(a). Basing on the UMI research proposal writing guidelines, and using relevant example. discuss the Key Sub-sections of the methodology chapter. Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select. process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall validity and reliability. The section answers two main questions of “How was the data collected or generated?” and “How was it analyzed?” More specifically, it's about how a researcher systematically designs a study to ensure valid and reliable results that address the research aims, objectives and research questions. Chapter 3 is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research & outline the specific methodological choices you've made. According to UMI research proposal guidelines entails/involve the following in chapter 3: 3.1 Introduction: this should tell the reader what is contained in the methodology chapter and how the chapter is to be arranged. It should give the rationale of the chapter and a brief highlight on the aspects. of methodology presented in the chapter 3.2 Research Design: describes the type of research design that will be used. It elaborates the nature and pattern, which the research intends to follow e.g., whether it is longitudinal, cross-sectional, descriptive, explanatory or experimental, case study etc. The choice depends on the type of research being conducted and research questions to be answered. The choice of a particular design needs to be justified & the researcher must state precisely approach(es) that will be used in the study, this can be either qualitative or quantitative or a mixed methods approach & whatever choice is made must be explained & justified 3.3 Study population: the description of the population and its elements from which samples will be drawn. A comparison could be made between target_and accessible population and the researcher must state the exact or estimated population from which the sample will be selected. All categories of the likely population to be studied must be presented and their numbers appropriately given citing source. 3.4 Sample size determination: This describes how the actual sample that will be studied is computed and the researcher must justifiably select the most appropriate approaches. The determination will among others be determined by nature of the study (qualitative and/or quantitative), and the degree of generalisation expected. Well accepted scientific procedures must be followed in determining the sample size, The sample size for quantitative analysis in mixed methods designs should be determined based on the number of observations or population for the categories where a quantitative approach will be applied 3.5 Sampling techniques and procedure: this describes in detail the techniques that will be used i selecting the sample ic., probability-based sampling like simple random, systematic random, stratified & cluster while non-probability sampling like purposive, snow ball, quota & convenient/accidental. Th choice is influenced by the approach pointed out under research design. If the approach is qualitativ non-probabilistic techniques are used, if the approach is quantitative, probabilistic techniques are employe and for mixed methods approach, both probabilistic and non-probabilistic sampling techniques are used 3.6 Data collection methods: includes specific techniques to be used in data collection. Methods cou inchide interview, FGD, survey, observation, documentary review, etc. The section should specify th data collection methods that will be used in lieu of the research approach & data required to answer t research questions methods. It should further provide a brief description of each method and focus ¢ justifying appropriateness of the method to the study benchmarking on relevant research methods literatureData collection i : i 37 ion instruments: this describes the instrumentation to be used e.g., interview guide, sucstion ass sides group -iscussion topics, 0 cklists, ete. ‘The section should identify the Bae wea & o lection. It should further describe how the instruments will be structured pees at will be asked e, Open-ended or closed ended questions with scientific ‘ion. The justification should primarily consider the nature of data required to answer the research questions. Where a quantitative approach is proposed/used, the key variables that will guide the questions and constructs that will be measured should be highlighted. - 3.8 Validity and reliability Validity & reliability; for quanti validity of instruments have to be precisely described. The idea behind reliability is that any significant results must be more than a one-off finding & be inherently repeatable. Other researchers must be able to perform esults. Without this replication of research data quality control, which relers to reliability & exactly the same experiment, under same conditions and gen statistically significant results, the experiment & research have not fulfilled all the requirements of testability Validity & reliability; for qualitative research; the researcher is expected to demonstrate the methods employed to ensure validity & reliability indicating their fitness for purpose & how they are to be applied 3.9 Procedure of data collection; requires the researcher to briefly explain the procedures/steps that will be followed in data collection exercise 3.10 Data analysis: spells out how data will be processed & managed. It should indicate statistical tests that will be carried out & how the resulting information will be used for the report/dissertation. Where both qualitative & quantitative data is expected, the candidate should describe in a detailed way how both qualitative & quantitative data will be analysed. Reasons for the choice of a particular data analytic technique against other techniques must be fully explained and justified. fe studies, common analysis methods include content analysis, thematic analysis and ¥ For qua discourse analysis Y For quantitative studies, you'll almost always make use of descriptive statistics, and in many cases, ‘orrelation and regression analysis) you'll also use inferential statistical techniques (¢.8.. ¢ dentify with justification ethical issues within the context of the study & establish measures to be taken to address the issues in order 10 conduct research in compliance with acceptable ethical standards. This has a bearing on validity & usefulness of the research ‘onal framework for hamessing the benefits of research while ensuring fare of people who take part in the research are not compromised .¢, non-maleficence & justice 3.11 Ethical clearance: the section should i findings. The guidelines provide a nati that the rights, interests, values & wel Ethical principles to be respected include; respect for persons, beneficenc tify every choice! Make sure that dible methodology textbooks or golden rule of the methodology chapter is to jus » for every “what”, and reference cre ‘ons. This chapter is important because: - theory, which is what eams you marks, A flawed results. So, the chapter is vital as it allows doing and that your results are credible yy methodological issues or problems you In conclusion: Thi you clearly explain the “why ‘academic sources to back up your justificati Y Itdemonstrates understanding of research flawed research desi methodology would mean you to show the examiner that you know what you're ¥ It allows the researcher to identify and discuss an, encounter and to develop a mitigation plan because every research has its limitations V_ Researchers who receive criticism can refer to the methodology and explain their approach » Troan help provide researchers with a specific plan to follow throughout the research process may Page | 2makes your study replicable by allowing other researchers to undertake your study using the same ‘methodological approach and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies ). “human research ethics rest on three fundamental principles that are considered the foundation of all nciples are; Respect for persons, Beneficence al principles. regulation or guidelines governing research ethics. These pi and justice.” Using relevant examples discuss these three et Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is concerned with the moral principles and values which govern our beliefs, actions and decisions. Research ethics are based on 3 major fundamental principles and should be considered when preparing your research project, these principles include the following; Respect for Persons; its widely regarded as a foundational ethical principle of research ethics, it has implications for how competent and non-competent persons ought to be treated in research This principle incorporates two elements that deal with respecting people in regard to research Y People should be treated as autonomous; this means that a person can make his or her own decisions about what to do and what to agree to. Researchers must respect that individuals should make their own informed decisions about whether to participate in research and individuals must be provided with complete information about the study and decide on their own whether to enrol or not. Y People with diminished autonomy should be protected; some people may not have the capacity to make fully informed decisions about what they do or what happens to them e.g., children, very ill people or those with mental disabilities. In such cases, these people should be protected and only included in research under specific circumstances since they cannot make informed decision on their own Beneficences is action that is done for the benefit of others. This principle states that research should: Y Do no harm; the purpose of research is to discover new information that would be helpful to society and should never be to hurt anyone or find out information at the expense of other people Y Maximize benefits for participants and minimize risks for participants; this means participants may be exposed to some harms or risks, Researchers are required to do their best to minimize those possible risks and to maximize the benefits for participants. Justice; this deals with the concept of fairness, researchers designing trials should consider what is fair in terms of recruitment of participants and choice of location to conduct a trial. This encompasses issues related to who benefits from research and who bears the risks of research. It provides the framework for thinking about these decisions in ways that are fair and equitable Y People who are included in research should not be included merely because they are a population that is easy to access, available, or perhaps vulnerable and less able to decline participating. ¥/An experimental strategy likely to be used by many types of people should be tested in the very populations of people who are likely’ to use it to ensure that it’s safe, effective & acceptable for all potential users e.g., experimental treatments intended for use in general population must be studied not only on men, but on enough women fo ensure that they are also safe & effective for women It's the obligation of researchers to ensure equitable selection of participants/respondents without coercion, it also involves fair distribution of benefits and burden to the group likely to benefit from the research Nonmaleficence common in medical research, is the obligation of a physician not to harm the patient. This principle supports several moral rules like; do not kill, do not cause pain or suffering, do not incapacitate, do not cause offense and do not deprive others of the good life. The practical application of this principle is for the physician to weigh the benefits against burdens of all interventions and treatment to avoid those that are inappropriately burdensome and to choose the best course of action for the patient.you to integrate the different Qn; It is important to choose an overall strategy that will enable a you will effectively address the components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring research problem, The overall strategy is referred to as the research design Using relevant practical examples 4) Discus the factors that determine the choice of a good research design. | The research design; refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data Types of designs; 1. Quantitative research design e.g experimental and non experimental 2. Qualitative research design e.g historical, case study, grounded theory, ethnographic 3. Mixed methods research design Factors that determine the choice of a good research design. 1. Type of research approach; for example Y Quantitative Vs Qualitative; Quantitative are suitable when research aim measures variables, establishes relationships and generalize findings whereas qualitative are appropriate when understanding meanings, experiences. Y Longitudinal designs Vs cross sectional require collecting data from the same individuals over extended period whereas cross section collect data from different individuals at a single point of time 2. Nature of topic; different topics require different approaches and methods; Quantitative research designs are suitable when the research aims to measure variables, establish relationships & generalize findings to a larger population. On the other hand, qualitative research designs are appropriate when the focus is on understanding meanings, experiences & social phenomena in-depth 3. Ethical considerations; Let’s say we are studying the effects of new medications on mental health outcomes in a specific population. Chose design that allows informed consent, selecting participants in a fair and unbiased manner. 4. Reliability and repetitions; A research design is reliable and valid if it can be repeated with similar results. This means that the outcome of the research was not a random occurrence, but real scientific information. Your research methods and designs should be clear and easy to follow so that they can be carried out by a separate group of researchers to produe the same results. To ensure your design is reliable, list all the criteria that were used in selecting the study group, identify all the guidelines of the research process, list all the equipment and supplies used, and record all results accurately. Additionally, make your research design economical; research that requires fewer resources or less expensive equipment and instruments is generally more reliable 5. Research Questions: Research questions perform an important role in selecting the method to carry- out research, There are various forms of research designs which include their own methods for collecting data. For example, a survey can be conducted for the respondents to ask them descriptive or interconnected questions while a case study or a field survey can be used to identify the firm's decision-making process. 6. Availability of Funds; The amount of money available for the study can dictate which research design to use. For example, if a study requires hiring human participants to conduct an experiment, the study may require a significant amount of moncy as compares to a cross sectional study.Research Methods Combined presentations 4 May 17" & 18" Discussion, 2023 @DPPM ‘Theme: Leaving no one Behind 7. Research objectives. If the research objective is to explorer a human behavior, then a qualitative design is more feasible than qualftative® 8. Time; if a researcher has only two months to conduct a study, he or she might want to choose a qualitative research design that does not require a lot of time to analyses or interpret the data. If your research study is looking at causes of an illness, it will be designed to look at the medical history and past lifestyle choices of individuals who have the illness. Alternatively, prospective studies that look forward are better suited for short-term research, such as the effects of a mother's diet on birth weight and other pregnancy results 9. The Research Problem: Certain types of social research problems call for specific approaches. For example, if the problem calls for (a) the identification of factors that influence an outcome, (b) the utility of an intervention, or (c) understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best. It is also the best approach to use to test a theory or explanation. On the other hand, iff concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little research has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach. 10. Personal Experiences; Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer statistical programs and familiar with quantitative journals in the library would most likely choose the quantitative design. On the other hand, individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or conducting personal interviews or making up-close observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with both quantitative and qualitative research 11. Audience Finally; researchers write for audiences that will accept their research. These audiences may be journal editors, journal readers, graduate committees, conference attendees, or colleagues in the field. The experiences of these audiences with quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies can shape the decision made about this choice. FAR Pabity b) Explain the difference between Experimental research and Non-Experimental research Experimental research attempts to determine how and why something happens, tests the way in which an. independent variable affects the dependent variable. The independent variables in these designs can be manipulated examples «True experimental; call for fulfillment of 3 conditions: simple random sampling of participants, having two groups (control and treatment group) and pre and post test «Quasi experimental design; used when can apply true experimental design & participants not randomly selected « Pre-experimental design-week designs such as one-shot case study, one group Pre-test design -post-test Non-Experimental research lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random assignment of participants to conditions or order of conditions examples include: © Ex post facto design; applies to studies where events have already occurred. Es death & cause of death «Descriptive designs; describes phenomenon as they exist without influencing them « Surveys-cross sectional and longitudinalnesearen mernous imental research Non experi Experimental research Through observations, surveys, “a 1, | Data collection | Through ‘observational study, case studies done simulations, and surveys Jae | No control oF manipulate independent i anipul 2. | Variable Ability to control or manipt variables tative, and qualitative independent variables ily quanti Js usualy ollable variable and also a ‘ i, and 3.| Characteristics [Ts usually quantitative, controlled, and | Oa tab eeu cross sectional research problem fi ject characteristics, 4. | Uses Used to make scientific innovations and | Used i Ae ie Sas fi lems measure . p cee eee and validate existing conditions. n (helps to create 5. | Merits Random selection (leads to the inability | No random selectio el to arrive at a generalizable result). reallife related experin - Tt compares 2 variables and describes 6. | Comparison | Does not compare variables : i the relationship between them _ providing descriptive 7. | Cause-Effect [Establishes cause and _ effect | focuses. on Relationship __| relationships results. ) 8. | Setting Is carried out in an unnatural setting | While the non-experimental resear ns natural and because most of the factors that] setting rem: influence the setting is controlled uncontrolled. 9 [Usually single-sectional Usually, cross-sectional ©) Explain the benefits of triangulation of methods in research ‘Triangulation; refers to the use of more than one data collection method in a study to offer insights from multiple data collection methods e.g questionnaire, interviews, FGDs, observation methods for various reasons including confirming whether the tools will offer similar findings or not. Studies that require more triangulation creates a need for various method Y Allow Validation of information collected using a variety of methods. ¥ Increases credibility of the information collected. Y Provided a clear way of understanding the findings. Y Increases confidence in research data Y Gives more detailed and balanced picture of a situation Y Gives an opportunity to get a deeper meaning in data ized electoral process which has just ended with a Question 1: Uganda has just gone through a pola contested result of the Presidential Election in the Courts of Law. A consortium of development agencies with interest in Uganda are concerned that if the contested outcome of the Presidential election is not well managed, it can lead to the violence, bloodshed, and impunity. Related with the above is the Local initiative by the Religious Leaders and the Elders Forum on promotion of peaceful election and democracy which resulted into two presidential debates conducted at Serena Hotel. Tasks: a) Assume you are hired as Researcher to develop a Research Proposal to conduct research on the post election process, using relevant practical examples and illustrations where necessary, explain the key components of your research proposal for this study. Key Components of a Research Proposal 1. Research Topic / Title: This provides insight into the subject of the study. Should indicate the study variable to allow readers have a clue on the issue under study.Sample Topic: "Understanding of Peace and Democracy in Uganda: An investigation of the 2016 post general election in Uganda" 2. Table of contents: it lists all headings & sub-headings & the pages where they appear Background of the Study: Presents the rationale providing evidence and conditions of the existing situation to make the reader fec! the urgency of the problem and the need to study it in order to solve it or contribute to its solution. Stipulating clearly how the issue/variable under study has evolved, the context of the study, theories/models guiding the study 4. Problem statement: This explains the gap in knowledge and practice, what is that not yet known that the study needs to go and investigate and to add to the body of knowledge. + It will clearly outlay, the ideal situation, the actual situation, the gap, the cause of the problem, and the justificationfurgency of the problem that warrants a research/study 5. Objectives of the study: stipulates what the study needs to achieve in terms of knowledge / data For example: Y To find out the nature of the electoral violence during the 2016 general election in Uganda. Y To establish the relationship between voters’ education and electoral violence during the 2016 general election in Uganda 6. Hypothesis/research Questions: a hypothesis is a predicted answer to the research question "There is positive relationship between voters’ education and electoral violence." + Research questions refer to questions which a researcher would like to answer by undertaking the study "What is the relationship between voters' education and electoral violence?" Literature review: It is a concise overview of what has been studied, argued and established about a topic, and it is usually organized either chronologically or thematically. * The literature should be 10 years or newer except for theoretical review & historical background 8, Research methodology: this consists of: evaluation design, population of the study, sample size, sampling methods, data collection methods, reliability, validity, ethical considerations, data collection tools 9, Budget: The budget consists the amount of money need for activities and items that are necessary to carryout the research, 10. Workplan: This is the schedule or timetable of activities and the period in which the research is to be conducted with due regard to budgetary limitations. + It could be presented in a tabular form indicating activity, duration and dates. However, it is preferably presented on a Gantt Chart b) In an event that you are selected to implement a research proposal, discuss how you can combine both qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed method) to execute such Mixed methods research is both a method and methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analyzing, and integrating quantitative and qualitative research in a single study or a longitudinal program of inquiry arch The purpose of this form of research is that the combination of both qualitative and quantitative r provides a better understanding of a research problem or issue than either research approach would alonei ay 17%" & 18" Discussion, eves wi Research Methods Combined presentations 4 May te a ae Data collection methods Quantitative * Questionnaires * Checklists + Quantitative unit of measure Qualitative + Interviews + Observations + Documents * Audio-visual material Data Analysis Quantitative analysis is used: + For statistical analysis. + For descriptions. + For comparing groups. + For relating variables Qualitative analysis is used: + For text and images. + For coding. + For theme development. + For relating themes aes aaa PSE2T ' 3. Interpretation + Qualitative data provides in-depth insights, rich descriptions & understanding of complex phenomena, while Quantitative data allows for statistical analysis and measurement of relationships References V Page 86 of the Q&A Bank. Exam 2015/2016, V Page 89-93, Marking Guide for Exam 2015/2016. ¥ Revised guidelines for proposal and dissertation writing for UMT, (2018) Using example from a research topic of your choice, Ukraine war and economic situation A case of Kampala Uganda a) Differentiate between research objectives and research hypothesis? Definition: Research objectives are broad statements that describe the overall goals and aims of the research study for example to assess the effect of the Ukraine war on economic situation in Kampala), whereas research hypotheses are specific, testable statements or predictions about the relationship between variables. There is no effect of the Ukraine war on employment in Kampala district. Scope: Research objectives provide a general direction and purpose for the study, guiding the research process as a whole. In contrast, research hypotheses focus on specific research questions or predictions and are narrower in scope. Level of specificity: Research objectives tend to be broad and general, providing an overview of what the researcher aims to achieve. On the other hand, research hypotheses are more specific, stating the expected outcome or relationship between variables that will be tested. Structure: Research objectives are often presented as descriptive statements, outlining the intentions of the study (descriptive statements are aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions). Page | 8Research Methods Combined presentations 4 May 17" & 18" Discussion, 2023 @DPPM Theme: Leaving no one Behind Research hypotheses, on the other hand, are framed as declarative statements that can be proven or disproven through data analysis. (Declarative sentences don't ask questions or give commands; they simply declare something) there is no effect of the Ukraine war in Kampala). Q Purpose: Research objectives serve as a guide for the entire research process, helping to define the research design, data collection methods & analysis techniques. Research hypotheses, on the other hand, guide the specific statistical tests (is the process of collecting and analyzing data in order to discern patterns and trends) or analyses that will be conducted to examine the relationships between variables Measurability: Research objectives are typically difficult to measure directly since they are broad in nature and not easily quantifiable. Research hypotheses, on the other hand, can be tested and measured using statistical analysis and data collection techniques. Role in the research process: Research objectives provide an overarching framework for the study, shaping the research question, literature review, and methodology. Research hypotheses, however, play a more specific role in testing the relationship between variables and drawing conclusions from the data. Flexibility: Research objectives are often more flexible and subject to change throughout the research process as new information emerges. Research hypotheses, once formulated, are more rigid and specific, guiding the analysis and interpretation of data b) Draw a conceptual framework that can represent the situation in a) above ‘A conceptual framework is a diagrammatic representation of variables. or a scheme of concepts or variables which the researcher operationalizes in order to achieve set objectives. The concepts are presented as a model where research variables and the relationship between them are translated into a visual picture to illustrate the interconnections between the independent, extraneous and dependent variables Research objective: To assess the effect of Ukraine war on the economic situation in Kampala, Uganda Specific objectives Y To assess the effect of Ukraine war on employment in Kampala v To assess the effect of Ukraine war on economic stability ¥ To assess the effect of the Ukraine war on the standards of living Research Hypotheses: HO1: The Ukraine war has led to a decrease in global trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) H02: The Ukraine war has negatively affected the exchange rate and inflation in Kampala, Uganda. H03: The Ukraine war has resulted in increased uncertainty and risk aversion among investors in the global financial markets. H04: The Ukraine war has influenced the supply and prices of key commodities in Kampala, Ugandahip of causation that should exist between the The above conceptual framework portrays the relations! ‘ (dependent variable). Ukraine war (Independent variable) and economic situation 1. Independent Variable: «) Uktuine War: The armed conflict in Ukraine involving domestic and intemational actors 2. Dependent Variables: a. Employment: > Unemployment Rate: Percentage of the labor force actively seeking employment. > Job Creation/Job Loss: Net change in the number of jobs created of lost > Labour Force Participation Rate: Percentage of working-age population eng b. Economic Stability: > Inflation Rate: The percentage change in the average pr > Exchange Rate Stability: Consistency and lack of volatility in currency value } Fiscal Deficit/Government Debt: Difference between government spending and revenue- ¢. Standards of Living: + Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita: > Human Development Index (HDI): Composite index measuring human development > Poverty Rate: Percentage of the population living below the poverty line 3. Moderating Factors: ¥ Government Policies: Economic ms Y International Aid and Sanctions: Assistance from international organizations and ged in the labour market ice level of goods and services. erage economic output per person. easures implemented by the government in response to the war economic sanctions imposed on Ukraine. 4, Framework Author: * Author: Anders Aslund © = Year: 2018 «Report Title: "The Ukraine Crisis: Economic Implications and Policy Options" The conceptual framework illustrates the relationship between the independent variable (Ukrain and the dependent variables of employment, economic stability, and standards of living. It acknowledge the moderating factors of government policies and international aid/sanetions that can influence th outcomes, The framework is based on the work of Anders Aslund in his report titled "The Ukraine Crist Economic Implications and Policy Options," published in 2018. e war sa structure to analyze the impact of the Ukraine war on employment, economi considering the various factors at play. It serves as a guide to he war on the economic situation in Ukrain This framework provides stability, and standards of living, understanding the interrelationships and potential effects of t ‘othesis are important components of research studies in soc Research objectives and research hyp th objectives refer to the specific and measurat science, humanities, and other applied sciences. Researcl er intends to achieve in a study, while research hypothesis refers to a tentat goals that a research dis testable with empirical data. The following are soi statement that relates to the research question an of the differences between research objectives and research hypothesis: 1. Definition: Research objectives define the goals and questiofs that a researcher aims to answer | study, whereas research hypothesis presents a tentative explanation or prediction about relationship between variables that a researcher is investigating. 2. Nature: Research objectives are usually broader and more general in nature than rese hypotheses, which are specific and focused on a particular aspect of the reseurch question.y neseoren merneas Combined presentations 4 May 17" & 18" Discussion, 2023 @DPPM Theme: Leaving no one Behind 3. Measurability: quantifiable vari Research objectives are often stated in specific & measurable terms, such as through ables, while research hypotheses are testable through empirical data & measurement Scope: Research objectives can include multiple goals or obje: typically involve testing a single prediction or relationship. 5. Role in research design: es, while research hypotheses i Research objectives may guide the overall research design, including the selection of participants, variables, and data collection methods, while research hypotheses inform the statistical methods used to analyze the data and test the predictions made. In summary, research objectives & research hypotheses serve distinct but complementary roles in the research process. Research objectives provide a clear direction for the study & help to focus the research question while research hypotheses provide a testable explanation/prediction for the relationship between variables being studied (a) Process of constructing questionnaire 1. Define your research objectives: Clearly articulate the purpose of your study and the specific information you want to gather through the questionnaire, Determine the research questions or hypotheses you aim to address. Determine the target population: Identify the specific group of people or participants you want to survey. Consider factors like demographics, characteristics or expertise that are relevant to your research objectives Select appropriate measurement scales: Determine the types of scales or response formats that best suit your research objectives. Common options include Likert scales, semantic differential scales, multiple-choice questions, open-ended questions & rating scales. Choose scales that align with the constructs you want to measure Develop a clear structure: Organize your questionnaire into logical sections or themes that flow smoothly. Consider using introductory statements or instructions to provide context and guidance to participants. Ensure that the ordering of questions makes sense & avoids bias or leading respondents, 5, Write clear and unambiguous questions: craft clear, concise & unbiased questions that are easily understood by respondents. Use simple language & avoid jargon or technical terms that may confuse participants 6. Use appropriate question types: Select the most appropriate question types for your research objectives. For example, closed-ended questions (e.g., multiple-choice) provide predefined response options, while open-ended questions allow participants to provide detailed, free-text responses, 7. Pre-test and revise: Conduct a pilot test of your questionnaire with a small sample of respondents who are similar to your target population. This helps identify any issues with question clarity, - response options, or overall questionnaire structure 8. Consider skip patterns and branching: If certain questions are only relevant to specific participants based on their responses, incorporate skip pattems or branching logic into your questionnaire 9. Design for clarity and aesthetics: Pay attention to the visual design of your questionnaire. Use clear fonts, appropriate font sizes, and sufficient spacing. Use headers, subheadings, and numbering to enhance readability and organization. . 10. Test for reliability and validity: Assess the reliability and validity of your questionnaire, Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurement, while validity refers to whether the questionnaire measures what it intends to measure, Evaluate reliability through measures like test- retest reliability or internal consistency (e.g., Cronbach's alpha).esearch Methods Combined preseniarun> in a oT 5 obtain thi 11, Obtain ethical approvals: If your research involves human participants, ensure Dine Th necessary ethical approvals from the relevant institutional review board or ethies com s ensures the protection of participants’ rights and welfare. (b) Procedure of obtaining high response rate using questionnaire To obtain a high response rate when using a questionnaire, it’s important ‘ encourage participation and minimize non-response. Here's a procedure to help you increas: the response rate 1. Keep the questionnaire concise: Design a questionnaire that is concise and focused, avoiding unnecessary or redundant questions. Participants are more likely to complete shorter questionnaires, reducing the burden on their time and attention. 2. Ensure clarity and simplicity: Use clear and straightforward language in your questionnaire. Avoid Jargon or technical terms that may confuse respondents. Make sure that each question is easily understandable and that response options are unambiguous. 3. Personalize the invitation: Tailor the invitation to participate in the questionnaire & make it feel personal. Address the participant by name if possible & briefly explain the purpose & importance of their participation. Personalized invitations are more likely to grab attention & generate a positive rategies that to implement st response 4, Emphasize confidentiality & anonymity: Assure participants of the confidentiality & anonymity of their responses. Clearly state that their individual answers will be kept confidential & that the data will be reported in aggregate form only. This helps alleviate concems about privacy & encourages honest responses 5. Use a variety of communication channels: Employ multiple communication channels to reach your target population, Consider using email, social media platforms, online forums, mailing lists, or even physical mailings. Different individuals have different preferences, so diversifying the channels increases the likelihood of reaching a wider audience. 6. Timing and reminders: Consider the timing of your questionnaire administration. Avoid periods of high workload or holidays when participants may be less likely to respond. Send reminders to those who have not yet completed the questionnaire, gently nudging them to participate. Reminders can significantly boost response rates. 7. Incentives: Offer incentives to encourage participation. These can be tangible rewards (e.g., gift cards, discounts), access to valuable resources or information, or even non-monetary incentives like a summary of the research findings. Incentives can increase motivation & make respondents more likely to complete the questionnaire 8. Follow up with non-respondents: Identify non-respondents & follow up with them to encourage participation. Send personalized follow-up messages, reiterating the importance of their input & expressing gratitude for their time. Additional reminders & follow-ups can effectively motivate individuals to respond 9. Make it mobile-friendly: Ensure that your questionnaire is compatible with mobile devices and easy to complete on smartphones or tablets. Many people prefer to access surveys on their mobile devices, so optimizing your questionnaire for mobile use increases accessibility and convenience. 10. Provide progress indicators: Include a progress indicator in your questionnaire to show participants how far they are in the completion process. Progress indicators give respondents a sense of how much more effort is required, making the task feel more manageable and encouraging them to continue. 1, Test the questionnaire: Before distributing the questionnaire widely, conduct a pilot test with a small \. sample to identify any potential issues or barriers to completion, Evaluate the clarity, flow, and user mnnaire based on the feedback received experience of the ques Page | 17(c). Qualities of interviewer that ensure validity in data collection The qualities of interviewers can have a significant impact on the validity of d ta collected interviews. Here are some qualities that can enhance validity in data collection 1. Interviewing skills: Interviewers should possess strong interviewing skills, ineludi listening, probing, and asking follow-up questions. Skilled interviewers can clicit more detailed and accurate responses from participants, ensuring that the data collected is comprehensive and nuanced 2. Objectivity and neutrality: Interviewers should strive to remain neutral and objective throushou the interview process, They should avoid expressing personal opinions or biases that could influence participants’ responses. Maintaining objectivity helps ensure that participants feel comfortable expressing their true thoughts and experiences. 3. Cultural sensi y: Cultural sensitivity is crucial when conducting interviews, especially in diverse populations. Interviewers should be respectful and knowledgeable about different cultural norms, values, and practices. Being sensitive to cultural differences helps establish rapport, trust, and open communication, leading to more valid and authentic responses. 4. Empathy and rapport building: Interviewers who demonstrate empathy and build rapport with participants create a comfortable and supportive environment for. sharing information. By establishing a trusting relationship, interviewers can encourage participants to be more open, honest, and forthcoming during the interview process 5. Flexibility and adaptability: Interviewers should be flexible and adaptable to the needs and preferences of participants. They should be able to adjust their approach, language, or pacing to accommodate individual differences or specific situations. 6. Interviewer training and experience: Adequate training and experience in conducting interviews contribute to higher data validity. 7. Knowledge of the research topic: Interviewers should have a solid understanding of the research topic and the specific objectives of the study. 8. Good organizational and note-taking skills: Interviewers should possess strong organizational skills to ensure that data collection is systematic and accurate. 9. Ethical conduct: interviewers should adhere to ethical guidelines & research protocols throughou the data collection process. They should prioritize participant confidentiality, informed consent & privacy 10. Reflective practice: Effective interviewers engage in reflective practice, which involves sel assessment and ongoing improvement. They critically analyze their own performance, seek feedbac from peers or supervisors, and continuously refine their interviewing techniques. Qn1; Research dissemination planning, if appropriately done should increase usability of finding Explain the various research dissemination approaches for a research topic of your choice. Introduction «Research dissemination refers to the process of sharing research findings with stakeholders & wic audiences «Research dissemination means making results available to the people that can best make use of therResearch Me rombined presentations 4 May +/ ‘ch Methods Combined present Theme: Leaving no one Behind Statement Research dissemination is a critical process that aims to increase the usa findings. Effective dissemination ensures that research reaches the intended audienc utilisation in various settings. Here are several approaches commonly used for research disseminati journals allows researchers to and validating the ity and impact of research .d encourages its ion; Y Peer-reviewed publications. Publishing research findings in reputable share their work with the scientific community, promoting knowledge exchange study through the peer review process. Y Conferences and presentations. Presenting research at conferences, allows researchers to engage with a broader audience, receive feedback and network with fellow scholars, practitioners and policy makers. Y Policy briefs and reports, Summarising research findings in concise and accessible formats, such as policy briefs or reports helps bridge the gap between research and policy. These materials are tailored to policy-makers and stakeholders, providing actionable recommendations Y Public engagement. Communication research to the general public through media outlets, pre releases, or public lectures raises awareness and promotes understanding of scientific findings. This approach fosters public support, enhances knowledge dissemination and encourages societal impact. Y Online platforms and open access. Utilising digital platforms e.g websites, blogs, social media ete allows researchers to reach a wider audience beyond traditional academic circles. Open access publishing ensures that research articles are freely accessible, elimination barriers to information. Y Collaboration and partnerships. Collaborating with other researchers, organisations or community stakeholders increases the visibility and impact of research. Partnering with institutions, industry, NGOs can facilitate knowledge transfer and application in real-world settings. Y Professional networks and associations. Engaging with professional networks and associations relevant to the research topic enables researchers to share findings, exchange ideas and collaborate with colleagues working in similar areas. ¥ Educational & training programs. Developing educational materials, workshops or training programs based on research findings helps disseminate knowledge to practitioners, students or individuals working in the field. This approach facilitates the integration of research into professional practice Y Data sharing and repositories. Making research data openly available through data repositories or sharing platforms promotes transparency, facilitates collaboration and allows other researchers to validate and build upon the findings symposiums or academic events Conclusion By employing a combination of these approaches, researchers can enhance the usability and impact of their findings, reaching diverse audiences and influencing various sectors Qn2. a) Why is dissemination of research findings a critical element of the research process Approach Def; Research Dissemination The following are the importance of. research dissemination Sharing knowledge. Dissemination allows researchers to communicate their findings to the scientific community and the wider public/audiences. This sharing knowledge promotes collaboration, encourages further research and contributes to the advancement of scientific understanding. Validation and peer review. Dissemination enables other experts in the field to review and validate the research findings. Peer review helps ensure the quality and accuracy of the research, strengthens the evidence base and guards against potential biases or errors. Page | 1Resecrch Meth 1 " rch Methods Combined presentations 4 May 17" & 18" Discussion, 2023 ©DPPM Theme: Leaving no one Behind iii, Reproducibility and transparency. By disseminating research findings, researchers provide the Recessary information and data for others to replicate and build upon their work, This fosters transparency and enhances the credibility of the research. Impact & relevance. it helps research reach its intended audience, including policymakers. Practitioners & general public. By making research findings ‘ible & understandable. dissemination enhances the potential for real-world impact & informs decision-making process Vv. Ethical responsi iv. ac Researcher have an ethical obligation to share their findings as their work is, often supported by public funding or conducted with the participation of research participants Dissemination ensures that the investment of resources and contributions of participants are maximised and benefit society b) Explain the factors that determine choice of the dissemination channels. The following are the factors that determine choice of the dissemination channels i, Target audience. Identifying the intended audience is crucial in determining the appropriate dissemination channel. Different channels are effective for reaching specific audiences e.g academic journals for researchers, conferences for scholars in a particular field, policy briefs for policy makers & practitioners ii, Accessibility and reach. Consideration should be given to the accessibility and reach of the dissemination channels. Will the chosen channels make the research findings easily accessible to the target audience? Are they widely recognised and utilised within the relevant community? Examples of dissemination channels are academic journals, conferences, websites, social platforms. policy briefs, press release, public lectures ete iii, Disciplinary norms & practices. Different disciplines have their own established norms & practices for disseminating research. Researchers should be familiar with these norms & consider the conventions of their specific field e.g publishing research in peer-reviewed journals is common in many scientific disciplines while disciplines like humanities may rely more on conferences & book publications iv. Timeliness and urgency. Some research findings may have time-sensitive or urgent implications. In such cases, choosing dissemination channels that allow for rapid and immediate communication ¢.g preprint servers, online platforms, press releases can be more suitable Vv. Media suitability. Depending on the nature of the research findings, certain dissemination channels may be more appropriate e.g visual data or multimedia content might be better communicated through platforms that support visual presentations like websites, infographics or video platforms. vi, Resources and logistics. Consideration should be given to the available resources, including budget, time and expertise. Some dissemination channels may require more financial investment, technical skills of effort to effectively utilize. Researchers should assess the feasibility of using specific channels based on their resources vii, Ethical considerations. Researchers should also consider ethical factors e.g ensuring open access to research findings, avoiding predatory publishers or conferences and adhering to ethical guidelines for research dissemination established by relevant institutions or professional associations. ©) Discuss the challenges of disseminating research findings. Y- Access barrier, Access to research findings can be limited due to subscription fees for academic journals or paywalls that restrict access to published articles. Y Language barrier and jargons. Research findings are often written in technical language and jargon that may be difficult for non-experts to understand. This can ereate a barrier for wider dissemination to policymakers, practitioners, general public etev Research Methods Combined presentations 4 May 17 & 18" Discussion, 2023 @DPPM Theme: Leaving no one Behind Publication bias. There is a tendency for positive or statistically significant research findings to be ae likely published while negative or non-significant results may be under-reported or not disseminated, This publication bias can lead to an incomplete representation of research findings and hinder the dissemination of a comprehensive evidence base. Time and publication delays. The publication process can be time-consuming with lengthy peer review and editing periods. This delay can hinder timely dissemination of research findings especially in fast-moving fields or urgent situations where prompt dissemination is crucial. Incentive structures. Academic reward systems often prioritize publication in hi which can lead to a focus on quantity and impact factors rather than the broader dissemination of research to diverse audiences. Lack of awareness and engagements. Researchers may face challenges in effectively promoting and dissemination their findings to the intended audience. Hence limited knowledge of available dissemination channels, lack of engagements with policymakers and practitioners and insufficient communication skills can hinder the effective dissemination of research. Information overload. In today's digital age, there is an abundance of information available, making it challenging for research findings to stand out and reach the target audience. Cutting through the noise and ensuring research findings receive attention and consideration can be difficult Cultural and contextual barriers. Cultural, social or political factors can influence the acceptance and dissemination of research findings. Controversial or politically sensitive research may face resistance or encounter barriers in reaching certain audiences or being adopted into policy & practice Sustainability and long-term impact. Dissemination efforts should extend beyond the initial release of research findings. Ensuring sustained engagement and impact requires ongoing communication, follow-up and translation of research into actionablé recommendations. This long-term dissemination j -impact journals challenge can be resource-intensive and require continued effort from researchers