17

Chapter 2

THE REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The foundation of this chapter is to review relevant literature on school

readiness on the implementation of in-person classes or the reopening of the

class.

According to Bakar [Link]. (2015), entrepreneurial education and training

programs (EETPs) are defined as pedagogical or educational programs

focused on developing entrepreneurial attitudes, capacities and personal

qualities, and their courses are designed to empower individuals with the

tools needed to start businesses. EEPTs are also designed to prepare

individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills to identify opportunities,

understand customer perceptions, generate new ideas, develop business

plans, and create their own businesses, thus contributing to entrepreneurship

in different sectors of the economy (Efe, 2014).

According to Gangi (2017), EETPs in Finland are called “enterprise

ownership” programs, and they focus on the knowledge needed to create new

businesses. In Great Britain and Ireland, EETPs are termed “enterprise

education” and concentrate on building individuals’ capacities (Gangi, 2017).

The cited author further points out that in the USA and many other countries,

EETPs focus both on building individuals’ abilities and the skills needed to

establish and run businesses.

Fayolle et al. (2016) states that motivations can be considered to be

combinations of cognitive abilities and influences originating in the

surrounding environment. Individual entrepreneurs are, thus, stimulated not

 18

only by factors such as the need for self-realization, professional

dissatisfaction, or unemployment but also by a prosperous or declining

economy’s effects that reveal new business opportunities. The decision to

create a business or attend entrepreneurship education programs may result

from a combination of “push” and “pull” factors which makes studying

motivations essential (Solesvik, 2013).

Avlonitis and Salavou (2017), mentioned that entrepreneurial skills

refer to the methods, practices and styles of decision-making individuals use

when they act in entrepreneurial ways. These individuals or companies opt for

proactive and aggressive initiatives to change competitive scenarios to their

benefit. Wang et al. (2016) report further that entrepreneurial skills fosters a

process that destroys old business practices and leads to the establishment

of new, risky, and innovative forms of business development that ensure

firms’ financial success. The identification of entrepreneurial skills profiles

among companies and individuals is extremely important to achieve a deeper

understanding of business dynamics. However, given that companies are run

by people and an objective of the present research was to study participants

of the Sabor EETP, this study focused on identifying entrepreneurial skills.

Individuals with entrepreneurship skills have the ability to discover and

explore new market opportunities (Ferreira et al., 2015). In addition,

entrepreneurship orientation can be considered as an expression of

entrepreneurial skills learnt through appropriate entrepreneurship education

(Ibrahim and Lucky, 2014).

 19

Ibrahim and Lucky (2014) quoted that in the context of

entrepreneurship, individuals’ capacity to implement business practices has

been identified as the most important and essential factor in becoming

successful entrepreneurs, including the competencies acquired by those who

intend to start a company.

According to Liñan (2018), entrepreneurs must develop skills such as

leadership, communication, innovation, networking, creativity and problem-

solving because these are basic, necessary capacities of individuals seeking

to start and develop successful businesses. Capacity is, thus, perceived as a

quality of performance that does not depend fundamentally on each person’s

innate abilities, but that instead needs to be developed through training,

practice, and experience (Adeyemo, 2019).

Kuratko (2016) has examined entrepreneurial skills and their

relationship with the process of company creation. These are seen as

essential skills that allow individuals to start and develop businesses

successfully and profitably.

According to Fleischmann (2018), there is an established serious

approach to the formation of entrepreneurial thinking within Western practice.

In the opinion of the administration of the numerous education institutions, it is

necessary both for the students of field-subject specialties and, for example,

for students-engineers, because it creates a systematic approach during

elaborating the projects.

Gradinaru et al. (2018) stated that one of the main qualities that form

entrepreneurial thinking is creativity. This very quality allows entrepreneurs to

 20

realize and develop their projects, to create spin-offs for them and to become

serial entrepreneurs. This is one of the latest tendencies in this field. It is

supposed that creative thinking needs to be developed both among the

students and education institutions that train specialists in the field of

entrepreneurship. Potentially, this implies flexibility in approaching the

students’ needs, the creation of a favorable entrepreneurial environment and

education programs that will bring practical benefit, at least at the initial stage

of a career (Audretsch, 2014).

According to Wheadon and Duval-Couetil (2016) cited that in order to

developed personal qualities that form the basis of entrepreneurial thinking,

the Philippine education institutions try to extend the psychology course within

entrepreneurship education. It explains the meaning of such notions as

motivation, proactive attitude, responsibility, and tolerance to stress in a clear

way. It is not capable of directly developing a student’s personal qualities.

However, it explains the mechanism of how these traits originate and

function. Besides, the private business-schools that teach by MBA system

have separate subjects that are introduced into education programs and

aimed at the formation of leadership skills, declamatory skills, and creative

thinking. In sum, these three subjects are responsible for the formation of

entrepreneurial thinking among the students (Czaplewski et al., 2015).

Krueger (2017) cited that entrepreneurial thinking is perceived as

social technology. Here, it is commonly fixed within sociology courses.

However, many universities offer a separate special course (that can be

chosen by the students themselves as extra-curricular) of “Creative

 21

economics” that is also aimed at stimulating the students’ qualities that are

necessary for entrepreneur. According to Bochkareva et al. (2018) reiterated

the evaluation system of the quality of teaching and methodological support of

the main secondary school education programs that was developed can

serve as a theoretical basis for further research of the issues associated with

evaluating the quality of specialist training within the system of basic and

further professional education.

The study of Jain and Chaudhary (2017), the survey study indicated

the positive impact of entrepreneurship program on student’s

entrepreneurship skills. However, Jain and Chaudhary (2017) study indicated

that an entrepreneurship program has a negative impact on students’

entrepreneurial intention. In Bandera and Passerini (2018) study, the

integration of entrepreneurship education with Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) enhanced students’ technology skills

especially in communication technology. In Lyons and Zhang (2017),

entrepreneurship program has positive impact on minorities especially

females. According to Roslo (2013), although there is a consistent increase in

the number of graduates who venture into entrepreneurship as soon as they

graduate, the percentage is still very small, about 2% of the total number of

graduates each year. This data is consistent with the 2014 Global

Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) report that only 50.37% of Malaysians see

entrepreneurship as a good career choice. This phenomenon is possible to

limit the tendency of young people to venture into entrepreneurship as a

career, especially when it comes to opposition from parents and families.

 22

Sebikari (2014) stated that entrepreneurial performance is the ability to

achieve established entrepreneurial goals. Further conveying that

performance is an ability utilizes the available business opportunities to

increase the effort. Performance is related to achieving work based on

business targets by leveraging available opportunities. These conditions

contain measurable risks that an entrepreneur should analyze and anticipate.

Several factors are determined in preparing for entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions can be explained by several factors

such as achievement, risk perception, and locus of control (Wardana [Link].,

2020).

Looy and Shafagatova (2016) state that the four dimensions in an

organization’s performance are financial perspectives, customer perspectives,

business process perspectives, and learn and grow perspectives. Based on

this view, performance is very closely related to business development

targets to be able to grow and take advantage of opportunities and conditions

both financial, customer and production capacity. In entrepreneurship, the

improvement in the performance of entrepreneurs is seen from the increasing

production capacity and the achievement of the number of sales in generating

total production and the total profit that can be achieved.

The performance of entrepreneurs is also related to the efficient and

effective management of resources. This will be very influential in achieving

business results with proper management of production capacity.

Entrepreneurial performance (Sebikari, 2014) is measured by return on

investment, market share, profitability, and sales growth. This indicates that
 23

the performance is very close to the achievement and improvement of

business in production, sales, and profit.

According to Suparno and Saptono (2018), define that entrepreneurial

skills begin with innovation sparked by personal factors and environmental

factors. Personal factors that influence entrepreneurship are education,

experience, commitment, vision, the courage to take risks, and age. While

environmental factors are sociology, organization, family, opportunity,

competitors, investors, and government policy. Entrepreneurial skills can be

learned and developed. Entrepreneurship for the younger generation can be

grown through entrepreneurship education that fosters entrepreneurial

intentions. Perceived desirability is the most influential factor in fostering

entrepreneurial intentions by starting a business (Bui, [Link]., 2020).

Skills in entrepreneurship demonstrate an ability to create something

new and different. Innovation and creativity as capital in cooperation and

competition. The rapid development of the business demands different skills.

Many opportunities can be utilized with innovation and creativity. Such skills

need to be developed including technical and managerial capabilities,

including taking risky business decisions. Lu and Wang (2018) found

dimension of alertness as a major factor in entrepreneurship and need to

develop this study in the analysis of entrepreneurial performance in skills and

knowledge as the main basis for entrepreneurial competence.

As cited by Fitriati and Hermiati (2021) that entrepreneurial skills

consist of technical skills as an ability to manage business operations;

management skills include planning and organizing, identifying customers

 24

and channels in attribution, managing resources; personal maturity skills are

skills in self-awareness, business reflection, problem-solving and finding

solutions.

Based on the study of Suparno and Saptono (2018), entrepreneurial

skills consist of technical communication, environment monitoring, problem-

solving, technology implementation and use, interpersonal, and organizational

skills, business management planning and goal setting, decision-making,

human resource management, marketing, finance, accounting, customer

relations, quality control, negotiation, business launch, growth management,

and compliance with regulations skills, personal entrepreneurial self-control

and discipline, risk management, innovation, persistence, leadership, change

management, network building, and strategic thinking.

Entrepreneurial Skills

Moreover, Jones and Iredale (2014), entrepreneurial skills include risk-

taking, problem-solving, and adaptability, which are vital in equipping learners

with the ability to identify and capitalize on business opportunities. TVL

education must integrate entrepreneurial skills within its curriculum to foster

innovative thinkers capable of thriving in a competitive business environment.

Similarly, Rae and Carswell (2016) emphasize the need for experiential

learning in TVL programs, which allows learners to apply theoretical concepts

in practical business settings.

According to Fayolle (2016), entrepreneurial skills are essential for

learners in technical-vocational and livelihood (TVL) programs, as they

prepare students to handle various business aspects. entrepreneurial

 25

education equips learners with the necessary skills to identify opportunities,

manage resources, and take calculated risks.

On the other hand, Alvarez et al. (2017), stated that the emphasis on

entrepreneurial skills has become increasingly critical in developing countries,

where the shift from employment-based to entrepreneurial economies has

been prominent. With the growing relevance of these skills in the labor

market, TVL programs must ensure learners are trained to be adaptable,

creative, and resilient to succeed in entrepreneurial ventures.

A study by Oladimeji et al. (2019) on the entrepreneurial readiness of

TVL students in Nigeria revealed that those with higher entrepreneurial skills

showed a greater propensity for business start-ups post-graduation. The

study highlighted that entrepreneurship programs enhanced students' skills in

opportunity recognition and resource management, which are critical for

business success.

A study conducted by Oyugi (2015) on Kenyan TVL learners found that

entrepreneurial skills were a strong predictor of successful business start-ups

among graduates. The study concluded that students who had undergone

entrepreneurship training were more likely to launch and sustain their

ventures compared to those who lacked such skills. The findings underscore

the importance of integrating entrepreneurial skills into the technical-

vocational curriculum.

Customer Focus

Lambing and Kuehl (2018) highlight that customer focus is critical in

entrepreneurship as it builds loyalty and encourages repeat business. The

 26

ability to understand and meet customer needs should be prioritized in TVL

programs, as students who learn to engage effectively with their target

markets are more likely to succeed.

According to Tidd and Bessant (2020), customer-oriented business

strategies foster sustainable growth by responding to market demands

through tailored products and services. Focusing on customers is a pivotal

skill in entrepreneurship, as it fosters customer loyalty and long-term business

sustainability.

Lee and Kotler (2019) argue that customer-centric approaches in

business should be an integral part of TVL education to ensure that students

can meet market demands. Customer focus entails understanding customer

needs, building relationships, and maintaining product or service quality, all of

which are central to maintaining competitive advantage in any industry

(Mendoza & Rivera, 2020). TVL learners must be trained to place the

customer at the heart of business strategy, a key driver for entrepreneurial

success.

The work of Smith and Wallace (2020) evaluated the impact of

customer focus training on TVL students in the Philippines. Their findings

demonstrated that students who were taught customer relationship

management techniques outperformed their peers in setting up customer-

centered businesses. The study concluded that customer focus is not only a

key skill for retaining clients but also for ensuring business longevity in

competitive markets.

Financial Literacy
 27

Lusardi and Mitchell (2017) stated that financial literacy is a

foundational component for any successful entrepreneur. It includes

understanding cash flow management, budgeting, and financial decision-

making. It also emphasize that financial literacy is critical in ensuring business

sustainability and growth, particularly in small and medium enterprises

(SMEs).

Meanwhile, as mentioned by Miller et al. (2018), TVL learners,

acquiring this skill can lead to better financial decision-making and reduce the

risk of failure due to poor financial management. Programs that incorporate

financial literacy into their curriculum empower students to make informed

choices about investments and resource allocation

Significantly, Godfrey and Lawrence (2017) argue that without strong

financial literacy skills, entrepreneurs may struggle with budgeting,

investment, and resource allocation, which are essential to maintaining

profitable enterprises. Furthermore, Van Rooij et al. (2020) stress that

financial literacy education in TVL curricula should not only cover basic

financial management but also include complex decision-making processes,

equipping learners with the capability to make sound financial decisions for

their businesses.

In a longitudinal study, Agyei et al. (2021) assessed the impact of

financial literacy programs on the entrepreneurial outcomes of TVL students

in Ghana. Their research showed that learners who had a solid understanding

of financial concepts like budgeting, savings, and investment were more likely
 28

to sustain profitable enterprises within five years of graduation. The study

underscored financial literacy as a predictor of entrepreneurial success.

An assessment by Kling et al. (2021) on TVL learners in Germany

revealed that financial literacy training significantly improved business

performance post-graduation. Learners who were financially literate were able

to manage their business finances more effectively, leading to increased

profitability and lower rates of business failure. This study demonstrates that

financial literacy is essential for TVL learners to succeed in entrepreneurship.

Communication Skills

According to Panko and Wessels (2017), strong communication skills

help entrepreneurs articulate their vision to stakeholders, pitch ideas to

investors, and maintain customer relationships. This is particularly important

for TVL learners, who need to communicate effectively with clients, suppliers,

and team members to ensure business success.

Furthermore, Burrus et al. (2019) emphasized that communication,

both verbal and non-verbal, enhances collaboration, which is essential in

today’s entrepreneurial ecosystems. The ability to clearly communicate value

propositions also impacts customer retention and loyalty.

Robinson and Stubberud (2014) argued that communication is

essential for building trust and credibility with customers, which directly

impacts business sustainability. Their study demonstrated that entrepreneurs

who actively develop their communication skills are better positioned to

respond to customer needs and manage business relationships effectively.

 29

Additionally, Rahman (2020) explored the relationship between

communication skills and leadership in entrepreneurship, noting that

entrepreneurs who excel in clear and persuasive communication are more

likely to inspire their teams and align them toward business goals.

A study conducted by Allen and Seaman (2018) on Canadian TVL

learners demonstrated that students with strong communication skills

performed better in business simulations and entrepreneurial activities. The

research concluded that communication skills are integral to negotiation and

conflict resolution in business environments. Students who participated in

communication training were more effective in securing client contracts and

managing customer relations, highlighting the importance of these skills in

entrepreneurship.

A study by Ferrell and Hirt (2018) examined the impact of

entrepreneurial communication skills on the performance of TVL learners in

Southeast Asia. They found that students who received targeted

communication training outperformed their peers in entrepreneurial initiatives,

particularly in customer relations and networking. Additionally, Olanrewaju et

al. (2020) found that learners with superior communication skills were better

equipped to handle business negotiations, increasing their confidence in

managing various stakeholders in their enterprises.

Tech Savvy

According to McKinsey Global Institute (2019), entrepreneurs who are

adept at using digital tools and platforms can automate processes, streamline
 30

operations, and reach broader markets through e-commerce and social

media.

Moreover, research by Shah et al. (2020) highlighted the importance of

integrating technological skills into TVL programs, as these learners often

operate in technical fields where innovation is closely tied to technology. As

such, tech-savvy entrepreneurs are better positioned to adopt new

technologies and remain competitive in dynamic markets.

On the other hand, Giones and Brem (2017) emphasized that

entrepreneurs who are tech-savvy can easily adapt to market disruptions and

leverage digital solutions for competitive advantage. They found that the

ability to adopt emerging technologies like AI, blockchain, and cloud

computing allows entrepreneurs to innovate and optimize their business

processes.

Moreover, Liguori and Pittz (2020) stressed that digital

entrepreneurship is reshaping traditional business models, and tech-savvy

TVL learners can use these tools to reduce costs and expand their market

reach more efficiently.

A study by Dlamini and Tshabalala (2021) in South Africa revealed that

TVL learners who received training in digital tools and platforms were more

likely to succeed in launching tech-based enterprises. The study examined

the relationship between tech proficiency and business performance,

concluding that tech-savvy learners were better equipped to leverage digital

marketing, manage e-commerce operations, and optimize workflow through

 31

automation tools. This demonstrates the need for integrating tech literacy into

TVL curriculums.

Clarysse et al. (2019) found that students who had higher levels of

technological proficiency performed better in entrepreneurial activities that

involved e-commerce and digital marketing. They noted that these learners

were more adept at using social media platforms for business promotion and

had a better understanding of how digital tools could optimize business

operations. A similar study by Muller and Voigt (2020) highlighted how tech-

savvy TVL learners in Germany were able to innovate within traditional

industries by incorporating new technologies such as 3D printing, leading to a

higher success rate in launching new ventures.

Innovative Thinking

Drucker (2015) stated that innovation involves the application of new

ideas, products, or processes to create value, a critical aspect of sustaining a

business. For TVL learners, fostering innovative thinking helps them

differentiate their offerings in saturated markets. Similarly, Hossain and

Anees-ur-Rehman (2016) argued that entrepreneurial innovation is not just

about inventing new products but also about innovating business models,

services, and customer engagement strategies. Encouraging innovative

thinking in TVL learners ensures they can adapt to market trends and

evolving customer needs.

Creative problem-solving and innovative thinking are vital for

entrepreneurial success. In a rapidly changing global market, entrepreneurial

innovation can make the difference between success and failure (Zhao &
 32

Zhang, 2020). The ability to think creatively helps entrepreneurs identify

untapped opportunities and adapt to new market conditions.

Significantly, Dyer, Gregersen, and Christensen (2019) also

emphasized that innovation should not be limited to product development but

should extend to process innovations, service delivery, and customer

interactions, all of which TVL learners need to master.+

A study conducted by George and Bock (2019) on TVL learners in

India revealed that those who developed strong innovative thinking skills were

more successful in identifying new business opportunities in niche markets.

These learners demonstrated a higher capacity for risk-taking and creative

problem-solving, which translated into sustainable business models. Similarly,

Wong et al. (2021) found that TVL learners in Singapore who engaged in

innovation workshops showed greater resilience in business, particularly in

responding to unexpected challenges and market shifts.

A longitudinal study by Aksu and Öztürk (2020) involving Turkish TVL

learners found that students who developed innovative thinking skills during

their vocational education were more successful in identifying and exploiting

market opportunities post-graduation. These students reported higher rates of

business sustainability and customer satisfaction. The study highlighted the

role of creativity and innovation in developing unique business solutions that

differentiate learners from competitors in highly competitive markets.

Attitude

According to Gibb (2018), fostering a positive entrepreneurial attitude

is crucial in education programs, especially for TVL learners. Gibb's model of

 33

entrepreneurial education highlights that promoting risk-taking behaviors and

persistence in the face of failure can lead to stronger entrepreneurial

performance. Developing these attitudes within TVL curricula enhances

students' ability to navigate the uncertainties inherent in entrepreneurship

(Kirby, 2019).

Gorman et al. (2019) argue that cultivating resilience, risk tolerance,

and a growth mindset is vital for fostering entrepreneurial behavior. These

attitudes enable learners to overcome challenges in the entrepreneurial

journey. Additionally, Kourilsky and Walstad (2021) emphasize that an

entrepreneurial attitude helps students navigate business uncertainties,

increasing their chances of long-term success.

Fayolle and Gailly (2015) emphasized that a positive entrepreneurial

attitude significantly impacts learners' intention to start businesses, as it

fosters self-efficacy and resilience. The authors highlighted that TVL learners

who develop a proactive mindset are better equipped to handle

entrepreneurial challenges. Similarly, Ajzen's (2020) Theory of Planned

Behavior posits that entrepreneurial attitudes influence behavior through

perceived behavioral control and subjective norms, underscoring the

importance of nurturing a positive attitude toward business in vocational

learners. Moreover, Liñán and Chen (2016) argued that positive attitudes lead

to higher engagement in entrepreneurial activities and increase the likelihood

of entrepreneurial success among students.

A study by Premand et al. (2016) explored how entrepreneurial

education influences the attitudes of TVL learners in Tunisia. Their findings

 34

indicated that learners exposed to entrepreneurship programs developed

more positive attitudes toward business ownership and were more likely to

express intentions to start their own ventures. These learners also

demonstrated higher levels of self-confidence and risk tolerance, indicating

that attitude plays a significant role in shaping entrepreneurial aspirations.

Similarly, results from Oosterbeek, van Praag, and Ijsselstein’s (2017) study

in the Netherlands suggested that entrepreneurial education positively

influenced the attitudes of learners, boosting their interest in entrepreneurship

and increasing the likelihood of business creation post-graduation.

In a study by Lange et al. (2014), the impact of entrepreneurial

education on learners' attitudes was examined. Their findings showed that

students who participated in entrepreneurship programs exhibited a more

positive attitude towards starting their own businesses. TVL learners were

particularly responsive to experiential learning opportunities, which helped

them develop confidence in their entrepreneurial abilities. Similarly, a study

conducted by Roxas, Cayoca, and de Jesus (2016) in the Philippines found

that learners with a positive entrepreneurial attitude were more likely to

engage in business activities post-graduation. These findings suggest that

fostering entrepreneurial attitudes through targeted education can significantly

influence the career paths of TVL learners.

Knowledge

Rae (2017) noted that integrating practical entrepreneurial knowledge

into TVL programs can bridge the gap between theoretical learning and real-

world applications. This allows learners to not only grasp concepts but also to
 35

apply them effectively in their ventures. Similarly, Henry et al. (2015)

annotated that the acquisition of knowledge is vital to the competence

development of TVL learners. Entrepreneurial knowledge encompasses an

understanding of market trends, business regulations, and operational

management.s

Gibb (2017) argued that learners with a solid knowledge base in

entrepreneurship are better positioned to identify and exploit business

opportunities. Knowledge of market trends, financial management, and

customer behavior enhances a learner's ability to navigate complex business

environments. Additionally, Moberg et al. (2014) emphasized that

entrepreneurial knowledge extends beyond technical skills; it involves

understanding the broader business ecosystem, including regulations,

competition, and strategic planning.

Bridgstock (2019) notes that entrepreneurship education should equip

learners with knowledge about market analysis, business regulations, and

operational strategies. This knowledge enables them to make informed

business decisions. Furthermore, Drucker (2020) suggests that TVL

programs must integrate interdisciplinary learning, combining technical

expertise with business acumen to provide a holistic entrepreneurial

education.

According to Drucker (2015), entrepreneurship is a practice that

requires systematic application of knowledge in areas such as marketing,

finance, and operations. Learners who are equipped with such knowledge are

more likely to adapt and thrive in dynamic business environments.

 36

Additionally, Politis (2016) highlighted the importance of experiential learning

in developing entrepreneurial knowledge, stating that knowledge gained from

direct engagement in business activities leads to better decision-making and

opportunity recognition. Similarly, Kuratko (2017) argued that entrepreneurial

knowledge includes not only the theoretical understanding of business

principles but also the practical know-how that comes from navigating real-

world business challenges.

The study by Nabi et al. (2018) on UK-based TVL learners found that

learners who acquired comprehensive entrepreneurial knowledge were more

successful in launching and sustaining small businesses. Their research

indicated that entrepreneurship education that combines both theoretical

knowledge and practical experience enhances learners' confidence in

navigating business challenges. Another study by Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-

Laham (2016) showed that learners who developed a deep understanding of

business operations and market strategies had higher success rates in

launching entrepreneurial ventures.

The study by Elert, Andersson, and Wennberg (2015) explored how

knowledge gained from entrepreneurship education influenced the

performance of TVL learners in Sweden. The research found that learners

who acquired entrepreneurial knowledge were better equipped to manage

and grow small businesses, particularly in sectors like hospitality and trades.

Additionally, Westhead and Solesvik (2016) investigated how entrepreneurial

knowledge affected the business outcomes of learners in vocational schools

across Europe. Their findings indicated that knowledge of financial

 37

management, customer relations, and operational planning were key factors

that contributed to business success among TVL learners.

Skills

According to Man et al. (2017), skills such as problem-solving, critical

thinking, and resource management are essential for entrepreneurship. TVL

learners, who are often engaged in hands-on technical activities, benefit from

developing a wide range of entrepreneurial skills that complement their

vocational training. Furthermore, Valerio, Parton, and Robb (2014) stated that

entrepreneurial skills, including negotiation, leadership, and financial literacy,

are critical for business development and sustainability. The development of

these skills in vocational education ensures that learners can effectively

manage enterprises and make strategic decisions.

According to Mitchelmore and Rowley (2016), these skills can be

systematically developed through targeted educational programs that

encourage critical thinking and problem-solving. They also emphasized the

importance of soft skills, such as communication and leadership, which are

essential for effective business management. Furthermore, Rae (2017)

highlighted that entrepreneurial skills are highly transferable across various

industries, making them crucial for TVL learners who may pursue different

vocational paths.

According to Heckman and Kautz (2015), skill development in TVL

programs is foundational for entrepreneurial success. Entrepreneurial skills

include communication, negotiation, and decision-making, all of which

enhance learners' capability to manage business operations effectively. TVL

 38

learners need to acquire a diverse set of competencies that will allow them to

thrive in the dynamic environment of entrepreneurship, from leadership skills

to strategic thinking (Morris et al., 2018).

Robb, Valerio, and Parton (2017) conducted a study on the impact of

entrepreneurship education on the skills of TVL learners in Latin America.

Their research highlighted that student who engaged in entrepreneurship-

focused curricula developed stronger business management skills, including

financial planning, marketing, and operational management. Additionally,

students exhibited improved decision-making abilities, which contributed to

better business outcomes. Similarly, a study by Rauch and Hulsink (2015) in

Germany demonstrated that entrepreneurial skills such as leadership, team

management, and negotiation were significantly enhanced in TVL learners

who participated in entrepreneurship training programs, leading to a higher

rate of successful business ventures.

A longitudinal study by Martin, McNally, and Kay (2016) examined how

entrepreneurial skills development through education impacted the long-term

success of TVL learners. Their research showed that learners who developed

entrepreneurial skills during their vocational training were more likely to

establish successful businesses and sustain them over time. Another study

by Schoof, Schneider, and Meier (2017) analyzed the role of entrepreneurial

skills in the transition of TVL learners into the workforce. They found that

learners with well-developed skills in areas such as financial planning,

problem-solving, and team management had a higher success rate in

securing employment or starting their own businesses.

 39

Networking

According to Burt (2017), networking allows entrepreneurs to access

resources, information, and opportunities that are otherwise unavailable. TVL

learners should be encouraged to build strong networks with other

entrepreneurs, investors, and professionals, enabling them to expand their

market reach and improve their business outcomes (Uzzi, 2019).

McKeever et al. (2017) highlight that networking provides access to

resources, partnerships, and information crucial for business growth. In TVL

programs, teaching students how to network effectively can enhance their

ability to navigate the entrepreneurial ecosystem. According to Hoang and

Antoncic (2019), strong networking skills also help entrepreneurs overcome

barriers to entry in competitive markets.

According to Hwang and O'Hara (2015), effective networking can lead

to the development of valuable relationships that facilitate business

opportunities. Their study highlights the importance of cultivating a diverse

network, which can enhance the entrepreneur's ability to access financial

resources and market insights. Additionally, Kram and Isabella (2017)

emphasize that networking skills are particularly crucial for technical-

vocational learners, as they often rely on industry connections for job

placements and mentorship. The authors argue that incorporating networking

training in TVL curricula can significantly enhance learners' entrepreneurial

capabilities. Furthermore, Sweeney et al. (2019) conducted a study showing

that students with strong networking skills were more likely to engage in
 40

entrepreneurial activities, highlighting the importance of fostering these

capabilities during vocational training.

A study by Ahlstrom and Bruton (2016) explored how networking

behaviors among technical-vocational learners impact their entrepreneurial

outcomes. They found that those who actively engaged in networking

activities were more likely to secure funding and mentorship opportunities.

Similarly, Lichtenstein et al. (2018) examined the influence of social networks

on the entrepreneurial intentions of TVL students, concluding that strong

social connections significantly enhanced their motivation to pursue

entrepreneurial ventures. Another study by Theodorakopoulos et al. (2019)

investigated the role of networking in shaping the entrepreneurial capabilities

of technical-vocational graduates, finding that networking proficiency directly

correlates with business success in the early stages of entrepreneurship.

A study by Chahine and Rammal (2018) investigated the impact of

networking on the entrepreneurial intentions of technical-vocational students.

They found that students who actively networked were more likely to pursue

entrepreneurship as a career path. Additionally, Farah and El-Masri (2021)

examined how networking proficiency influences the entrepreneurial success

of vocational learners, revealing that students with extensive networks

reported higher rates of business initiation. Another study by Gichuki et al.

(2022) highlighted the role of peer networking among TVL students in

enhancing their entrepreneurial capabilities. The findings suggested that

collaborative learning and shared experiences significantly boost students’

confidence in their entrepreneurial pursuits.

 41

Marketing

Kotler and Keller (2016) emphasize that marketing should be

integrated into the entrepreneurship curriculum for TVL learners, enabling

them to understand consumer behavior, market positioning, and brand

building. A strong marketing foundation helps entrepreneurs create value

propositions that resonate with customers and differentiate them from

competitors.

Sashittal and Jassawalla (2020) argue that marketing should be a core

focus in entrepreneurship education, particularly for TVL learners. Effective

marketing strategies enable entrepreneurs to position their products and

services, differentiate from competitors, and create value for customers.

Similarly, Cronin et al. (2018) emphasize that TVL learners must understand

digital marketing techniques to remain competitive in the modern business

landscape.

Kotler and Keller (2016) assert that understanding consumer behavior

is a key component of successful marketing strategies. They emphasize that

technical-vocational learners must be equipped with marketing knowledge to

effectively reach their target audience. Furthermore, Lamb, Hair, and

McDaniel (2018) argue that integrating marketing education into TVL

programs allows learners to develop practical skills in market research,

branding, and digital marketing. This is echoed by Albrecht (2020), who found

that students with a strong foundation in marketing principles were more

capable of launching and sustaining their businesses post-graduation.

 42

Albrecht's findings underscore the need for marketing skills to be a central

component of entrepreneurship education for TVL learners.

In their research, Ratten and Usher (2019) focused on the importance

of marketing knowledge for TVL learners in the context of entrepreneurship.

They found that students who received marketing training were better

equipped to develop effective marketing strategies, which in turn positively

influenced their entrepreneurial success. A study by Dyer et al. (2020)

investigated the relationship between marketing education and the

entrepreneurial activities of vocational learners. Their findings indicated that

learners with a solid foundation in marketing principles were more likely to

engage in successful entrepreneurial ventures. Additionally, Parra-Requena

et al. (2021) explored how marketing skills among TVL learners impact their

ability to innovate and adapt to market changes, concluding that marketing

education is essential for fostering entrepreneurial capabilities.

The study of Horváth and Dénes (2018) emphasized the significance

of marketing education in developing entrepreneurial skills among TVL

learners. Their study indicated that a solid marketing foundation directly

correlates with the successful launch of student-led businesses. Similarly,

Taneja et al. (2019) explored the role of marketing competencies in fostering

innovation among vocational students, finding that learners with strong

marketing skills were more likely to develop creative business solutions. A

further study by Norrie and Kavanagh (2022) focused on the integration of

experiential marketing training into TVL programs, concluding that such

 43

initiatives enhance students' entrepreneurial readiness and marketing

effectiveness.

Opportunity Recognition

Shane and Venkataraman (2019) argue that entrepreneurs who can

identify and act on emerging opportunities are more likely to succeed in

competitive markets. In TVL programs, fostering opportunity recognition

involves teaching learners how to analyze market trends, customer needs,

and technological advancements to identify potential business opportunities

(Baron, 2018).

Sarasvathy et al. (2019) explain that entrepreneurs who possess

strong opportunity recognition skills are better equipped to respond to market

changes and customer needs. This capability should be nurtured in TVL

programs, as it is fundamental for entrepreneurial success. According to

Baron (2018), opportunity recognition involves not only identifying new

markets but also innovating to meet unmet needs.

According to Schumpeter (2016), opportunity recognition involves

identifying gaps in the market and innovating to meet those needs. This view

is supported by Einarsson (2018), who found that TVL learners with training in

entrepreneurial mindset and opportunity recognition were better positioned to

identify viable business ideas. Moreover, Guenther et al. (2020) explored the

role of experiential learning in fostering opportunity recognition among

technical-vocational learners. Their research showed that students who

participated in hands-on projects were more adept at spotting market

opportunities, indicating that practical experiences play a crucial role in

 44

developing this capability. Additionally, Hmieleski and Baron (2018) found that

entrepreneurs who engage in reflective practices are more successful at

recognizing opportunities, suggesting that fostering a reflective mindset

among TVL learners can enhance their entrepreneurial capabilities.

A study by García et al. (2021) examined the role of entrepreneurship

education in enhancing opportunity recognition among TVL learners. They

found that students who participated in opportunity recognition training were

more successful in identifying viable business ideas. Similarly, Hu and Huang

(2020) investigated the influence of experiential learning on the opportunity

recognition skills of vocational learners, revealing that hands-on experiences

significantly improved their ability to identify market opportunities. Another

study by Kloosterman et al. (2018) explored the relationship between

opportunity recognition and entrepreneurial success, concluding that learners

who excelled in recognizing opportunities were more likely to achieve positive

business outcomes.

A study by Acs et al. (2019) explored the relationship between

opportunity recognition training and entrepreneurial outcomes among TVL

learners. They found that students who received targeted training in

opportunity recognition were more successful in launching startups.

Additionally, Sweeney and Robson (2020) examined the impact of mentorship

on enhancing opportunity recognition skills among vocational learners, finding

that mentoring relationships significantly improve students’ ability to spot

market gaps. In another study, Hatzigeorgiou and Koutsou (2023) found that

project-based learning experiences in vocational education foster better

 45

opportunity recognition skills, contributing to greater entrepreneurial success

among graduates.

Work Standard

A study by Hemmings et al. (2018) investigated the relationship

between work standards and entrepreneurial performance among TVL

learners. They found that those who maintained high work standards were

more successful in launching and sustaining their businesses. Additionally,

Cummings et al. (2020) focused on the impact of work ethic training on the

entrepreneurial capabilities of technical-vocational students, concluding that

fostering a strong work ethic is essential for long-term success in

entrepreneurship. Another study by Schreiber and Preuss (2021) highlighted

the importance of quality assurance practices in vocational training,

suggesting that high work standards are crucial for ensuring customer

satisfaction and business sustainability.

Mönkkönen and Schmitz (2019) asserts that instilling a strong work

ethic in technical-vocational education enhances students' preparedness for

entrepreneurship. Their research indicates that students who understand the

importance of quality standards are more likely to succeed in their business

ventures. Additionally, Smith and Smith (2021) explored the correlation

between work standards and customer satisfaction, revealing that

entrepreneurs with high-quality work standards often outperform their

competitors. They advocate for incorporating work standard training into

vocational curricula to improve future entrepreneurs' performance.

Furthermore, Wibowo et al. (2022) found that learners who practiced setting
 46

and maintaining high work standards during their training were more likely to

develop sustainable businesses, emphasizing the significance of quality

assurance in entrepreneurship.

Tan and Ooi (2021) examined the relationship between quality

assurance practices in vocational training and students’ entrepreneurial

capabilities, revealing that rigorous training in work standards leads to

improved business performance. Their research indicates that students who

understand and implement high work standards are better positioned to meet

customer expectations and achieve sustainable business growth. Similarly,

Lu et al. (2022) emphasized the role of quality management principles in

enhancing the work standards of vocational learners, arguing that such

principles instill a sense of professionalism and commitment to excellence. A

study by Foster et al. (2023) found that learners who practice quality control

techniques during their training exhibit higher entrepreneurial success rates,

highlighting the importance of integrating quality assurance into vocational

curricula. Furthermore, Nyakundi et al. (2023) explored how workplace

standards impact students' preparedness for entrepreneurship, concluding

that adhering to high work standards significantly contributes to students'

confidence and market competitiveness.

A study by Hemmings et al. (2018) investigated the relationship

between work standards and entrepreneurial performance among TVL

learners. They found that those who maintained high work standards were

more successful in launching and sustaining their businesses. Additionally,

Cummings et al. (2020) focused on the impact of work ethic training on the
 47

entrepreneurial capabilities of technical-vocational students, concluding that

fostering a strong work ethic is essential for long-term success in

entrepreneurship. Another study by Schreiber and Preuss (2021) highlighted

the importance of quality assurance practices in vocational training,

suggesting that high work standards are crucial for ensuring customer

satisfaction and business sustainability.

A study by Choudhury and Sharma (2021) examined the effects of

work standards on the entrepreneurial capabilities of vocational learners.

They found that students who adhered to high work standards were more

likely to establish successful ventures. Similarly, Kruger et al. (2022)

investigated the relationship between quality assurance practices in

vocational training and entrepreneurial outcomes, concluding that rigorous

quality training enhances students' chances of business success. Another

study by Carver and Hecht (2023) focused on the importance of instilling high

work standards in TVL curricula, revealing that such training contributes

significantly to students' overall entrepreneurial capabilities and readiness for

the job market.