The Harappan script remains undeciphered, posing a significant challenge to archaeologists and historians. Its enigmatic nature is due to the brevity of inscriptions, the lack of bilingual texts, and the absence of a known language family link, which limits understanding of administration, governance, and other socio-cultural aspects of Harappan life . This hampers the reconstruction of the civilization's linguistic and administrative aspects .

Harappan settlements were typically divided into two sections: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was a raised area that was fortified and likely contained public buildings, administrative centers, and possibly elite residential areas, demonstrating a degree of organized governance . The Lower Town, on the other hand, was where the general population lived and was characterized by a grid layout, indicating systematic urban planning .

The drainage system of the Harappan civilization is indicative of their expert town planning as it was elaborate and integrated throughout the city. Drains were made with baked bricks and covered to prevent debris ingress, showcasing a priority for hygiene . Wastewater from houses flowed into street drains, which directed it out of the city, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of sanitation management .

The Harappans employed various strategies to procure materials for craft production, including local sourcing from surrounding geological areas and establishing trade networks with distant regions . They likely exchanged goods such as cotton textiles, beads, and agricultural products for metals, precious stones, and other raw materials, facilitated by extensive trade routes reaching places like Mesopotamia .

Archaeologists identify socio-economic differences among the Harappan people by examining the size and furnishings of dwellings, differential grave goods in burials, and the distribution and types of artifacts recovered across sites . Larger houses with elaborate finishes suggest higher social status, while simpler, smaller houses imply lower economic status. Additionally, distinctions in burial practices and goods point towards stratification within the society .

Archaeologists identify centers of craft production by locating clusters of raw material waste, unfinished or lower quality artifacts, and specific tools associated with certain crafts like bead-making or metallurgy . These sites often show signs of repeated use and specialization, with evidence such as kilns or furnaces in the vicinity .

The Harappans had well-developed trade relations with West Asia, evidenced by the discovery of Harappan seals and pottery in Mesopotamia and references to Meluhha in Sumerian texts, which is believed to correspond to the Indus region . Trade items likely included exports such as beads, lapis lazuli, and cotton, while imports consisted of copper, gold, and silver, indicating a sophisticated exchange system . These findings demonstrate significant economic interaction and cultural exchange .

REM Wheeler significantly contributed to Harappan civilization studies by introducing rigorous stratigraphic excavation techniques to Indian archaeology. This methodical approach helped gain a clearer understanding of the temporal sequence of occupation layers in cities like Mohenjo-Daro, enhancing precision in artifacts’ dating and contextual analysis .

The architectural features of Mohenjo-Daro showcased advanced urban planning through the presence of a highly organized grid layout, sophisticated drainage systems, and substantial public baths like the Great Bath, which suggests detailed sanitation planning . The wide, straight streets were systematically laid out, prompting ease of movement and division into blocks, further indicating an understanding of city planning and management. Additionally, uniform brick sizes across structures suggest standardized construction practices .

After 1900 BCE, two significant changes observed in the Harappan civilization were the decline in urban characteristics such as structured streets and drainage systems, and the disappearance of writing, weights, and seals . Possible reasons for these changes include environmental shifts like the drying up of the Saraswati River, overuse of resources, or sociopolitical disruptions possibly leading to decentralization .