(2025-2026)

Automobile Engineering

UNIT – I
Introduction
 Contents:
• Definition
Automobile
• Layout, Classification
• Chassis

Engine
• Cylinder block and crank case, cylinder, cylinder head
Components
• piston and piston rings, crank shaft, connecting rod, muffler.

Engine
• Based on arrangement of cylinders
classification
• Multi-valve engines.
• EGR and Catalytic converters,

Exhaust • BS-6:Phase – I and Phase – II,

emissions
and their • RDE (Rear Driving Emissions),
control
• SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction),
• DEF (Diesel Exhaust Fluid),
Automobile
Automobile definition:

• An automobile, commonly known as a car/vehicle, is a self-

propelled vehicle designed primarily for transporting people or
goods on roads such as car, bus, trucks, etc.

• It typically has four wheels and is powered by an engine, most

commonly an internal combustion engine.

• The term "automobile" is derived from the Greek words "auto"

(self) and "mobilis" (moving), highlighting its ability to move
independently.
Classification of Automobile:
The automobiles are classified by the following ways,
1. On the Basis of Load:
a) Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV),
b) Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV),
2. On the Basis of Wheels:
a) Two wheeler vehicle, ex: Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.
b) Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Auto rickshaw,
c) Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.
d) Four wheeler vehicle, for example: Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.
e) Six wheeler vehicle, for example: Big trucks with two gear axles
3. On the basis of Fuel Used:
a) Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.
b) Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.
c) Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.
d) Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.
e) Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles.
Classification of Automobile:
4. On the basis of body style:
a) Sedan Hatchback car.
b) Coupe car Station wagon Convertible.
c) Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.
5. On the basis of Transmission:
a) Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car
with 5 gears.
b) Semi-automatic
c) Automatic : In automatic transmission
6. On the basis of Drive:
a) Left hand drive
b) Right hand drive
Classification of Automobile:
7. On the basis of Driving Axle:
a) Front wheel drive
b) Rear wheel drive
c) All wheel drive
8. Position of Engine:
a) Engine in Front - Most of the vehicles have engine in the front.
Example: most of the cars,
b) Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine located
in the rear.
Example : Nano car, sports cars
Automobile Layout:

• It describes where on the vehicles the engine and drive wheels are found.
Automobile Layout Classification:

• Rear Wheel Drive Layouts

• Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive (FR)
• Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive (RR)

• Front Wheel Drive Layouts

• Front Engine Front Wheel Drive (FF)
• Rear Engine Front Wheel Drive (RF)
• All Wheel Drive Layouts (AWD)
Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive: (FR)

• A front-engine, rear-wheel-drive (FR) layout means the engine is

positioned at the front of the vehicle and power is sent to the rear
wheels.
• Conventional type of layout
• Well suited for load carriers
Advantages: (FR)
1) It is reasonably balanced weight distribution between front and
rear wheels providing good handling characteristics.
2) For easy front wheel steering movement, the engine occupies the
reduced width between arches.
3) Behind the rear seats, a large luggage space is available by
providing the increased carrying capacity as well as space for
easy body movement.
4) Accessibility to various components such as engine, gear box
and rear axle are better compared to other layouts.
5) The control linkages such as accelerator, choke, clutch and gear
box are short and simple.
6) For the full benefits of the natural air stream created by vehicles,
the movement is taken by the forward facing radiator in reduced
power losses from a large fan.
Disadvantages: (FR)
1) A single or split propeller shaft with universal joints and
supporting bearings between front mounted gearbox and rear
axle may generate vibration and other noises under certain
operating conditions.
2) The floor tunnel is necessary to provide a clearance for the
operation of a propeller- shaft system and it may interfere
with passenger leg-room.
3) It is very difficult to take the vehicle from the mud when a rear-
wheel-drive vehicle stuck in mud.
Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive: (RR)

• A rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive (RR) layout means the engine

is positioned at the back of the vehicle and power is sent to the
rear wheels.
Advantages: (RR)
1) Short driveline because the engine, gearbox and final drive can
be built into a single unit.
2) A majority of weight at the rear of the vehicle gives improved
traction during hill climbing and acceleration.
3) It has a simple drive shaft layout compared to a front wheel
drive.
4) Effective rear wheel braking is possible with this layout.
5) Due to the absence of the propeller shaft, the obstructed floor
space is reduced.
6) The exhaust gases, fumes, engine heat and noises are carried
away from passengers.
7) The drive arrangement results a compact layout and short car.
8) The front of the vehicle can be designed for good visibility and
smooth air flow.
Disadvantages: (RR)
1) The rearward concentration of weight causes the vehicle to be
more affected by side winds at high speeds. It makes the vehicle
turning very sharply into a curve.
2) It is difficult to accommodate the liquid cooling of the engine.
3) It is difficult to accommodate the fuel tank in a safe zone of
the vehicle.
4) Space for luggage is reduced.
5) Steering is difficult in slippery conditions.
6) It has a restricted luggage compartment due to narrow front
which houses the fuel tank also.
7) Natural air cooling is not possible because it requires powerful
fan.
8) Long linkages are required for the engine, clutch and gear box
controls.
Front Engine Front Wheel Drive: (FF)

• A front-engine, front-wheel-drive (FF) layout means the engine

is positioned at the front of the vehicle and power is sent to the
front wheels.
• Most popular layout in used in recent cars.
Advantages: (FF)
1) Because the engine and transmission system are placed over the
front wheels the road holding is improved especially in wet
and slippery conditions.
2) Good steering stability is achieved because the driving force at
the wheels is in the direction that the vehicle is being steered.
3) Passenger and cargo spaces are good because there is no need
for a transmission shaft to the rear axle.
4) Good road adhesion is obtained due to a large part of the vehicle
weights are carried on driving wheels under normal conditions.
5) Under steady conditions, this drive is preferred by many drivers.
6) Lower flat floor line is provided due to dispensing with the
propeller shaft resulting less centre of gravity.
Disadvantages: (FF)

1) Complicated drive shafts are needed for constant velocity

joints.
2) Acceleration is affected because the load transfer to rear of the
vehicle lightens load on the drive axle at the front.
3) Due to the combination of steered and driven wheels with short
shafts, special universal joints and more complicated
assembly are required.
4) To prevent the rear wheels from skidding under heavy brake,
the required weight at the rear usually necessitates a special
arrangement.
5) The tractive effort (Pulling force) is reduced which is mostly
required on steep gradients and during acceleration.
All Wheel Drive: (AWD)

• A all-wheel-drive (AWD) layout means the engine is positioned at

middle of the vehicle and power is sent to the front and rear wheels.
• Has more drive-train loss.
AWD 4WD
Rear Engine Front Wheel Drive: (RF)
Automobile construction and Components:
The main components of an automobile refer to the following
components:
1) Frame,
2) Chassis,
3) Body,
4) Power unit,
5) Transmission system.
Automobile construction and Components:
An automobile is made up of mainly two units, these are Chassis and Body.
Frame+ Base components = Chassis
Chassis + Body = Vehicle

Chassis include the following Engine unit includes

a) Springs and Shock absorbers a) Full System
b) Steering System b) Ignition System
c) Brakes c) Lubricating System
d) Frame d) Cooling system
e) Tires and Wheels

Transmission unit includes Electrical system includes

a) Clutches a) Battery
b) Gear box b) Dynamometer
c) Universal Joint c) Alternators
d) Final Drive Axle and Differential d) Ignition Starting and Lighting
Chassis frame : Functions

• To carry load of the passengers or goods carried in the body.

• To support the load of the body, engine, gear box, etc.
• To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking and
acceleration.
• To withstand the stresses caused due to the bad road condition.
• To withstand centrifugal force while vehicle turnings.
Types of chassis frames:

There are three types of frames.

1. Conventional frame
2. Semi-Integral frame
3. Integral frame
Conventional frame:
Most of the heavy vehicles have this
frame
• Made up of steel section
• 2 long side members & 5 to 6 cross
members
• joined rivets or bolts
• Cross members increased strength
• Front – inswept (narrow): steering
lock, pivoting & swinging of the front
wheels
• Rear – upswept (Board): vertical
movement of the rear axles, road
bumps & inequalities.
Semi-Integral frame:
• In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front-end on which
engine gear box and front suspension is mounted.
• In this case the rubber mountings used in conventional frame
between frame and suspension are replaced by more stiff
mountings. Because of this some of the vehicle load is shared by the
frame also.
• This type of frame is heavier in construction.
• It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the
front frame can be taken easily to replace the damaged chassis
frame.
• This type of frame is used
in some of the European
and American cars.
Integral frame:
• In this type of construction, there is no frame.
• It is also called unitized frame-body construction.
• All the assembly units are attached to the body and all the functions
of the frame carried out by the body itself.
• Here the body shell and underbody are welded into single unit.
• The underbody is made of floor plates and channel and box sections
welded into single unit. This assembly replaces the frame.
• This frame is used now days in most of the cars.
• Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to less
weight most economical also.
• The main disadvantage is repairing.
Chassis:
• If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis.

• The components are like engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox,

silencer, wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential units, etc..,

Functions of a chassis:
1. Supports or bears the load of the vehicle body.
2. Provide the space and mounting location for various aggregates of
vehicle.
3. Supports the weight of various systems of the vehicle such as
engine, transmission etc.
4. Supports a load of passengers as well as the luggage.
5. Withstands the stresses arising due to bad road conditions.
6. Withstands stresses during braking and acceleration of the vehicle.
Types of chassis:

i) Ladder Chassis
ii) Tubular Chassis
iii) Monocoque Chassis
(i) Ladder chassis:
• The ladder-frame chassis is one of the oldest chassis types.
• This chassis is characterised by two long heavy beams that are
supported by two smaller ones.
• Its quality of being easily manufactured and also easy for its mass
production.
• Since ladder frame chassis is significantly heavy it‘s usually used
for vehicles that transport heavy material.
Benefits
• Easy to manufacture and easy assembling of the car over it.
• Heavy and strong tensile strength.
Drawbacks
• Poor cornering ability due to weak torsional rigidity.
• Its heaviness doesn‘t make it suitable for performance cars and
hatchbacks.
Ladder chassis
(ii) Tubular chassis:
• Tubular space frame chassis employs dozens of circular-section
tubes (some may use square-section tubes for easier connection to
the body panels, though circular section provides the maximum
strength), position in different directions to provide mechanical
strength against forces from anywhere.
• This type of chassis is mostly used while manufacturing racing
cars due to the enhanced safety they offer.
Tubular chassis
Benefits
• Its crafting allows better contact between the half axle and
ground making it preferable for off-roading.
• A cylindrical tube covering the driveshaft saves it from any
damage while off-roading.
• The structure‘s torsional toughness is relatively more supple
than ladder chassis.
Drawbacks
• In case the driveshaft fails, the whole chassis needs to be
dismantled as the driveshaft is covered with the cylindrical
tube of the chassis.
• The manufacture of backbone chassis is costly and increases
the overall cost of the car.
(iii) Monocoque chassis:
• The construction of a monocoque chassis is quite simple in the
sense that the entire structure is one big construction.
• All components or mechanical parts constitute the frame,
foundation and body of the car. The engine, gearbox, suspension,
seats and exterior body panels are simply attached to the
construction.
• This means that the overall construction is very lightweight and
compact.
• The applications include all sorts of everyday vehicles ranging
from small and compact hatchbacks to large and heavy SUVs.
• It must be noted that modern SUVs are using monocoque
construction.
Monocoque chassis
Monocoque chassis:
Benefits
• It‘s safer than both the other chassis due to its cage-like
construction.
• The chassis is easy to repair as well.
• It has superior torsional rigidity.
Drawbacks
• The chassis is obviously heavy as it‘s both the frame and chassis
as one single entity.
• Producing it in small quantity.
 Engine
Components
Engine Components:
Engine main components: (in syllabus)

• Cylinder block and crank case,

• Cylinder, cylinder head,
• Piston and piston rings,
• Crank shaft, connecting rod,
• Muffler.
Cylinder block:
• The cylinder of an IC engine constitutes the basic and
supporting portion of the engine power unit.
• Its major function is to provide space in which the piston
can operate to draw in the fuel mixture or air (depending upon
spark ignition or compression ignition), compress it, allow it to
expand and thus generate power.
• The cylinder is usually made of high-grade gray cast iron.
• In some cases, to give greater strength and wear resistance
with less weight, chromium, nickel and molybdenum are
added to the cast iron.
Cylinder block: major functions
The cylinder block represents the main engine body, and the
functions of the cylinder block are:
 The combustion chamber forms
 Receive the generated pressure
 Transfer heat
 Direct the piston
Cylinder block: characteristics of material
• High resistance to pressure stress, especially at high temperatures.
• High resistance to abrasion.
• Good conductivity of heat.
• Light weight.
• High resistance to rust.
• Good bonding ability with lubricants.
• The possibility of producing them at a lower cost.
Cylinder block:
Cylinder block:
Cylinder head: major functions
• It is the top cover for the cylinder block, usually called the
cylinder head.
• It is a single block, and the cylinder head is made of gray cast
iron and may be used in its manufacture an aluminum alloy,
which is characterized by its ability to conduct heat, due to the
exposure of the cylinder head to the high temperatures resulting
from combustion, and this alloy is also distinguished by its light
weight, providing the cylinder head with the combustion
chambers valve cavities and special openings for spark plugs in
gasoline engines or fuel injection sprayers in diesel engines, in
addition to cavities for the passage of cooling water.
Crankcase:
• The crank case is usually made of pressed steel.
• It is fixed at the bottom of the cylinder block and a gasket is
placed between them.
• The crankcase contains the necessary oil to lubricate the
engine, and given the need to change this oil from time to time .

Crankcase models Crankcase gasket

Cylinder head:
Moving parts (power group):
• This group converts the reciprocating movement of the
piston into a rotational motion on the crank shaft.
• This group consists of piston, connecting rod, crank shaft and
flywheel.
• This group is known as the power group.
Moving parts (power group):

Power group (crankshaft - connecting rods - pistons)

Piston:
• An IC engine piston (Internal Combustion engine piston) is a
critical component of an internal combustion engine.
• It plays a central role in the engine's power generation by
moving up and down inside the cylinder, converting the
energy from combustion into mechanical work.
• It is usually made of Aluminum alloys (lightweight, good heat
conductivity) and Cast iron (durable, high wear resistance —
more common in heavy-duty engines).
 Piston – main functions:

• Compression: Compresses the air-fuel mixture before ignition.

• Power Transfer: Receives force which is generated due to the
combustion of fuel and transmits it to the crankshaft via the
connecting rod.
• Sealing: Prevents combustion gases from leaking into the
crankcase.
• Heat dissipation: Transfers heat from the combustion process
to the cylinder wall and eventually to the cooling system.
Piston – main parts:

• Piston Head (Crown): The top surface that comes in

direct contact with combustion gases.
• Ring Grooves: Hold the piston rings (compression and oil
control rings).
• Piston Skirt: Guides the piston as it moves in the cylinder.
• Piston Pin (Wrist Pin/Gudgeon Pin): Connects the piston
to the connecting rod.
Piston – main parts:
Types of pistons:
1. Flat-Top Piston
Shape: Flat crown.
Used in: Most modern gasoline engines.
Advantages: Simple design, efficient combustion, balanced performance.
Disadvantages: Lower compression than dome pistons.

2. Dome Piston
Shape: Raised (domed) crown.
Used in: High-performance or high-compression engines.
Advantages: Increases compression ratio, more power.
Disadvantages: Can cause uneven combustion if not properly designed.
Types of pistons:
3. Dish Piston
Shape: Bowl-like depression in crown
Used in: Turbocharged engines or engines needing lower compression
Advantages: Reduces detonation risk, stable combustion
Disadvantages: Slightly lower efficiency compared to dome pistons

4. Slipper Piston
Shape: Cut-away sides (reduced skirt)
Used in: High-speed engines (e.g., racing)
Advantages: Lightweight, reduces friction
Disadvantages: Less strength, not ideal for high-load engines
Types of pistons:

5. Trunk Piston
Shape: Long skirt, heavy-duty
Used in: Large diesel engines
Advantages: Strong, handles high pressure
Disadvantages: Heavy, more friction

6. Crosshead Piston
Used in: Large two-stroke marine/diesel engines
Design: Piston does not connect directly to crankshaft; uses a crosshead
Advantages: Reduces side thrust on cylinder walls
Disadvantages: Complex and bulky
Signs of faulty piston:
• Blue smoke from exhaust : Oil is burning in the combustion
chamber.
• High oil consumption: Engine uses more oil than normal.
• Loss of engine power: Poor acceleration or weak performance.
• Engine misfire: Rough running or shaking engine.
• Knocking or rattling sound: Piston is loose or damaged
• Low compression: Poor sealing in the cylinder.
• Overheating: Damaged piston affects heat transfer.
• White or gray exhaust smoke (severe cases): Coolant or oil
entering combustion due to piston damage.
• Poor fuel economy: Engine runs inefficiently.
Piston Rings:
• Piston rings are critical components in an IC engine.
• They are fitted into grooves on the outer diameter of the piston and
have several essential functions to ensure the engine operates
efficiently and reliably.
• Usually made of Cast iron and steel due to their excellent wear
resistance and compatibility with cylinder liners.
• Often treated with plasma coatings, chrome plating, or phosphate
layers for enhanced performance.
Functions of Piston rings are:
• Sealing the combustion chamber
Prevents combustion gases from leaking into the crankcase.
• Heat transfer
Transfers heat from the piston to the cylinder wall and then to the
engine coolant.
• Regulating oil consumption
Scrapes excess oil from the cylinder walls and returns it to the
crankcase.
• Maintaining proper lubrication
Distributes oil evenly on the cylinder wall to reduce wear and
friction.
Types of Piston Rings:
1. Compression Rings (Top and Second Ring):
• Top ring: Primary seal against combustion gases.
• Second ring: Assists in sealing and helps in oil scraping.
• Materials: Cast iron, alloyed cast iron, sometimes steel.
• Coatings: Chromium, molybdenum, nitriding for wear
resistance.
2. Oil Control Ring (Third Ring):
• Controls the amount of lubricating oil on the cylinder walls.
• Often made in three-piece configurations (two rails + expander).
Signs of faulty piston rings:
• Blue smoke from the exhaust (oil burning)
• Poor acceleration or loss of power
• Increased oil consumption
• Low compression readings
Temperature ranges inside the cylinder:

Phase Temperature (°C)

Intake stroke 30°C - 70°C

Compression stroke 200°C - 500°C

Combustion (Peak) 1800°C - 2700°C

Exhaust stroke 600°C - 1200°C

Crank shaft:
• The crankshaft is a rotating component in an IC engine.
• It Drives the flywheel, transmission, and accessories and also
Maintains engine balance and timing.
• Made of forged steel (high strength), cast iron (in some engines).
Parts of a Crankshaft:
1. Main journals - Rest on engine block bearings.
2. Crank pins (rod journals) - Connect to the connecting rods.
3. Crank webs (arms) - Join the main journals and crank pins.
4. Counterweights - Balance the rotating mass.
5. Oil holes/passages - Lubricate the bearings.
6. Flange - Connects to the flywheel or transmission.
Crank shaft:
Connecting Rod:
• It connects the piston to the crankshaft.
• It transfers the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary
motion of the crankshaft.
• Made of forged steel (common in cars), aluminum (lightweight
engines), titanium (high-performance engines), powder metal (used
in some modern engines).
Parts of a Crankshaft:
• Small end: Connects to the piston pin (gudgeon pin)
• Big end: Connects to the crankshaft journal
• Rod shank: Middle section (I-section or H-section for strength)
• Bearing inserts: At the big end, reduce friction with crankshaft
Connecting Rod:
Muffler:
• A muffler (also known as a silencer) is an important component of
an internal combustion (IC) engine's exhaust system.
• Its primary purpose is to reduce the noise produced by the exhaust
gases exiting the engine.
Function of Muffler:
• Noise Reduction: It dampens the sound created by the high-
pressure exhaust gases as they exit the engine.
• Back Pressure Management: It helps maintain optimal back
pressure, which can influence engine performance.
• Emission Control (Secondary Role): Some mufflers work with
catalytic converters to help reduce emissions, though this is not their
primary role.
Muffler:
Parts of Muffler:
• Inlet pipe
• Resonating chambers
• Perforated tubes
• Baffles (to redirect gas flow)
• Outlet pipe
How Muffler works?

• The muffler contains a series of chambers and perforated tubes

that reflect and cancel out sound waves.
• It utilizes destructive interference, where sound waves of opposite
phases cancel each other.
• Some mufflers also include sound-absorbing materials like
fiberglass.
Muffler:
 Engine
Classification
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
1. Inline (Straight) Engines
2. V-type Engines
3. Flat (Boxer) Engines
4. Radial Engines
5. W-Type Engines
6. Opposed-Piston Engines

II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:

1. 2-Valve Engines (Traditional)
2. 3-Valve Engines
3. 4-Valve Engines (Most Common Multi-Valve Type)
4. 5-Valve Engines (Rare)
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
1. Inline (Straight) Engines:
Configuration: All cylinders are arranged in a single line,
vertically or slightly tilted.
Common Types: Inline-3, Inline-4, Inline-6
Used in: Most small to mid-size cars (e.g., Toyota Corolla, BMW
I6 engines)
Advantages:
• Simpler design & construction
• Easy to cool
• Cost-effective
1. Inline (Straight) Engines:
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
2. V-type Engines:
Configuration: Cylinders are arranged in two banks forming a
"V" shape (usually 60°, 90°).
Common Types: V6, V8, V10, V12
Used in: High-performance cars, trucks, and SUVs (e.g., Ford
Mustang V8, Ferrari V12)
Advantages:
• More compact than inline engines
• Can produce more power in a smaller space
2. V-type Engines:
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
3. Flat (Boxer) Engines:
Configuration: Cylinders are laid flat in two banks opposite
each other (180°).
Common Types: Flat-4, Flat-6
Used in: Subaru, Porsche 911
Advantages:
• Low center of gravity → improved handling
• Naturally balanced
3. Flat (Boxer) Engines:
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
4. Radial Engines:
Configuration: Cylinders arranged in a circle around a central
crankshaft.
Used in: Aircraft engines (especially in early aviation)
Advantages:
• Good power-to-weight ratio
Disadvantages:
• Complex, not suitable for cars
4. Radial Engines:
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
5. W-Type Engines:
Configuration: Multiple cylinder banks arranged in a "W"
shape (e.g., W8, W12, W16).
Used in: High-end luxury or performance cars (e.g., Bugatti
Veyron W16, VW W12)
Advantages:
• High power output
• Compact for the number of cylinders
Disadvantages:
• Very complex and expensive
5. W-Type Engines:
I. Based on arrangement of Cylinders:
6. Opposed-Piston Engines:
Configuration: Two pistons share a single cylinder, moving in
opposite directions.
Used in: Some military and industrial engines
Advantages:
• High power output
• Compact for the number of cylinders
Disadvantages:
• Very complex and expensive
6. Opposed-Piston Engines:
II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:

Why More Valves?

• More valves = larger total valve area without increasing the
size of each valve.
• Enables better volumetric efficiency.
• Improves high-RPM breathing, fuel combustion, and power
output.
II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:
1. 2-Valve Engines (Traditional):
Configuration: intake valve + 1 exhaust valve.
Used in: Older or low-performance engines
Advantages:
• Simple and cost-effective
• Easier maintenance
Disadvantages:
• Limited airflow → lower performance
II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:
2. 3-Valve Engines:
Configuration: Usually 2 intake valves + 1 exhaust valve.
Used in: Some mid-range vehicles (e.g., older Ford Triton V8s)
Advantages:
• Better airflow than 2-valve
• Balanced compromise between cost and performance
Disadvantages:
• Not as efficient as 4-valve systems
II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:
3. 4-Valve Engines (Most Common Multi-Valve Type):
Configuration: 2 intake valves + 2 exhaust valves per cylinder.
Used in: Most modern cars and motorcycles
Advantages:
• Improved breathing (air intake/exhaust)
• Higher RPM and better performance
Disadvantages:
• More complex and costly
II. Based on Multi-Valve Engines:
4. 5-Valve Engines (Rare):
Configuration: Typically 3 intake valves + 2 exhaust valves.
Used in: High-performance engines (e.g., older Yamaha and
Audi engines)
Advantages:
• Superior air intake
• Higher engine speed potential
Disadvantages:
• Very complex valve timing
• Diminishing returns in modern designs
Exhaust Emissions
and their control
Individual actions reduce fuel consumption of vehicle:
By saving the fuel, these actions are good for:
• Respiratory health, Helping clean the air, Fighting change
• Also reduce exhaust emissions
• Reduce your driving speed
• Avoid aggressive driving
• Avoid idling
• Regular tune-ups
• Maintain braking system
(1poor tuned vehicle can emit pollutants = 20 good vehicles)
• Minimize A/C use
Sources of vehicle emissions:

• Engine crankcase Blow-by fumes (20%):

Heating oil and burning of fuel that blows
past piston rings and into the crankcase.

• Fuel vapor (20%): Chemicals that enters

the air as fuel evaporate.

• Engine exhaust(60%): Blown out the

tailpipe when engine burns a hydrocarbon
based fuel.
Automotive Emissions:

• Evaporative Emissions: It occurs when there is escaping of fuel

vapors into the atmosphere from fuel tank system.
• Exhaust Emissions: Release of exhaust gases like HC, CO, NOx
into the environment after combustion of fuel.
Pollutants in Exhaust Gas:

• Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) Major part of
exhaust emissions
• Hydro Carbons (HC)
• Particulate
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Smoke and Soot
• Lead
• Sulphuric Acid
Causes of CO:

• CO emissions are exhaust emission that is result of

partially burned fuel products of incomplete combustion.
• High CO emission can be caused by
• Restricted or dirty air cleaner
• Advanced ignition timing
• Clogged fuel injectors
• Rich A/F mixture
• Defective or worn-out ignition components
Causes of NOx:
• Produced by extremely high temperatures during
combustion.
• An engine with high compression ratio, Lean A/F
mixture and high-temperature thermostat will produce
high combustion heat resulting in formation of NOx.
• High NOx emission can be caused by
• Cooling system issues
• Lean A/F mixture
• Poor catalytic converter
• Over advanced timing
Causes of HC: (produced by unburnt fuel)
1. Rich A/F mixture
• Defective O2 sensor
• Leaky fuel injector
• Clogged air filter
2. Very lean A/F mixture
• Clogged fuel pump, fuel filter and fuel injector
3. Defective or Worn ignition components
• Ignition coil
• Spark plug wires
• Timing off
Exhaust Gases:
Methods to reduce exhaust emissions: (emission
control systems)

Modern vehicles are fitted with emission control systems,

designed to reduce emissions. These include
1. Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system
2. Catalytic Converters
3. Air Injection (AIR) System
4. Evaporative emissions control (EVAP) system
5. Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system:

NOx
NOx

O2

Diesel engine
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system:
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system:

• EGR system reduces NOx emissions.

• It feeds inert exhaust gases back into the intake
manifold, where they dilute the A/F mixture without
altering the A/F ratio.
• With less oxygen and fuel, combustion temperatures (and
therefore NOx levels) are lower.
• The EGR system uses an EGR valve that can be
electronically controlled.
Exhaust system of an Automobile:
Catalytic Converter:
Catalytic Converter:

• Exhaust gas pass form exhaust manifold to catalytic

converter through pipe.
• Due to partial combustion, gases entering inside catalytic
converter consists of CO, HC and NOx.
• Inside catalytic converter consists of ceramic blocks of
platinum and rhodium acting as catalyst.
• Rhodium is best Catalyst to control NOx keeping A/F ratio
within 14.6:1 to 14.7:1.
 Reaction in Catalytic Converter:

• Gas enters inside catalyst causes the oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

to reform into nitrogen and oxide.
NOx O2 + N 2
• Carbon monoxide reacts with oxygen molecules to form CO2.
2CO + O2 2CO2
• The unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) react with oxygen and CO2.
HC + O2 H2O + CO2
• Finally the exhaust gases consisting of less harmful gases.
Types of Catalytic Converters:

• Two-way catalytic converter

• Three-way catalytic converter
Two-way Catalytic Converter:

CO – Carbon monoxide
CxHy - Hydrocarbons
Three-way Catalytic Converter:
Bharat Stages (BS):
What is Bharat Stages-VI (BS-VI):

• BS VI is an emission standard that will bring much-

needed changes in the India automobile industry in terms
of pollutant emissions.
• With this emission norm coming into effect, India will
come at par with US, European countries and other
advanced automotive markets across the globe.
What is Bharat Stages-VI (BS-VI) grade fuel:

• The move from BS-IV to BS-VI will primarily require fuel

to have significantly lower sulphur content.
• Presently, the sulphur content in BS-IV petrol and diesel is
50 parts per million (ppm).
• BS-VI grade fuels, however, are to have a Sulphur content
of 10 ppm.
• Petrol with lower sulphur emits less NOx, CO and HC.
Bharat Stages Emission norms (BS norms):
Technology involved in Petrol engine:

• Redesign of ports and exhaust system improvements.

• Higher compression ratio along with improved
carburetion by electronic carburetion/electronically
managed fuel injection/port injection or direct injection.
• Combustion chamber redesign.
• Sparkplug relocation.
• Piston redesign.
Technology involved in Diesel engine:

• Incase of diesel engines three devices.

• Catalytic converter, Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) and
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) are fitted in series.
• Although catalytic converter is there in BS IV vehicles.
• Two extra devices DPF and SCT are to be fitted extra to
make vehicle BS VI compliance vehicle.
Advantages of BS VI over BS IV:
• NOx emission will come down by approximately 25% for the
petrol engine and 68% for the diesel engines.
• The Particulate Matter (PM) emission will see a substantial
decrease of 80% in diesel engines.
• On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) will become mandatory for
every vehicle and it will help monitor the pollution caused by
the vehicle in real time.
• Real Driving Emission (RDE) will be introduced for the first
time that will measure the emission in real-world conditions
and not just under test conditions.
Real Driving Emissions (RDE):

• Real Driving Emissions (RDE), is a set of norms

introduced as part of the BS6 Phase 2 emission standards
in India, effective from April 2023.
• These norms mandate that vehicles meet emission
standards not just in laboratory tests (like in BS6 Phase 1)
but also during real-world driving conditions.
• This is achieved through the use of a Portable Emission
Measurement System (PEMS) which monitors emissions
during on-road testing.
Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) and SCR catalyst:

[Link]
Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF):

• In BS6 (Bharat Stage 6) vehicles, DEF stands for Diesel

Exhaust Fluid, also known as AdBlue.
• It's a non-toxic, colourless solution primarily composed of
urea and deionized water.
• DEF is crucial for reducing harmful nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions from diesel engines by breaking them down into
harmless nitrogen and water vapor through a process
called Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR).