THE LIVING WORLD

🌍 1.1 Diversity in the Living World

➤ What is Biology?

Study of life forms and living processes.

➤ Biodiversity:

 Variety of organisms on Earth.

 ~1.7–1.8 million species described.
 New species still being discovered.
 Biodiversity includes visible (plants, animals) & microscopic organisms (bacteria, protozoa).

➤ Why Classify?

 Local names vary → cause confusion.

 Need universal, standard names for organisms.

🏷️Nomenclature
➤ What is Nomenclature?

System of naming organisms scientifically.

➤ Scientific Naming Rules:

 Uses Binomial Nomenclature (by Linnaeus).

 Two parts: Genus + species (e.g., Mangifera indica).
 Written in italics; Genus capitalized, species lowercase.
 Handwritten → Underline both.
 Author name optional (e.g., Mangifera indica Linn.)

➤ Codes:

 ICBN: Plants
 ICZN: Animals

🧪 Identification & Classification

 Identification: Finding correct name by observing characteristics.
 Classification: Grouping organisms based on similarities.
 Taxonomy = Identification + Nomenclature + Classification.
 Systematics = Taxonomy + Evolutionary Relationships (term by Linnaeus; Systema Naturae).
🪜 1.2 Taxonomic Categories
Hierarchy = Nested ranks from broad to specific:

Kingdom > Phylum (animals) / Division (plants) > Class > Order > Family > Genus >
Species

🔻Lower the rank → more similarities

🔺Higher the rank → fewer similarities

✨ Examples (with a lil spice)

Common Name Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum/Division Kingdom

Human sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata Animalia
Mango indica Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae Plantae

🔍 Brief of Each Taxon:

1. Species – Basic unit

➡️Similar individuals that interbreed

🧠 E.g., Homo sapiens, Panthera leo

2. Genus – Related species

➡️E.g., Panthera includes lion (leo), tiger (tigris)

3. Family – Related genera

➡️E.g., Panthera + Felis = Family Felidae

4. Order – Related families

➡️Felidae + Canidae = Order Carnivora

5. Class – Related orders

➡️Carnivora + Primata = Class Mammalia

6. Phylum (Animalia) / Division (Plantae) – Related classes

➡️Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia → Phylum Chordata

7. Kingdom – Highest category

➡️Animalia / Plantae
📌 Summary:
 Life = Diverse & complex
 Classification = Makes studying life manageable
 Taxonomy = Identification + Naming + Classification
 Binomial names = Universal language
 Systematics = Includes evolutionary linkages
 Taxonomic hierarchy = Structured classification

✨ Extra Examples You Should Know

 Solanum tuberosum → Potato
 Solanum melongena → Brinjal
 Panthera pardus → Leopard
 Felis domesticus → Cat
 Triticum aestivum → Wheat
 Petunia & Datura → Same family: Solanaceae
 BIOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION
🧪 Historical Classification Systems
 Aristotle: Plants = herbs/shrubs/trees; Animals = with/without red blood
 Linnaeus: 2-Kingdom (Plantae, Animalia) – failed to classify unicellulars, fungi, etc.
 Whittaker (1969): 5-Kingdom → Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
o Based on: cell type, cell wall, body organisation, nutrition, reproduction, phylogeny
(evolutionary history)

📊 5 Kingdoms Summary
Kingdom Cell Type Cell Wall Body Form Nutrition Type
Prokaryotic (no true Autotroph (makes own
Non-cellulose (often
Monera nucleus/membrane-bound Unicellular food) / Heterotroph (feeds
peptidoglycan)
organelles) on others)
Eukaryotic (true nucleus &
Protista May be present Unicellular Autotroph / Heterotroph
organelles)
Chitin (a nitrogenous Multicellular / Saprophytic (feeds on
Fungi Eukaryotic
polysaccharide) loose tissue decaying matter) / Parasitic
Tissue/organ
Plantae Eukaryotic Cellulose Autotroph (photosynthesis)
level
Organ-system Heterotroph (holozoic =
Animalia Eukaryotic None
level ingest + digest food)

🦠 2.1 Kingdom Monera

 Includes: All bacteria (prokaryotes)
 Shapes:
o Coccus (spherical)
o Bacillus (rod-shaped)
o Vibrio (comma-shaped)
o Spirillum (spiral)

Sub-groups:

1. Archaebacteria (ancient bacteria)

 Cell wall lacks peptidoglycan

 Live in extreme environments:
o Halophiles (salt-lovers),
o Thermoacidophiles (heat + acid lovers),
o Methanogens (produce methane)
2. Eubacteria (true bacteria)

 Rigid cell wall, motile via flagella

 Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae): photosynthetic, nitrogen-fixing (Nostoc, Anabaena)
 Chemoautotrophs (energy from chemicals), Heterotrophs (depend on others for food)
 Reproduction: Binary fission (asexual), Endospores (resistant spores), Conjugation (gene transfer)

3. Mycoplasma:

 No cell wall, smallest living cell

 Pathogenic, anaerobic (survive without oxygen)

🧫 2.2 Kingdom Protista

 Unicellular, eukaryotic
 Nucleus & organelles present
 Reproduce asexually (binary fission) & sexually (zygote formation)

Groups:

1. Chrysophytes: Golden algae & diatoms

 Cell wall of silica → forms diatomaceous earth (used in filters/polishes)

2. Dinoflagellates:

 Marine, cellulose plates

 2 flagella (one longitudinal, one transverse)
 Cause Red Tides (toxic algal blooms) → e.g., Gonyaulax

3. Euglenoids:

 Freshwater, pellicle (flexible membrane instead of cell wall)

 Mixotrophic: autotrophic (in light), heterotrophic (in dark)
 e.g., Euglena

4. Slime Moulds:

 Saprophytic
 Plasmodium: large multinucleate mass
 Produce spores in unfavourable conditions

5. Protozoans:

 Heterotrophs, animal-like
 Amoeboid (Amoeba): pseudopodia (false feet)
 Flagellated (Trypanosoma): flagella
 Ciliated (Paramecium): cilia for movement
 Sporozoans (Plasmodium): no movement, parasitic
🍄 2.3 Kingdom Fungi
 Eukaryotic, chitin cell wall
 Heterotrophic: Saprophytes (decay feeders), Parasites, Symbionts
 Body: Mycelium (network of filaments), Hyphae (individual filaments)

Major Classes:

1. Phycomycetes:

 Asexual → sporangiospores (non-motile spores)

 Sexual → zygospores (thick-walled resting spores)
 e.g., Rhizopus, Albugo

2. Ascomycetes (sac fungi):

 Asexual → conidia (non-motile spores on conidiophores)

 Sexual → ascospores (in asci = sac-like structure)
 e.g., Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora

3. Basidiomycetes (club fungi):

 No asexual spores
 Sexual → basidiospores (formed on basidium)
 Fruiting body = basidiocarp
 e.g., Mushroom (Agaricus), Rust (Puccinia), Smut (Ustilago)

4. Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi):

 Only asexual reproduction known

 e.g., Alternaria, Trichoderma, Colletotrichum

🌿 2.4 Kingdom Plantae

 Eukaryotic, cell wall = cellulose
 Mostly autotrophic (chlorophyll for photosynthesis)
 Includes: Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms

Special:

 Heterotrophic plants:
o Insectivorous (e.g., Venus flytrap)
o Parasitic (e.g., Cuscuta)
 Alternation of generations:
o Sporophyte (diploid, spore-producing) ↔ Gametophyte (haploid, gamete-producing)

🐾 2.5 Kingdom Animalia

 Eukaryotic, no cell wall
  Multicellular, organ system level
 Heterotrophic, mostly holozoic (ingestion + digestion inside body)
 Food stored as glycogen or fat
 Locomotion via muscles
 Reproduction: mostly sexual, diploid stage dominant
 Embryonic development present

🧬 2.6 Viruses, Viroids, Prions, Lichens

Viruses:

 Acellular (non-living outside host)

 Nucleoprotein: DNA or RNA + protein coat (capsid made of capsomeres)
 Examples: HIV, Influenza, Bacteriophage
 Discovery:
o Ivanowsky: mosaic disease in tobacco
o Beijerinck: "contagium vivum fluidum" (contagious living fluid)
o Stanley: first virus crystallised
 Plant viruses → RNA, Animal viruses → DNA or RNA, Bacteriophages → DNA

Viroids:

 Naked RNA, no protein coat

 Smaller than viruses
 e.g., Potato Spindle Tuber Disease

Prions:

 Infectious proteins
 Cause neurodegenerative diseases
 e.g., BSE (mad cow), CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob)

Lichens:

 Symbiotic association:
o Phycobiont (alga – autotroph)
o Mycobiont (fungus – heterotroph)
 Mutualistic: alga provides food, fungus provides shelter/protection
 Pollution-sensitive
 PLANT KINGDOM
🔄 Intro to Classification

 Exclusion: Fungi, cyanobacteria not now in Plantae

 Systems:
o Artificial (Linnaeus): based on few visible traits
o Natural (Bentham & Hooker): external + internal + embryology
o Phylogenetic: evolutionary relationships
o Numerical Taxonomy: computer-based character coding
o Cytotaxonomy: chromosome-level data
o Chemotaxonomy: chemical constituents Smart
Achievers+7NCERT+7Scribd+7Teachmint+1

3.1 Algae (photosynthetic, simple thalloid organisms)

 Thalloid (plant body not differentiated into root/leaf/stem)
 Aquatic mostly; some on moist rocks, wood, soil

Classes:

1. Chlorophyceae (green algae): chlorophyll a + b; storage = starch; forms: unicellular

(Chlamydomonas), colonial (Volvox), filamentous (Spirogyra)
NCERT+3Teachmint+3Teachmint+3NCERT+2Teachmint+2
2. Phaeophyceae (brown algae): chlorophyll a, c, fucoxanthin; food storage = laminarin/mannitol; cell
wall = cellulose + algin; e.g., Laminaria, Sargassum Teachmint
3. Rhodophyceae (red algae): chlorophyll a, d; phycoerythrin pigment; storage = floridean starch; non-
motile spores; common: Gelidium, Gracilaria Static PW Live+3Teachmint+3Teachmint+3

Importance:

 Fix ~50% atmospheric CO₂; release O₂

 Food: Porphyra, Chlorella, Spirulina (protein-rich)
 Hydrocolloids: agar (Gelidium/Gracilaria), algin, carrageen
 Diatomaceous earth: made of silica frustules

3.2 Bryophytes (non-vascular, amphibian plants)

 No true roots/leaves/stems; body = thalloid/prostrate/erect with rhizoids (root-like filaments)
Teachmint+1
 Gametophyte (haploid) dominant; sex organs:
o Antheridium (male, produces antherozoids = biflagellate sperm)
o Archegonium (female, flask-shaped, single egg)
 Water required for fertilisation; forms sporophyte (diploid), which remains attached to gametophyte
3.3 Pteridophytes (seedless vascular plants)
 Vascular tissues: xylem (water), phloem (food)
 Life cycle: independent sporophyte + gametophyte; rhizome, fronds, spores in sporangia

3.4 Gymnosperms (naked-seeded plants)

 Seeds not enclosed in ovary
 Examples: Cycads, Ginkgo, Conifers (Pinus)
 Reproductive structures: cones; pollination often wind-driven

3.5 Angiosperms (flowering plants)

 Seeds enclosed within fruit (ovary)
 Two classes:
o Monocotyledons: one cotyledon; parallel veins; vascular bundles scattered; fibrous roots;
floral parts in threes (e.g., grasses, lilies)
o Dicotyledons: two cotyledons; net-veined leaves; vascular bundles in ring; taproot; floral
parts in fours/fives (e.g., beans, roses)
 Advanced features: double fertilisation (one sperm fertilises egg = zygote; one forms endosperm
for nutrition)
 Embryo: with cotyledons, plumule, radicle, hypocotyl

⚡ Key Concepts with Definitions

 Alternation of generations: alternating haploid (gametophyte) & diploid (sporophyte) phases
 Isogamy: equal-sized gametes
 Anisogamy: unequal-sized gametes
 Oogamy: large non-motile egg + smaller motile sperm
 Chemotaxonomy, Cytotaxonomy, Numerical taxonomy: classification based on chemicals,
chromosomes, and data coding respectively Static PW Live+1TeachmintNCERT

🧾 Summary Table
Group Key Traits Dominant Phase
Algae Thalloid; pigments vary; aquatic Sporophyte/gametophyte
Bryophytes Thalloid; rhizoids; water-dependent Gametophyte
Pteridophytes Vascular; spores; rhizomes Sporophyte
Gymnosperms Seeds exposed; cone-bearing Sporophyte
Angiosperms Flowers; fruits; double fertilisation Sporophyte