Chapter 4:Biological moleculeS Fats

* Carbon, oxygen and Hydrogen

-most fats clipids) in the
Proteins body
carbohydrates. are made up of
triglycerides.
Carbon, All
* contain Carbon, basic unitof fatis 1glycerol
oxygen, Hydrogen and
-

*
oxygen and Hydrogen
molecule
Nitrogen, some contain small amounts of chemically bonded with
Long chains of simple sugars
-

other elements like

3 fatty acid chains.
Glucose is sulphur.
simple sugar (Monosaccharide)
-

a
chain of amino acids
-Lipids are divided into fats
Long
-

When lots of Glucose join RTP)

-

<Solid and oils (liquid

together starch, 20 differentamino
at at

glycogen
-

or cellulose can form depending on acids RTP).

structure, these are
-

Same basic structure for all

polysaccharides.

·
proteins but
the 'R' is different for each one.
amino acids can be arranged in
many
88888 8 8 8 o 8 ag 8o88888888888888008800
-

gigoo
re
differentpatterns resulting to lots of
differing
proteins H

*N-G-
ias nice. Bein
Glycogen
w a r e e
R
a General amino GLYCEROL + 3FATTYACIDS Triglyceride
.
=

acid structure

Structure of DNA
molecule.
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid (DNAS
min
and
-
molecule contains the instruction for growth
development of all organisms.
-

consists oftwo strands of DNAwound dround each

Other in whati s called a double helix.
-

The individual units inside DNAare

called nucleotides

⑧
forms the
backbone
Of a
phosphate -
4. Base
strand of
DNA
Deoxyribose e (A, T, 20rG)

(A), Cytosine (C),

4
There are differentbases, Adenine
Thymine (T) and Guanine (G).
-bases always pair in the same way:
* Adenine
always with
thymine (A-T)
* Cytosine always with guanine (2-G)

Iodine solution test for Benedict's solution testfor Biuret test for Ethanol emulsion test for DCPIP testfor
PROTEINS.
STARCH. REDUCING SUGARS. FATS AND OILS. VITAMIN C
add drops of biuret solution
-

add Benedicts solution Food sample mixed with 2cm3 add 1cm3 of DCPIP
Start) to food sample)
- - -

add drops of iodine solution (blue colour (blue at

at start) to the sample solution of ethanol and shaken Solution (Blue start)
corange-brown atstart) to
food sample.
in the at
positive testshow colour
test change
-

t ube. to test tube

-positive testw ill make iodine colour ethanol (clear I colourless at
bath for violet/purple
-

to
-
Heat at600-700 in water add small amount of
change
-

to blue-black
Sminutes
-

negative testremains denim-Start) is added to equal volume

food sample (as solution)
-

negative test
w ill show blue. of cold water
no colour -

take test tube

positive test
w ill show
change outs observe colour
-

testwill showd
-A positive
positive test
orange or blue dye disappearing
-

brick red
cloudy emulsion forming
negative test
blue-green test will
-

or
yellow
-

negative
green. show no change to

blue colour.
 Of
LimitingFactorsin
-

Chorophys. use and

storage
ProteanMaterialisnhighenergeoxiae
supply thatrestricts life processes
the process in which plants chlorophyll is a
green pigment thatis found in
synthesise Carbohydrate
·

chloroplasts within plant cells.

can be used to: the

at time.
End product:Glucose and
Oxygen
·

Convertto starch molecules and used as

-

energy store

-Lightintensiteconcentration
phloem

LIGHT INTENSITY

Identifying Leaf Structures in a

uncroPaseit
·

·
Stomata

·
spongy mesophyll

How
photosynthesizing Cells obtain CO2? airsparbundles (xylem Phloe i
·

Atmosphere air spaces around spongy Features adaptations

-

cross section and cell of

mesophyll -> leaf mesophyll cells
-

I structures descriptions
a leaf ->
chloroplast

Investigating the need for Investigating the Rate of Investigating Gas Exchange.
Chlorophyll,Light 3 CO2. Photosynthesis
plants faster rate than
· are
photosynthesizing at
respiring atday
So neti ntake ofc arbon dioxide is found and outputo f
net
oxygen.
Chlorophyll. · Plants used are
usually floded or Cabomba- seaweed!
·
Asphotosynthesis occurs, oxygen will release into water
· bubbles per minute can be counted to record rate
Leafs can'tbe tested for more accurate
experiment would
·
glucose as its
measure volume of the
quickly used. But starch is a reliable indicator
oxygen.
Starch is stored in chloroplasts where -
This practical can be used to:
photosynthesis occurs.

I n the experiment, Ethanol is flammable

so its best to use an electric water bath #1:investigate effect of

changing light intensity

Emreexperimentabovecan be usedtheplantneedsto bedestarched for can see

· we can

exchange using
investigate the effecto f light on the netgas
pHindicator like hydrogen carbonate indicator
The leafs can be tested for starch withiodine and this will prove that light is
necessary #2:investigate effect of ·
Carbon dioxide is an acidic gas when in water
for photosynthesis production of starch.

changing temperature
carbon dioxide.
One plant is placed in sodium
hydroxide to
absorb carbon dioxide from surrounding air.
#3:investigate effect of

otherplantisplacedinbesarwithbeer changing carbon dioxide

concentration
Chapter 7:HUMan Nutrition organs.
agestine system
Salivary glands
Diets and deficiences.
a balanced dietn eeds proper amount protein
sugars
Digestive System. associated
organs
Balanced diet is
of carbs, protein, lipids, vitamins, minerals
food pyramid!
Vegetable
raary
PrOCeSSES, small
[
and

dietary fibre and also water!

carene intestines
Ingestion:taking in of substances
large
like food
[
water intestines

digestion:the breakdown offood

Finefines
absorption:movement of nutrients from assimilation:uptake and use of
the intestines into the blood nutrients
by the cell
egestion:removal of
undigested food inform of faeces

scurvy. Rickets
Functions of
-
Vitamin C
deficiency
-
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is needed
deficiency organs in digestive system.
to absorb calcium
-

·
lack ofvitamin (for 3 months in
into and calcium is
diet. body key componentfor
bones and teeth.
symptoms:
Anemia
* & tooth loss
symptoms.
* Bone pain
* Exhaustion * Gum ulceration
* Lack of bone growth
*
Swelling 8 Limb pain
-

scurry was
commonly seen in * soft, weak bones (deformities)
15th
Sailors between 18th
centuary
-

Vitamin D comes from exposure,

sunlight
-

Long sea
journey led to no source and also in foods like fish,eggs, butter.
off resh fruits -treatment for rickets is to consume foods that
-

Scurvy can be treated with oral or are rich in calcium 3 Vitamin D, also vitamin D

intravenous (injected)
vitamin C Supplements can be prescribed

min
PHYSICALDIGESTION. CHEMICALDIGESTION. RPTION.
-

breakdown of food into smaller pieces without -

breakdown of food into smaller molecules that

-

absorption is the movement

digested
of

chemical change to the food molecules can be absorbed used by body. foodmoleculesfromthedigestivesystem,itto
<fatty acids 3 glycerol).
-
this process increases the surface area of food ENZYMES IN DIGESTION. -

Nutrients are absorbed in the

small intestines

to make iteasier for enzymes to

digestin chemical proteases. -Water'sabsorbed not ation488%)
amylase happens in small intestines.

reducedin tenanceease
and secreted in the
produced in the mouth, pancreas and then
Teeth.
-

secreted into the duodenum.

a AAATION
OF SMALL INTESTINES.
ileum is

amassagesareintosmallersugars hereaspecigestsincerian intoaminoandin

long and
highly folded
-

and has
-

teeth are used for chewing thatincreases surface

Surface with millions of villiso it's for
of the food so iti s adapted
area more exposed to saliva and absorption.
digested from maltose to these
digestive juices allowing Trypsin adaptations massive
other glucose produced in
food to be broken down
-

with the pancreases

-

Secreted into the

enzyme
surfacearea ofileum allowing oneret Babin
maltase.
duodenum where itb reaks down
quicker. amylase protein in alkaline
conditions.
different teeth have differentfunction, Starch Maltose
Glucose 3
->

trypsinare of atease!!
-> pepsin type Microvillion the surface of
- -

a
eg:canine
-

to villus and increases

teeth are embedded into

bone gums
riph tear food,
to chew the
incissor to bite
food.
and cut and
premolar/molars
maltase
Protein

polypeptidecaptide
aminoacias surfacearequestsmall allows for fastd iffuse the
The ileum is well supplied with
Lipdseds
a
-

network of
blood capillaries thata re
stomach.
used to transport
glucose, amino acids
away from small intestines.

-Lipaseenzymes are producedinthepancrease

and secreted into the duoden see -Lacteal runs
through the centre ofv illus to
the stomach
lining contains muscles which transportfatty
-

acids, glycerol away from the

small intestines in the
contract to
physically squeeze and mix the food Lymph.

WithstrongadigestivenicethingarepresentWhiteene
Lip aSe

Lipids Glycerol 8
acids
3 fatty

Hydrochloric Acid.
Bile. of fluids and this is known
A stomach produces alot a
gastric
liver produces bile, bile is stored in the
-

gallbladder juices.

Bileisenalineapplenutralizeshydrochloric acidfromstomaare A
Hydrochloric
acid is one t hese
of fluids
bilebreaks large fatdroplets into smaller
-

droplets. This process is

emulsification, large surface areo flipids allows
lipase to acid pH for
chemically break down lipids. Emulsification doesn't
AThe acid kills bacteria and gives enzymes to
chemically change the substance, it
simply makes it smaller whichis still work in the stomach.
apartofphysical/mechanical
digestion.
Low pH denatures in bacterial cells and that
enzymes
-

makes the cell out reactions to

unable to carry any cell

maintain life
-

Eg:pepsin has 2pH level

Hydrochloric acid ensures condition in stomach is within optimum

-

to work atthe fastest

to allow
enzymes like pepsin r ate.
Ensen:
-

emirisortingne
min

in
root cells
hair translocation
-
-

The soluble products of photosynthesis are

Horsonanarewinglesandteensions ofepidermiscellatethe Sugars (mainly sucrose) and amino acids

phloem tubes which are made up of

This happens because soil has
living cells
higher water potential than
in roofh air cells so water osmoses into cell.
Cytoplasm
·
roofh air cells have increased surface
area t he absorption
of
in the end cell walls
of water
by osmosis and mineral ions active transport.
(Sieve plates) and allow easy
by
Osmosis causes into
-

water to pass roothair

cells
root cortexand into
through the
xylem vessels:
the phloem, from regions of production to regions
-Once water into itis carried
gets xylem, up to leaves where of storage or use, is called translocation
e nters
it
mesophyll cells

So the PATHWAY OFWATER is:

Transport in the phloem goes in
many different
directions
root hair cell -> rootc ortex
cells -xylem - leaf mesophyll cells depending on developmentb utusually
for dissolved foods its always source to sink
(where its stored or used).
Investigating water movement
in Plants. During winter, when plant has no leaves, phloem transports dissolved sucrose B
investigated by placing plant like amino acids from
Pathway can be a
storage organs to other parts to be used for respiration in plant.
*

beaker ofw ater with coloured water (food dye)

Celery into
During growth period (Spring), storage organs (roots) would be the source and
* After few hours
you can see leaves celery turning into
of
growing areas ofthe plant would be the sinks.
colour t he
of water
proving water is taken up.

Aftertheplanthas grownsummers,leaveswillphotosynthesfortheenter
·

* Ifcross-section is certain areas t he stalk is

cut, only of

stained with colour, these are the xylem vessels.

1 needed again.

transpiration
-
theelect
investigate emperaturatewilting
spiration a
* Water travels up xylem from roots to the ·in the experiment, shoot is underwater to prevent
leaves to replace water thatis lostby air entering xylem.
transpiration.
removecapillarytubetoletair
bubble to for the
Transpiration
· is the loss of water vapour
from leaves by evaporation
surface of spongy mesophyll followed by
of water from the further the bubble travels
Period, the faster transpiration is
in the same time

occuring. wilting healthy

Plant
diffusion ofwater vapour through stomata. plant
Experimental setup for testing the
·
such as:
·
xylem is adapted in ways * if more water evaporates from the
effect of
lightintensity.
Bancethatedliseedsoince"was"form
leaves than thati s available in the soil
continue to

·temperaturein
to move to roots by osmosis,
wilting
will occur
-

Lignin strengthens plant to help itwithstand the

pressure of water movement

transpiration 4 T his
* is when cells are not full of
in
xylem only takes place in one direction
movement
·
Wind Speed: water, so strenght of cell wall can't
from roots to leaves (phloem goes differentdirections).
wind speed supportp lantand itstarts to
collapse
Transpiration Functions. transpiration 4
transport mineral ions
-

provide water to keep cells turgid

water loss.
vapour
ranmoreenactedeach onFeetnsion:
provide water for
photosynthesis
-

-keeping leaves cool evaporative

cooling) place from surfaces of
to * Evaporation takes
continuous columns of water. cells.
1 spongy mesophyll
11 1 1 1 1 1 1 In 11 is transpiration
-watermovesthrough"yemincontinuous
stream at
* the many interconnecting air spaces

&
cells? Stomata create large surface

Traneairdesignagecontestinerestwaterwasnearergn
between
area

* evaporation can
rapidly happen when
water is pulled up the xylem leaves quicker. Stomata are open
mimini
nining
heart
-
Tr a n s p o r tm ent i n g
meaning itc an'ttravel fast.
By returning blood to the heart after going through the lungs
its pressure can be raised

the cells can be

respiration faster and

again before sending to body, meaning
supplied
more
with
oxygen
frequently.
and glucose they need for
carry ox 49 enated blood
thick muscular walls

high pressure

back flow due

thick so
are
leaky
surrounding
and

cells.

narrow arterioles and then

Lung
kidney
Liver hepatic
they

to low
(except pulmonary artery).
containing elastic
have a

pressure

hepatic
capillaries
organ and capillaries widen to venules and finally veins
from the organs, veins carry blood back to the heart.

organ ventureinvein waterartery

pulmonaryarethe pulmonary

hepatic portal reinserts deoxygenated blood from gut

a
fibres, narrow
fastf low of blood.

and

substancescandiffuseinandhasissue filedin
speed of blood flow

a
as
they
and

Renal vein
walls

pass

vein

vein
lumen to maintain

to prevent
is slow.

through
as
the

they move

to liver.

ARTERIOLES AND VENULES.

-

as arteries divide more as

they getfurther from hearta nd
they get

blood
min
narrower and narrow vessels thatc onnect capillaries are called
artery to
arterioles. Veins also get narrower and narrow vessels that connect
capillaries to reins are called venules.

COMPONENTS OFBLOOD: ·
RBC.
transport oxygen for respiration, oxygen is
carried in the form of
oxynaemoglobin
WBC
defend body against infections by pathogens by
carrying out phagocytosis and antibody production. heart
PLATELETS.
Help blood clot Blood is pumped towards the heartveins and away from the
PLASMA. heart in arteries, the two sides of the heart are separated by a

transport carbon dioxide, nutrients, urea, muscle wall called septum, heart is made ofm uscle tissue which
mineral ions, hormones and heat
energy.
are supplied with blood
by coronary arteries

ventricles are thicker than atria as they pump blood outs o they
IDENTIFYING RED 8 WHITE BLOOD CELLS. need to generate higher pressure, left ventricle has thicker muscle
wall than right as itn eeds to pumpblood to the whole body but

right only pumps blood to lungs. Septum separates left right to

prevent
mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
values prevent backflow of blood, two sets of values:
Atrioventricular values:Separate atrium ventricles
Right side is tricuspid-left side is Bichspid value.
values open when atria contracts? Close when ventricle contracts
semilunar values:Prevent backflow from
artery to ventricles
from right ventricle to
lungs Pulmonary value, left to body-aortic
-

value these two arteries are the

only two that contain values
these values OPEN when ventricle contracts shutwhen relax.
BLOOD CLOTTING TYPES OFWHITE BLOOD CELLS. Deoxygenated blood from body flows into right atria via the
platelets are fragments ofc ell which are involved in WBC is part of
vena cava, as
right atria is filled, itcontracts and blood is pushed
has been
body's immunesystem and there is two
through tricuspid value into rightventricle. Walls of ventricle contracteffect ofphysical
blood
clotting and
forming scabs where skin main types of WBC:
phagocytes and lymphocytes blood travels to lungs after passing pulmonary value. 38 xygenated
cut or punctured.
PHAGOCYTES. blood returns to lefta trium through pulmonary vein, then blood activity o n heart

blood prevents continued/alot

of blood loss when carry phagocytosis by engulfing, digesting pathogens
out passes bicuspid value into the leftventricle and the left ventricle Heart activity can be monitored using an ECG [electro cardiogram)
clotting
pushes blood into aorta and then iti s transported all over the measuring the pulse rate or listening to sound values opening of

wounded. Scab formation seals the wound and prevents

body, the aortic value (Semilunar) Prevents backflow. I closing using a stethoscope.
entry of microorganisms thatc ause infections. Heart rate is measured in beats per minute (bpm).
in place till the new skin under it.

RAtricuspid*Pulmonary pulmonary AbicuseLVeeB

the scan remains grows Increased physical activity results in increased heartbreathing
rate. This is to ensure sufficient blood is taken to muscles with
need to also be removed
nutrientsb oxygen waste products
faster and also the oxygen debt needs to be repaid
heart beats faster to ensure extra oxygen is still being
vena cava delivered and lactic acid build up is being broken down.
-

phagocytes have sensitive surfaces thatcan detect

chemicals produced by pathogenic cells,when the
phagocyte muscle cells need their own blood supplied by
comes in contactw ith pathogen, they engulf ita nd release supply, this is the
heart
colouratly
digestive enzymes to
digest it. phagocytes can be identifyed coronary arteries. If one of these artery is partially or
completely
under microscope

cytoplasm.
by their multilobed nucleus and
granular
blocked by fatty deposits called 'plaques' (caused by cholestrol), the disease
arteries aren'te lastic so
they can't accommodate blood being forced to reduce risk ofCHD:
LYMPHOCYTES. to CORONARY HEART DISEASE.
leading Quit
smoking
-

diet-reduce animal fatw ill

Produce antibodies to destroy pathogenic pains called anging. reduce
cells and Partial blockage:restricted blood flow results in severe chest Cholestrol
levels, help loss weight
antitoxins to neutralize toxins released by pathogens. leads to heartattack.

Ienterserear
complete blockage:cells in area can'trespire, heartwont contract,
platelets release chemicals thatcause soluble
Theycanbe identifiedundermicroscope bylarge andthe
coronary
-

to convert into insoluble fibrin and non-granular cytoplasm. disease

Heart
fibrinogen proteins
RBC
form an insoluble mesh across the wound, trapping
a clot.
and forming
-clot dries out and develops into a scab to protect
that
wound againstbacteria may enter.
Chapter 12:Respiration
Respiration:chemical process thatinvolves the breakdown of nutrient
molecules (Glucose) in order to release stored within the bonds
energy
of these molecules.

oxygen (derobically)
Respiration can take place with or withoutoxygen

canaerobically). Much less energy is released for each glucose molecule

broken down
anaerobically compared to
aerobically.
Respiration occurs in all
living cells. Mostof the chemical reactions in
derobic respiration take place in the mitochondria.

Humans need
energy to do the
following things:
contract muscles

min
-

Synthesize protein
-

Cell division
-
Growth
-
active transport
-
nerve impulses
-
maintain a constant internal body temperature

aerobic.
anaerobic
-

Doesn'trequire oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells

Requires Oxygen and is defined as the chemical reactions in cells
-

that break down nutrient molecules to release

energy without
oxygen.
thatuse oxygen to breakdown nutrient molecules to release energy
-

Itis
incomplete breakdown ofglucose and releases small amount
of
compared to
aerobic, for use in cell energy,
Complete breakdown of glucose to release large amounto f processes
energy for
-

use in cell processes.

-

different products are produced based on

type organism.
of

Itproduces carbon dioxide and water as well as useful ANIMALS.

releasing
-

cellular
energy. muscles havehigh demandfor energy and glucose broken down withoutoxygen will
word equation: energy is still stored in lactic acid
-

bonds so less
energy is released.
Glucose Oxygen + > Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose, Lactic Acid
word equation!
-

Balanced Chemical equation. Y EAST

C6H1206 602
+
>6(02 6H20 +

-used in bread making cause carbon dioxide makes bread

rise and
where ethanol been alcoholic nature
yeasti n brewing
gives and the Carbon dioxide been fizz.
gives
Glucose, Alcohol + Carbon dioxide-word equation

CH1z00 s2CCHSOH +2CO2

~balanced chemical
equation.

oftemperative
the effect the
repaying oxygen
on respiration debt
builds up
-

-time taken for methylene blue to

discolour is proportional to the rate of during vigourous exercise, Lactic Acid in muscle cells and lowers
respiration ofyeast cells in suspension. the pH level of cell (more acidic) this could cause those in cells to be
enzymes
-
controlled variables:dye volume, yeastsuspension volume, glucose concentration denatured,so lactic acid is excreted into the blood, blood passes by the liver and

temperature 8PH. the lactic acid is oxidised in liver cells (Lactic acid reacts with oxygen).
Hydrogens released faster by the reaction, DCPIP accepts hydrogens faster
-

are the waste products of lactic acid oxidation is Carbon dioxide and water, this is
untill all DCPIP molecules less time taken to
are reduced
meaning become
why we breathe
heavily and heartrate is high even after exercise, the lactic acid
colourless.
needs to be transported to liver!
This process is called
'repaying the
oxygen debt
Chapter 16:Reproduction

innnnnnnnnnnnnhire reprint
mi n i seen
i in
n i m pendi
i nmi n i
i nc
aunifn
orme
iere
Reproduction thatd oesn'tinvolve sexcells or fertilisation.
only one parentis required, offsprings are
genetically identical to parent
and to each other (clones).

in lack of
genetic
ffect
variation
a population due to
to variation.

arm
meanmomentimn
min

iniMama
init
many
mininiti
Adaptive features ofS perm:

[Link]
·

AndivestretureSaviegnBesteafterfertilizationin aihentOdaMtsD,ncarorayenetegrowmondeevens bygaininggene

inpenetrable barrier so no more sperms enter egg.

and from placenta via the umbilical cord.

mother's blood collects waste (CO2, Urea etc) 3 are removed from fetus

in in
toxins.

and affectt he fetus.

· ini
cance
FSH

CH
n. .m wi
ezi n
m ami
".
Tiri i i i i i i i,hinumans
in progesteron
in in
causes

(follicle-stimulating

(luteinising
released
to
by pituary gland
produce
lining to break down.
hormones):released
and causes egg to startmaturing, stimulates ovaries to release
oestrogen
hormone):if destrogen reaches peak, LH is
to make ovulation occurs stimulate ovary

progesterone.
by pituary gland
spread of
-Limiting
STI3 HIV is controlled
number of sexual partners

having unprotected
-not
by:
sex (use condoms).

-Getting testedeccasionalcation programme in

the
Chapter 10:Variation and Selection

nine
virin
anarranges
features
adaptive
tennison
in
native,Fasturerepinbearilyfunctional featuresofanorganism increase that is

minine
man
in

nowisphenotypicvariationcausedieinorenvironment
in
plants adapted to live in extreme
dry
Genetic conditions with adaptations like:

Discontinuous variation is caused by genetic variation

only. Thickwaxycuticlebarrierstoreevaekorationinrgain one
Genes decide whatcharacteristic is inherited 3 environmentd ecides on how itdevelops.
small leques-reduce surface area for evaporation

Environmental. extensive shallow roofs large water absorption fast

-

thickened leaves/stem- more water stored

factors Leaf rolled reduced transpiration cause covered

caused by environmental lifestyle
-

are like climate, diet, and accidents.

in hairs that preventair movement.

mutation selection
natural
random Genetic changes to base sequence of DNAare called mutations Individuals with bestadaptive features are mostlikely to survives reproduce and this is
natural selection. Individuals show ofvariation due to
range genes and they produce more
-

They usually have no effecto n phenotype, rarely mutations lead to development of new alleles
offspring than environmentc an support and this causes competition 3 struggle for survival
and they have small effecto n organism. Individuals thatare mostsuited to environment have more chance for survival 3 reproduction
and alleles with these characteristics are passed to offspring athigher rate and more

-Occasionally, gives survival advantage over other individuals in species.

new allele individuals have better adapted variations in characteristics.

Mutation also lead to harmful changes thathave

big effects like sickle cell and mid This is Charles Darwin's theory for natural selection known as 'survival of the fittest?

Mutations happen
spontaneously continuously by frequency is increased by exposure chance mutations lead to less snails
having
to Gamma rays, X-rays 3 ultraviolet
rays (ionising radiation damaging bonds cause changes white shells, white shelled snails survive longer.
white shelled snails are better camouflaged, less likely
in base sequences, and certain types c hemicals
of
(eg: tar in tobacco
to be seen predators and more chance to reproduce
increased mutation rates can cause cells to become cancerous. by
since
they survive longer.
source of Genetic variations. over generations, process is repeated till majority
form to of snails have white shells
Mutations new allele through changes DNA

Meiosis new allele combinations form through segregation (separation of alleles (

Partnerships for sexual If environment doesn'tchange, selection doesn't

Random
mating reproduction
Random fertilization egg combinations reproduction. change. This favours individuals with same characteristics
sperm during sexual
as their parents.

Ifenvironmentchangeschancemutateferentor teristics a

Individuals will survive longer, reproduce more and have

I selection
artificial differents etof alleles thatp ass onto their offsprings.
change in characteristics
brings evolution.

bred change in adaptive features of population

Evolution: over

Selective breeding is when selected individuals with desireable characteristis are together.
time o f natural
as result selection.
a tural selection leads to process
N of adaptation and
nota ll offspring show desired features so
offspring with desired features are also bred
together
is repeated for till a new breed is formed which
evolution occurs, 3 organisms are better suited to their environment.
the process many succesive
generations reliably shows features.

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT BACTERIA