

gravitational potential energy is zero
rP/O = ℓêr ⇒ IvP/O = ℓθ̇êθ Fg
(UP/O = mP gy + c)
mP I • Let’s pick a zero point at the height of
vP/O · IvP/O


TP/O =
2 the attachment point (θ = ± π2 )
mP 2 2
= ℓ θ̇ Fg

2 UP/O = mP g rP/O · −ê1 = −mP gℓ cos θ

The Simple Pendulum with Energy, Continued

• The constraint force is a normal force (perpendicular to the velocity)
and therefore does no work (we know that it is normal because it is
always in the êr direction while the velocity is always in the êθ direction)
• Let’s check anyway:
Z t2 Z t2 Z t2
(−Fc êr ) · I drP/O = (−Fc êr ) · IvP/O dt = − Fc ℓθ̇ (êr · êθ ) dt = 0
t1 t1 | {z } t1
Id
≡ r
dt P/O
dt

• There are no other forces so:

mP 2 2
EP/O = TP/O + UP/O = ℓ θ̇ − mP gℓ cos θ
2
• All forces are conservative, and so EP/O is conserved for all time

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Some More of the Simple Pendulum with Energy
• Let’s take a look at the initial energy:

1
EP/O (t0 ) = mp ℓ2 θ̇(t0 )2 − mp gℓ cos θ(t0 ) = constant
2
• Solving for θ̇2 :  
2 EP/O (t0 ) g
θ̇ = 2 + cos θ
mp ℓ2 ℓ
• We now have a first order differential equation rather than a second
order one, as we got from Newton’s second law. Are they the same?
d 2 g g
θ̇ = 2θ̈θ̇ = −2 sin θθ̇ =⇒ θ̈ = − sin θ
dt ℓ ℓ

Integrating the Simple Pendulum Energy Equation

• Even more interestingly, we can directly integrate our θ̇ expression:

θ̇
r   =1
EP/O (0)
2 mp ℓ2 + gℓ cos θ
Z t
Z θ(t)
Z t
θ̇ dt dθ
r  = 1 dt ⇒ t = r  
EP/O (0) 0 EP/O (0)
0
2 mp ℓ2 + gℓ cos θ θ(0)
g
2 mp ℓ2 + ℓ cos θ

• This is an example of an elliptic integral, and has known solutions (see

also ellipke in MATLAB)

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Simple Machines and Mechanical Advantage

Lever Pulley Inclined Plane (Ramp)

• A simple machine is a device that changes the magnitude and/or

direction of a force
• Simple machines can produce mechanical advantage (force
magnification)
∥Fout ∥
MA =
∥Fin ∥

Pulleys

• A stationary pulley (one fixed in the inertial frame) is a simple

machine that can change the direction of an applied force
• We model the pulley system by assuming the rope is massless and
inelastic
• The rope directly transfers the tension force to the mass
• The rope acts as a position constraint: the mass moves up the exact
distance the rope is pulled. NB: regardless of how the rope is pulled, the
mass moves only in ê2 (γP is a straight line)

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Pulleys

• While the mass effectively has three degrees of freedom, our model
means that it only moves in one dimension, and so we will only use a
single coordinate to describe the kinematics:
I
rP/O = yê2 =⇒ aP/O = ÿê2
T
(T − mP g) êy = mP ÿêy =⇒ ÿ = −g
mP

Pulley Work
• If T = mP g then ÿ = 0 ⇒ ẏ = constant = ẏ(0) ≜ v0
• In this case, the work associated with hoisting the mass a height h is
Z h
(T)
WP (rP/O ; γP ) = mP g dy = mp gh
0
Z h
(tot)
• The total work is WP (rP/O ; γP ) = (mP g − mP g) dy = 0
0
• This is internally consistent, as WP(tot) = ∆KE and the mass’s velocity is
constant, so KE does not change.
• Don’t forget, the mass has to start moving somehow. We model this
with an initial impulse FP :
mP 2 mP 2
WPFP (t1 , t2 ) = TP/O (t2 ) − TP/O (t1 ) = v0 − 0 = v
2 2 0

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Combining Simple Machines

• Assume friction between the ramp and block, and that the block is
pulled at a constant rate (IaP/O = 0) (
  N = mP g cos(α)
T b̂1 −µc N b̂1 +N b̂2 −mP g sin(α)b̂1 + cos(α)b̂2 = 0
T = mP g (cos(α)µc + sin(α))

• We can achieve advantage over the pulley by itself if T < mP g

1 − sin α
mP g (cos(α)µc + sin(α)) < mP g ⇒ µc <
cos α
∥Fout ∥ mP g 1
MA = = =
∥Fin ∥ mP g (cos(α)µc + sin(α)) cos(α)µc + sin(α)

Pulley + Inclined Plane Mechanical Advantage

• For a given value of the ramp

angle (α), there is a limiting value
of µc such that the mechanical
advantage of the system is ≥ 1
• The decreased required force
magnitude for this system comes
at the cost of time: if the velocity
of the block is the same as in the
simple pulley case, then it will
take longer to get the block to the
same height

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Pulley + Inclined Plane Work

• The work done by the tension force is:

Z Z d
(T) I
WP (rP/O ; γP ) = T b̂1 · d rP/O = mP g (cos(α)µc + sin(α)) ds
γP |{z} 0
= sb̂1
 
µc
= mP gd (cos(α)µc + sin(α)) = mP gh 1 +
tan(α)

• Smaller values of α require more work. As α → 0, WP(T) → ∞

Movable Pulleys

• Another way of getting advantage out of pulleys is to allow them to move

• In this case, all forces are in the ê2 direction, so we can directly write:
Fc + T = mP g
• The tension force must be constant throughout the rope, so Fc = T
m g mP g
• Therefore: T = P =⇒ MA = m g = 2
2 P /2

14
Block and Tackle

• A block and tackle is a system of two or more pulleys connected by

one rope
• We can add a stationary pulley to our movable one (this configuration is
sometimes called a ‘gun tackle’)
• The stationary pulley only redirects the tension force, but provides no
additional advantage
m g
• The tension magnitude is still T = P so the mechanical advantage is
2
still 2

Traveling Gun Tackle

• We can change the gun tackle setup to distribute the weight of the mass
between the stationary and movable pulley
• Cannot assume that the weight is equally distributed, so introduce a
variable x representing the fraction of weight on the movable pulley
• The tension in the rope is still constant so:
)
T + T = mP gx
3T = mP g =⇒ MA = 3
T = mP g(1 − x)

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More on Tackle
• In general, the mechanical advantage of a tackle system is equal to the
number of rope segments that support the load
• In theory: the more lengths you add, the higher the mechanical
advantage
• In practice: real pulleys and ropes have mass and friction
• We can achieve a very general understanding of many simple machines
by considering the transmission of power. Assuming no losses:

Pin = Pout =⇒ Fin · Ivin = Fout · Ivout

• If F is in the direction of the velocity (generally true for simple

machines) then this is a scalar equation and tells us that if force is
amplified then the motion is attenuated and vice versa

Carts + Pulleys

Force attenuated and motion

Force multiplied and motion
1 multiplied: cart moves twice as fast as
attenuated: cart moves with 2
speed
point B

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