Social

psychology
Teaching Material for
Sociology Students

Compiled By
Tibebu Kefale
Tefera Tekle

Edited by
Mohammed Yimam

December, 2019
Jigjiga, Ethiopia

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 Table of Contents

Contents Page
UNIT ONE............................................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY..........................................................................4
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................4
1.1. DEFINITION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY..............................................................................................4
1.2. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES..........................................................................7
1.3. GOALS OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.....................................................................................................8
1.4. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY..................................................................10
1.5. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................................13
1.6. DOING SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH......................................................................................15
UNIT TWO............................................................................................................................................ 24
SELF & SELF PERCEPTION.......................................................................................................... 24
................................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.1. SELF AND IDENTITY...................................................................................................................24
2.2. SELF-ESTEEM: EVALUATING ONESELF................................................................................29
2.3. SELF-REGULATION: CONTROLLING THE SELF..................................................................33
2.4. SELF-PRESENTATION.................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER THREE.............................................................................................................................. 39
3.1. SOCIAL COGNITION........................................................................................................................39
3.2. ATTRIBUTION...................................................................................................................................43
UNIT FOUR.......................................................................................................................................... 53
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE.................................................................................53
4.1. DEFINITION AND FORMATION OF ATTITUDES...................................................................53
4.2. PERSUASION AND ATTITUDE CHANGE.................................................................................58
UNIT FIVE............................................................................................................................................ 67
5.1. CONFORMITY....................................................................................................................................67
5.2. COMPLIANCE....................................................................................................................................70
5.3. OBEDIENCE.......................................................................................................................................71

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 Introduction
This module will try to introduce how peoples’ feelings, behavior,
and thinking vary based on different social situations. The course
starts with the definition of basic concepts. Then, issues related to
attribution, self-perception, social perception, social influences,
group processes, stereotypes and prejudices, prosocial and
aggressive behaviors.

Therefore, at the end of this module you will be able to:

Meaning of Symbols in The Module

The icons and symbols presented hereunder are used in this module as
defined below:

Objectives. These appear at the start of the course

and at the start of every unit. The objectives help you
to focus on the expected outcomes of each lecture.

Take Note. It helps to highlight significant points

that you need to keep in mind. When making your
study notes, take down these points as well.

In-text Question(s).These are questions that are

interspersed within the text of the lecture to help you
review and master small chunks of knowledge, skills
and values.

Activity. The activities are also interspersed

throughout the lectures to encourage group
discussions, open-ended learning, project work, et

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 cetera.

Summary. Summaries are included at the end of

every lecture to assist to quickly recapitulate what
you have just learnt in the lecture.

Self-assessment Question(s). They include

summative evaluation of what you have learned in
the lecture.

Further Reading. At the end of each chapter,

additional materials cited for further reading.

UNIT ONE
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Introduction
Dear Learner, in this unit, you will study broad introduction to social
psychology, the scientific study of human social influence and
interaction. First, you will closely see Definition and concept of social
psychology and the goals of social psychology. Following that, you will
explain the theoretical perspectives of social psychology. At last part of
this chapter, you will list research methods of social psychology. Make
sure that you understood the facts, concepts and theories in this unit and
reflect on each of the perspectives based on your own experience.

Objectives
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Define what social psychology studies about.
 Explain major goals of social psychology in line with the community
 Analyze theoretical perspectives of social psychology
 Apply different research methods of social psychology

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1.1. Definition of Social Psychology

What do you think is social psychology?

Dear Learner, have ever heard about social psychology? Well maybe yes
or not at all. So first let’s define what it is and try to compare it with what
you think it may be before you read the definition.

S
ocial psychology is the scientific discipline Gordon Allport (1954) defined
social psychology as “the
that tries to understand and explain “how scientific investigation of how
the thoughts, feelings and
people affect and are affected by others” behaviors of individuals are
influenced by the actual,
imagined or implied presence
(Baumeister& Bushman, 2011). Similarly, it can be of others”
defined as the scientific study of the reciprocal
influence of the individual and his or her social
context. Baron and Branscombe (2012) defined social
psychology as “the scientific field that seeks to understand
the nature and causes of individual behavior, feelings, and
thought in social situations” (p.5).

Social psychology is concerned with:

 Individual behavior, feeling, thought, in a social context or
situation.
 The reciprocal influence of individual and his/her social
environment
 The individual in a society
 Why individuals act in a social setting the way they do
Gordon Allport (1954) defined social psychology as “the scientific
investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals
are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others” (p.
5). It is important to elaborate Allport’s definition as follows by defining
each basic word in his definition.

What is Science?

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We have said psychology is a scientific discipline. Therefore, what is
science? Science refers to a discipline that uses systematic observation,
description and measurement. Social psychologists base their research
primarily on observation and experimentation. Science refers to the use
of several methods to study a wide range of topics (Baron &Berscombe,
2012). Thus, scientific research is characterized by:
o Rationality: research provides logical explanations.
o Objectivity: science should be free from errors and biases.
o Skepticism: scientific researchers should be skeptical or
doubting commonly accepted.
o Self-correction: scientists acknowledges possible biases and
work towards correcting these biases.
o Parsimony: science should be communicated through simple
and understandable language.

What is thinking?
The second concept is thought or thinking. Thought refers to internal
mental processes related to thinking, recalling, reasoning, judgment and
decision making.

How about emotion?

The other commonly mentioned concept is feeling. Feeling refers to

emotion often contrasted with reason. Happiness, anger, surprise, and
related terms basically refer to emotion.

What does presence of others mean?

Presence of others is another concept that needs to be clarified. Social

psychology is a discipline that relies on social interaction. This in other
words means the presence of other people. The following major types of
social presence are major types of social presence according to Gordon
Allport:

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 o Actual presence: when people who are physically present
influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions.
o Imagined presence: when we imagine that we are with
others. For example, our imagination that we are with our
parents may influence our action.
o Implied presence: the presence of others in shared values
and behaviors such as language, norms, social structure, etc.

Social psychologists believe that our actions vary based on the situation
or social context. Social situation refers to all external influences that
could influence individual behavior. For example, social behavior mainly
depends up on historical, cultural, and related situations external to the
person.

Delamater and Myers (2011) stated that social psychology is concerned

(a) with the influence of one individual on another individual’s behavior,
(b) the influence of a group on individual members (e.g. conformity,
groupthink, norm, etc), (c) the influence of groups on other groups (e.g.
cooperative or hostile relationships between groups), and (d) the
influence of individuals on group (e.g. leadership).

Individua Group
l Social
Influenc
e
Individua Group
l

Social psychology is “the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes
of individual behavior, feelings, and thought in social situations “Baron and Branscombe, 2012, p.5).

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 What fields do you think will be related to social psychology?

1.2. Social Psychology and Related Disciplines

Social psychology has many neighboring disciplines including sociology,
personality psychology, cognitive psychology, and anthropology.
 Sociology The major difference of social psychology from sociology
is attributed to their level of analysis. Social psychology is a
branch of psychology, aims at the study of individuals in social
setting, with an emphasis on internal psychological processes.
Sociologists, on the other hand focus on the larger social
environment (e.g. social status, social structure, and social
institutions).
 Personality psychology. The other very close discipline to social
psychology is its sister personality psychology. Personality
psychologists are interested at stable unique characteristics of
people that make them different from others. However, social
psychologists emphasize on shared individual behavior that is more
susceptible to social influences.
 Anthropology. Even though anthropologists could deal with
physical things (e.g. material objects such as, fossils), the main aim
of anthropologists is to understand culture in relation to structure,
the patterns that determine how its members interact with one
another (such as positions of leadership); ideas and values, the
ways the group’s beliefs affect its members’ lives; and forms of
communication, especially language (Henslin, 2012). As
anthropologists, social psychologists are also interested at studying
the influence of culture on individual behavior.
 Cognitive psychology Cognitive psychologists primarily focus on
the internal information processing related to thinking, judgment,
decision making, and reasoning. These cognitive aspects could also
be important in social psychology. Social psychologists could study

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 how individuals process and evaluate information in perceiving
others and themselves.
 Clinical psychology. Clinical psychologists are concerned with the
diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. However,
Social psychologists do not focus on the psychological disorders
rather they are interested at the study of the disorders in relation
to the social influence. For example, how the presence of others
reduces or increases the risk of psychological disorders.

Why do we study social behaviors?

1.3. Goals of Social Psychology

The aim of social psychology is to understand the general tendencies of

individuals in their actions, feelings and thoughts. Thus, social
psychology has four major goals.

a) Description: Providing general picture

Description refers to giving satisfactory definition (precise and objective

description of evidence) to something. Primarily try to answer questions:
what happens? How does it happen? And where and when it happens?

Descriptions are statements about the behavior of organisms and the

conditions under which behaviors occur by collecting data reports of
observations. In social psychology, description is simply characterization
of how we think, feel or act in different conditions. Focus on observable
(external) behavioral patterns to identify the nature and types of social
behaviors people manifested.

b) Explanation: Causal explanation

Explanation focuses on understanding behavior and mental processes in

order to explain why something happened by depending on theories:
tentative explanation of facts and relationships. Theories are subject to

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change or revision depending on further investigation or research.
Theories lead to hypothesis: a testable statement about the relationship
between two or more variables e.g. attitude and behavior.
c) Prediction: what comes next?
Predictions are statements about the likelihood of things to occur at the
future. In prediction, scientists forecast what will happen in the future
based on empirical data (information received by sensory experiences
such as; hearing, seeing, tasting, touching, etc.) from the past and
present. Prediction is important to;
o Find regular behavioral patterns of people, how could they act in
the future.
o Give us forewarning of phenomena.
o Forwarding an intellectual imagination about the social behavior.

d) Control: Influencing behavior

It is maintaining, stopping and influencing the frequency, strength and

rate of the occurrence of undesirable social behaviors such as
aggression, conflict, obedience, conformity, and so on. Besides,
controlling includes promoting the desirable behaviors such as altruism
and intergroup tolerance in addition to reducing unwanted social
behaviors.

Concerns of Social Psychology

Theory development: theory is an integrated set of principles that

explain and predict observed events. Thus, social psychologist engage in
restless effort to develop new theories and substantiate the available
theories in the various topics and focus areas such as: conformity,
compliance, nation, stereotyping, bargaining, racism, group influence
intergroup relations, crowd behavior, social conflict and harmony, social
change, decision making, leadership communication, attitude, public
opinion, attribution and attribution errors, the self and self-concept,

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 impression formation, self-presentation, identify, emotion, friendship,
family, violence, altruism or pro-social behavior etc.

Research: since social behavior is dynamic or ever changing, it requires

updated research and investigation of knowledge. Otherwise the
available vital theories and findings would become obsolete if not
supported by current research works.

Application: social psychology does not accumulate knowledge and

understandings merely but apply them to solve human problems.

The major concern of social psychology is theoretical development, conduct researches

and apply it to solve problems, say it problems in the pastoral and agro pastoral community or/and
society at large.

1.4. Theoretical Perspective in Social Psychology

How can you describe the social behavior?

According to Delamater and Myer (2011) theoretical perspective refers

to explanations for a wide range of social behaviors in different
situations. The authors differentiated theoretical perspectives from mid-
range theories focusing on specific narrow, frameworks focusing on a

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specific social behavior. They are usually scientific-causal in nature; that
is, they are formulated in terms of cause and effect. For example, one
middle-range theory tries to explain the processes by which persuasion
produces attitude change. (p. 6)

1.4.1. Cognitive dissonance

Leon Festinger (1957) stated that people strive to maintain intra-psychic

consistency. People try to keep their cognitive consistency by acting in
consistent with their own attitudes. If peoples’ action contradicts with
their attitude or cognition, cognition dissonance arises. Cognitive
dissonance refers to a state of internal discomfort or tension that occurs
when our cognition is different from our behavior.

1.4.2. Social exchange theory: social economics

Social exchange theory is pioneered by a sociologist named George

Homans focuses on the hedonistic nature of individuals. According to this
theory people are naturally motivated to maximize benefit and minimize
cost. For example, we tend to establish marriage when the benefit
exceeds the cost of the relationship.

1.4.3. Psychological field Theory

Psychologists are mainly concerned with the influence

of the individual and social situations on social
behavior. In other words, social psychology mainly
focuses on the interaction of the self and social
interaction. Similarly, Kurt Lewin (1936) developed
his psychological field theory (also called Fig. [Link]
interactionism) that emphasized on the role of both Lewin

environmental and personal factors.

Lewinian field theory emphasizes on the combined
effect of both the person and situation on social

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behavior. He stated that behavior, B is a function of
personal, P and environmental, E factors:
B=F (ExP)
Where:
 B=Behavior, refers to any observable acts in a social setting
 E=Environmental factors, refers to all situational factors (such as,
physical and social environment) beyond the control of the
individual.
 P=Personal factors, refers to all internal factors related to the
characteristics of the individual. For example, the role of sex, age,
ethnicity, personality, attitude, self-concept, intention, capabilities,
and other similar internal factors in shaping social behavior.

1.4.4. The evolutionary perspective

The evolutionary perspective developed based on the works of Charles

Darwin, sees behavior as a result of genes (biochemical processes of
inheritance) and natural selection-survival of the fittest. According to
evolutionary theorists individuals (organisms) who adapt to the
environment will survive or reproduce themselves. Evolutionary social
psychology theorists consider physical attractiveness, aggression,
helping, stereotypes, as inherited traits related to perpetuating one’s
own gene.

1.4.5. Social learning: Learning by observing others

Social learning theory viewed social behavior as driven by

each individual’s personal experiences with reward and
punishment. We learn to repeat social behaviors that get
us direct rewards or we learn from observing the
behaviors of powerful others in our environment, such as
our parents. A
lbert Bandura
Social behavior is considered as a result of modeling and Bandura’s “Bobodoll
imitation. According to Albert Bandura observation and experiment” showed that
children imitate the behavior
of adults.
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B.F Skinner’s operant conditioning shapes the social
action of individuals. The principle of operant
conditioning is a very important concept in social
learning. People are more likely to reproduce actions and
behaviors of others if rewarded. This is called vicarious
learning where people tend to copy more rewarded
behavior as compared to a behavior that leads to
punishment.
Bandura believed that people tend to reproduce actions, thoughts,
feelings of others. Social leering theorists strongly believe that
aggression and prosocial behavior are learned through observation.
Furthermore, they also accepted the role of television as a very
significant in shaping individuals behavior.
Social learning theory is similar with the sociocultural perspective in that
it searches for the causes of social behavior in a person’s environment.
The difference between the two is that social learning theorists
emphasize the specific experiences of unique individuals whereas the
sociocultural perspective gives attention for the broader social
environment.

1.4.6. Socio-cultural perspective

The socio-cultural perspective generally emphasizes on the influence of

the larger social and cultural group (ranging from the level of
neighborhood gangs to the larger nationality) on social behavior of
individuals. Here it could be important to define the term culture.
Culture refers to a set of enduring beliefs, values, norms, customs,
habits, language, and assumptions shared by the larger group of people
in a specific time, place, and are transmitted from one generation to the
other.

Sociocultural theorists commonly use cross-cultural and multicultural

researches. Cross cultural research simply refers to investigations aimed
to compare and contrast experiences of people from different cultures.

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Furthermore, multicultural research focuses on different racial and
ethnic groups within a culture.
Sociocultural theorists deal with issues such as, social class, historical
trends, stratification, and ideological elements as determinant factors in
shaping individuals’ preferences, attitudes, behavior, and affects.

1.4.7. Symbolic interactionism

Symbolic interactionism is a perspective that focuses on the role of

symbols in social behavior. This theory is developed by Herbert Mead but
further elaborated by Herbert Blumer, Ervin Goffman, and Charles
Hurton Cooley. Symbolic interactionism as a theory is concerned much
about verbal and nonverbal symbols on shaping social interaction.

Ervin Goffman stated that life is like a theatrical performance, a stage

upon which people interact. Similarly, Goffman stated that we learn
roles, scripts to play.

1.4.8. Social cognitive theory

Social cognitive theory is concerned with social cognitive components on

how people think, perceive, remember, and evaluate information about
themselves and others. There are two contradictory social cognitive
approaches;
 The hot approach: a view that peoples’ emotion, motivations, and
desires (called affect) directs human behavior. They believe that
cool, calculated planning of behavior are secondary processes.

 Cold approach: holds that people are basically driven by rational

analysis of choices. In other words, they claim that social behavior
(affects and feelings) depends on our style of thinking.

1.4.9. Phenomenological perspective

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The phenomenological perspective focuses on unique, personal, and
subjective interpretations of individuals for their social environment.

1.4.10. Social comparison: The individual compared to others

Social comparison (also called normative influence) theory) is developed

by Leon Festinger in 1954. He stated that people seek information about
themselves in comparison to others. In addition, self-concept, self-
esteem, and behavior are defined based on the social situation.

Activity 1.1
1. Which theory do you think can best explain the collective social behavior of our society? And
how?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
1.5. Historical Development
__________________________________________________________________________________
Social psychology is detached from general psychology and emphasized
on the influence of social factors. Individuals who have contributed to the
development of social psychology are listed as follows:

 Auguste Comte (1798-1857). In 1838 Comte came up his idea of

positivism, a view that suggested that issues in the field of social
science should be studied following scientific procedures (similar
with the approaches of natural sciences) in order to create a
rational social interaction.
 Gustav LeBon (1895) in his book entitled the crowd he argued
that individuals tend to act in an aggressive and irrational manner
in a group situation.
 Norman Triplett a person credited as a founding father of social
psychology conducted the first social psychology experiment in in

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 1879. He proved that people perform well in the presence of
others than when they are alone.
 William McDougall wrote the first text book of social psychology
entitled An introduction to social psychology in 1908. In his book
he argued that social behaviors are greatly shaped by innate
instinctual processes.
 Edward Ross. A sociologist another book entitled social
psychology in the same year (1908) from a sociological view point.
 Muzafer Sherif (1935) showed that peoples’ behavior is
influenced by social norms in the presence of others.

In addition to the above stated personalities, social and economic

problems (especially the great economic depression in the US) and the
first and the second world wars played a significant role in the
development of social psychology. Researches targeting attitude change
and persuasion, aggression, obedience, prejudice, stereotype, and
conformity emerged in relation to the world wars.

1.6. Doing Social Psychology Research

Have you ever wanted to know the individual and social

behavior of the pastoral community? If yes how do you try to
understand their behavior?

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Definition of research

R esearch: refers to organized

scientific investigation in order to discover
facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to
study: Research refers to an
organized, scientific and
systematic procedure of
observation,
measurement, and
interpretation of social
develop a plan of action based on the facts behavior.

discovered.
Scientific method
Scientific method refers to the use of a set of objective and
systematic procedures (e.g. observation, measurement, description,
and interpretation) in order to describe, explain, predict, and
control social behavior.
Research can be;
• Basic research: targets at expanding knowledge on social
behavior.
• Applied research: aims at solving some practical problems.

What are the Common Social Psychological Research Methods?

Researches in social psychology are mostly either descriptive or

explanatory. Descriptive researches include; observation, correlational
studies, surveys, and discourse analysis. On the other hand, experimental
researches are typical examples of explanatory approaches.

1.6.1. Descriptive methods

Descriptive researches simply try to describe the nature, type, and
characteristics of social phenomena as they occur. Descriptive
researches don’t explain why social events occur, why people act, feel,
and think the way they do. The following are some of the descriptive
methods:

A. Observational research

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Observational research involves systematic description of behavior.
There are two types of observational research: participant and
naturalistic observation; naturalistic and participant observation .

a. Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation Involves unobtrusive study of behavior of
subjects in their natural setting. The subjects are unaware that they are
being studied in this kind of observation. In addition, the setting of
naturalistic observation could be: sport fields, school environment,
forests to observe primates, etc.

Advantages of Disadvantages
Naturalistic
observation
Shows real behavior No control over the behavior to be
studied
Observer bias
Observer effect (presence of an observer
can change the behavior of the subjects)

b. Participant observation

Participant observation is an observation when a researcher becomes

part of the people to be studied.
Advantages Disadvantages
It helps the researchers to get closer No control over the behavior to
information be studied
Used to study unusual events such Observer bias
as: new religious movements,
criminals, gays, and etc.
Observer effect (presence of an
observer can change the

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 behavior of the subjects)
It is risky, subjects may react
negatively if they know that they
are being studied

B. Correlational method

Correlation is a method used to study the relationship between one or

more variables.
• A correlation coefficient has a value ranging from +1 through 0 to -
1- no higher and lower. The higher the value r (relationship), the
stronger the relationship between variables.
• In correlation, the sign + or – tells us only the direction of the
relationship. Plus (+) sign refers to (positive correlation) - two
variables increase or decrease together. For example, frustration
and aggression are positively correlated, meaning that as
frustration rises, so do acts of aggression. Minus (-) sign indicates
(Negative correlation) - refers to the values of the two variables
travels in opposite directions; when one increases the other
decreases.

The number in correlation coefficient shows strength of relationship. The

problem of correlational research is that it does not show causation. For
example, if we find positive strong relationship between aggressive
behavior and violent videos, we may conclude that violent videos cause
aggressive behavior. This explanation could be true. However, violent
behavior could lead to aggressive behavior and another third variable
could be accountable for the relationship.
Cause effect relationship is established by using experiments. Look at the
following relationship between x (e.g. crowding) and y (altruistic
behavior).

XY
X Y Or

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Correlation is calculated by using the following formula:
NΣxy−Σx ( Σy )
r=
√ [ NΣ x −( Σx ) ] [NΣy − ( Σy ) ¿ ]¿
2 2 2

Where:
Σxy=Sum of cross product of x and y (found by multiplying x and y and
then adding them)
Σx=Sum of x scores (found by simply adding all the x scores)
Σy= Sum of y scores (found by simply adding all the y scores)
Σx2= Sum of squared x scores (squaring all the scores and finally adding
them together)
Σy2=Sum of squared y scores (adding all squared y scores)
For instance, look at the following simple calculation of correlation
between crowding (number of people) and altruistic behavior count. I
used these entries only for the sake of example. In real research the
number of entriesor individuals (pairs of variables)
N=10 should be
representative. N=refers to number

x y x2 y2 xy
of entries or pairs. Or

3 4 9 16 12
simply, number of

2 4 4 16 8
subjects, participants
are related to N.
4 2 16 4 8
4 2 16 4 8 X= No of people
4 1 16 1 4
X =altruism
3 4 9 16 12
3 5 9 25 15
2 4 4 16 8
4 2 16 4 8
5 1 25 1 5
y= x = y = xy=
2 2

x=34 29 124 103 88

NΣxy−Σx ( Σy )
r=
√ [ NΣ x −( Σx ) ] [NΣy −( Σy ) ¿ ]¿
2 2 2 2

10(88)−34 ( 29 )
r=
√ [ 10(124 )−( 34 ) ] [10 (103)−( 29 ) ¿ ]¿
2 2

−106 −106
r= = =−. 84
√ ( 84 ) (189) 126

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The relationship between these two variables is found to be strong.
Strong relationships could not necessarily be significant. The significance
of relationship depends up on the sample size and other factors. For
example, the above relationship is statistically significant r (10) = -.84,
p< .01.

Scatter Plot

The use of scatter plot is very important in correlation. For example, look
at the following scatter plot (graphical representation) for crowding and
level of altruism:

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 Example of Scatter plot for crowding and Example of Scatter plot for number of
altriusm playing violent video games and ag-
(Inverse or negative relationship) gressive behavior
5 (Perfect Positive relationship)
4 6
Altruism

3
2 5
1
0 4
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Crowding 3

0
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

The problem of correlational research is that it does not show causation.

For example, if we find positive strong relationship between aggressive
behavior and violent videos, we may conclude that violent videos cause
aggressive behavior. This explanation could be true. However, violent
behavior could lead to aggressive behavior and another third variable
could be accountable for the relationship.

C. Survey method
Survey research involves asking people about their behavior, opinion,
attitude or behavior. Survey could be conducted by using questionnaires
and interview. The data for survey could be collected through face-to
face interview, email and internet and through phone.
Advantages
- Could address larger people
- survey method involves direct question rather than inference
Disadvantages

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 - Respondents may lie about their real behavior, attitude, or opinion.
- Social desirability: respondents may provide answers that make
them appear good respondents. Most of people may not want to
report their undesirable or negative behaviors such as: aggression,
hate, discrimination, etc.
- Difficulty of analysis: survey data are mostly large and the analysis
and interpretation could be unmanageable.

D. Content analysis
Content analysis refers to the detailed analysis and interpretation of the
contents and messages of a specific discourse, video, book, poster, TV
program, and related materials.

1.6.2. Explanatory researches

A. Experimental research
Experimental research tries to establish cause-effect relationship.
Experimental research at least requires two groups experimental
and control group.
 Experimental group: a group receiving treatment or
program.
 Control group: comparison group without treatment.

In experiment, the effect of treatment (independent) variable is

measured to know its effect on dependent variable (the outcome) by
controlling extraneous variables.
 Independent variable (IV): a treatment given to the
experimental group. IV is a variable which causes a change in
the dependent variable.
 Dependent variable (DV): a variable that is caused or
changed based on the presence and absence of the dependent
variable.

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  Extraneous variable (EV: all variable other than the IV to
produce a change in the dependent variable.
 Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that
systematically changes with the independent variable. For
example, level of intelligence may systematically change with
the age of participants.

Advantages Disadvantages

Control: an attempt to keep other Artificiality: the laboratory

potential factors that affect the experiment can be very artificial.
outcome constant.

Manipulation: experiment Demand characteristics: guess the

deliberately altering the level of hypotheses and objectives of the
the IV on the DV. research and act based on their
expectation.

Causality: determining cause and Placebo effect: the effect of

effect relationship between participants’ expectation on the
variables. outcome of the research caused by
placebo.

Researcher bias: the expectation of

the researcher could affect the
outcome of the study.

25
 Activity 1.2
1. Think of any social behavior in our community that interests you and
identify one research method of the above which can best fit to study
that interest of you? Please justify why you choose that method.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

26
 Self-Assessment Questions (Unit One)
Direction: Choose the Best Answer from the given alternatives and circle the letter of
your choice.
1. A man knows that chewing khat is bad. But he chews chat. This is
explained by one of the following theories?

A. Self-perception theory C. Social comparison

theory
B. Cognitive dissonance theory D. Mere exposure
theory
2. Which one of the following is not the concern of social psychology?

A. Individual behavior in social setting.

B. The reciprocal influence of individual and the social setting
C. The individual behavior in a society
D. The larger group behavior in a society
E. None

3. According to Gordon Allport, the physical presence of audiences

closer to an Artist singing on the stage is defined as:
A. Implied presence C. Actual
presence
B. Imagined presence D. No presence

4. A man has left having marriage after he has made cost-benefit

analysis. This is explained by which theory?

A. Social Exchange C. Cognitive Dissonance

B. Social Comparison D. Social cognitive theory E.
All

27
 5. All People seek information from others when they are uncertain
about their behavior is explained by:
A. Social cognitive C. Social
comparison
B. Self-reflection D. Social exchange

Summary

S
ocial psychology is the scientific discipline that tries to
understand and explain how people affect and are affected by
other. Similarly, it can be defined as the scientific study of the
reciprocal influence of the individual and his or her social context.
Besides, social psychology as the scientific field that seeks to understand
the nature and causes of individual behavior, feelings, and thought in
social situations.

Social psychology has many neighboring disciplines including sociology,

personality psychology, cognitive psychology, and anthropology. The aim
of social psychology is to understand the general tendencies of
individuals in their actions, feelings and thoughts. Thus, social
psychology has four major goals.
 Description of social behavior
 Explanation of social behavior
 Prediction of social behavior
 Control and influence social behavior

Like other disciple, to analyze the social behavior, social psychology

employs various theoretical perspectives such as cognitive dissonance,
symbolic interaction, social comparison, field theory, and etc. Moreover,

28
it also utilizes research methods for better social change. Some of the
research methods in social psychology are survey method, observational
method, correlational study, document analysis, and etc.

Further Reading
Carson, J. (1997). The history of social psychology. Psychology in society
(PINS), 22, 72-74.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in
education (5thed). New York, NY: Routledge Falmer.
Kalampalikis, N., Delouvée, S. &Pétard, J. (2006). Historical spaces of
social psychology. History of Human Sciences, 19, 23-43. Doi:
10.1177/0952695106065127

UNIT TWO
SELF & SELF PERCEPTION

2.1.
Objectives
S
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Define self and self-concept
 Explain how social identities are formed
 Describe basic elements in self-esteem
 Apply social psychological theories in pastoral community identity formation
 Identify self-presentation strategies

elf and Identity

2.1.1. The Concepts of Self

29
The self could be defined as a structure that contains
the organized and stable contents of one’s own Self
The self refers to a
personal experiences. The self regulates our feelings, totality of a person
emotions, thoughts, and behavior. The self can contain that contains his
perception of who
A (affective element), B (behavioral), and C (cognitive) s/he is. This
elements. Some of the subtle connections between includes self-
concept, self-
our sense of self and our social world are described as awareness, self-
follows: esteem, and social

 Social surrounding affects self-awareness. The social world

influences the way we define ourselves.
 Self-interest colors social judgment. We are not objective,
dispassionate judges of events. When problems arise in a close
relationship, such as marriage, we usually attribute more
responsibility to our partner than to ourselves. When things go
well, in contrast, we see ourselves as more responsible.
 Self-concern motivates our social behavior. In hopes of making
a positive impression, we spend a lot of money on clothes, diet, and
cosmetics. As adolescents, and even as adults, concern for self-
image drives much of our behavior.

As these examples suggest, the traffic between self and society runs both
ways. Your ideas and feelings about yourself affect how you respond to
others. Others, in turn, help shape your sends of self. Our sense of self
organizes our thoughts, filing, and actions.
2.1.2. Development Self Concept

Twenty Statement Test (TST)

Dear learner, please try to fill the following blank space with at 20 words that best
describe you. What answer you may give?
1. I am ____________________
2. I am ____________________
3. I am ____________________
4. I am ____________________
5. I am ____________________
6. I am _____________________
30 7. I am _____________________
8. I am _____________________
9. I am _____________________
10. I am _____________________
11. I am _____________________
Self-concept refers to the sum total of individuals’ beliefs and thoughts
about themselves (Kassin, et al., 2011). Similarly, David Myers (2005)
defined the self-concept as “a person’s answer to the question ‘who am
I?” (p.41). Self- concept simply refers to theory of individuals about their
personal behavior, attitude, opinion, abilities, and social relations
(Franzoi, 2006). Self-concept is highly related to self-schema. Self-
schema refers to a cognitive structure that includes beliefs and thoughts
that people hold about themselves. Self-schema organizes and guides the
processing of self-relevant information.

For example, look at the following diagram showing self-schema, thought

structure about the self.

Shy Reliable

Muslim Short
Self
Competen
31 t
Male
 Fig. 2.1. Diagram showing self-schema.

The concept of self can be positive, negative or neutral. The contents may
include physical characteristics (short/tall/attractive), personality
(sociable/reserved/open), and social identity
(Christian/Muslim/Amhara/Somali). The self on one hand has stable
elements that make one person distinct from others. In contrast, the self
contains socially constructed or reconstructed identities that may vary
depending on various factors such as others’ views and definition of our
identity.
2.1.3. Development of Social Self
The social self, identity, and self-concept are influenced by culture, social
roles, comparison, success/failure, our position in a group, and
introspection.

Culture and Social Identity

The role of culture in shaping the self is very enormous. Related to this
influence the self could be seen as independent and interdependent;
individualism versus collectivism.
 Individualism: a tendency to emphasize on one’s own personal goals
and values over group goals. In addition, it includes the tendency to
define one’s own identity in terms of personal attributes, self-
reliance, and autonomy. People from Europe and North America are
mostly individualistic. Individualism is also closely associated to
independent self (a self-concept characterized by greater sense of
individual autonomy, distinct and individualized self).

 Collectivism: the tendency to emphasize group goals (of family,

friends, neighbors, etc.) over personal goals. Individuals from
collective cultures define themselves from group perspective.

32
 Collectivism is closely related to interdependence, cooperation, and
harmonic relationship called interdependent self. This is typical
characteristics of people from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The
pastoral communities are very collective in nature because they live
together, move together, and mostly share the same value system and
even resources.

Moreover, culture shapes our ethnic, gender, and other forms of social
identity. Social identity refers to the social definition of who we are.
We can define ourselves based on our ethnicity, religion, race, gender,
profession, etc. Social identity includes shared self-concept with others.
o Gender identity: refers to the definition that one is male or female.
Gender identity develops when we internally accept the fact that he
is male or she is female.

o Ethnic identity: defining the self-based on one’s ethnic group. For

example, frequently saying “I’m Somali”, “I’m Oromo”, or “I’m
Afar”, etc.

o Religious identity: basic definition of self in relation to religion.

o Professional identity: defining the self in relation to one’s
profession (e.g. “I am a nurse… teacher…doctor…lawyer, etc.).

Role playing
As we enact a new role, we may initially feel self-conscious and strive to
justify our actions gradually however what begins as play acting in the
theater of life gets integrated into our sense of self. Moreover, observing
our own behavior can be self-revealing we may perceive ourselves as
holding the views we expressed.

Social comparison
Social comparison is evaluation of one’s own abilities, opinions, values,
and attitudes to others as a reference to the fundamental principles.
According to Festinger, this occurs when we are uncertain about our own
attitudes, values and opinions and in absence of objective evaluation

33
criteria. According to social comparison theory, self-concept is
determined by either:

o Downward comparison: comparing ourselves to people who are

less competent than us (inferior). For example, a pastoralist
who owns 20 camels compare himself to the one who owns
three goats in order to feel powerful.

o Upward comparison: comparing ourselves to our superiors. For

example, a pastoralist may compare herself to a factory owner
from a nearby town.

o Automatic comparison: comparing ourselves to people similar

to us.

Success and failure experiences

In our daily lives, we might have experienced success and/or failure on
certain activity we might have solved different problems correctly
overcame challenges and got acceptance to our compliance or we might
have mistaken and failed to do so in each case we often deal with our
setbacks and mistakes and may develop negative of positive self-concept.

Others people’s judgment

Achievements boost self-concept when we see ourselves reflected others
appraisals when people think well of us it helps us think well of our
selves feedbacks form parents teachers elderly and other significant
persons shape individual’s self-concept variously for instant children
whim others table as gifted hand working or hopeful tend to incorporate
such ideas into their self-concepts and behavior.
Introspection
Introspection is looking inward at one’s own thoughts, feelings, and
affections. This is related to affective forecasting, the awareness of
people on how they feel in the future in response to imagined positive
and negative emotional events could also shape our social self.

34
Self-concept (aka self-schema): is simply individuals’ perception about their personal
behavior, attitude, opinion, abilities, and social relations.

2.2. Self-Esteem: Evaluating oneself

2.2.1. The Concept of Self-Esteem

Self-esteem refers to the affective component of the self-
Self-Esteem
related to self-evaluation or self-worth. Self-esteem refers
Self-esteem
to the extent to which we like, value, and accept refers to the
value one
ourselves. Sense of self-worth or importance could arise person attaches
to himself or
from one’s own: herself.
 physical attractiveness and strength,
Favorable or
 achievements (wealth, skill, profession, positive self-
evaluation
success, …etc.) indicate high
self-esteem
 affiliation (social acceptance in interpersonal
relationships)
 moral standards, etc.

Indicators of High self esteem

 Positive self-regard
 High self-confidence
 Accepting one’s own self
35
 Optimism
 Not paying attention to others comments
Self-esteem could be implicit and explicit.

o Automatic self-esteem: self-esteem formed based on automatic,

emotional evaluation of the self. For example, a student may say “I
feel that Allah made me a very good student”.

o Explicit self-esteem: self-esteem formed on the basis of critical,

conscious, and deliberate analysis of one’s own self-concept. For
example, a person evaluates himself and concludes “I am a
successful person in the community because I am the richest
person of my locality, I have a beautiful woman, and at least I own
four villas.”

Self-esteem is formed based on our own evaluation of ourselves and

others’ evaluation.

36
 Self-esteem Others evaluation Own self-assessment
Fig. 2.2. The formation of self-esteem

The effect of self esteem

Different researchers have shown that high self-esteem is associated with

health, wellbeing, happiness, courage, taking risks, success, good sleep,
etc. In contrast, low self-esteem is associated with the opposite virtues
such as: academic and financial failure, pessimism, unhappiness, and
physical health complaints. Authoritative or democratic parenting style is
also related with high self-esteem.
Gender difference in self esteem

Researchers have shown that males outperform females in self-esteem

during adolescence and adulthood but this gap disappears during old age
(Kassin, et al, 2011).

The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Please rate yourself on the following items by writing a number in

the blank before each statement, where you

0 = Strongly Disagree 1 = Disagree 2 = Agree 3 = Strongly

Agree

1. _____I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on any equal base
with others.
37
2. _____I feel that I have a number of good qualities.
3. _____All in all, I am inclined to think that I am a failure (R).
 2.2.2. Self enhancement and Self verification

Self enhancement and self-verification processes are common in

evaluating information about us to form our self-esteem.
o Self enhancement. Self enhancement is similar to implicit
cognition, automatic reaction. This reaction bases on emotionally
sorted and interpreted information about the self to gain a positive
self-concept, self-esteem.

o Implicit egotism: unconscious self enhancement in which we love

things related to ourselves such as liking people who share the
same name with us.

o Self-verification: self-consistency view related to explicit

cognition. In self-verification people utilize conscious cognitive
processes in order to view themselves the way others view them.

38
 Social Self-enhancement Self-Verification
reaction (Emotional Example:: Even
For Example reaction) if this reaction
Someone said is positive, the
For example, You comment is
“you are may think that“yes some what
brilliant” I am exaggerated

Fig. 2.3. Mechanisms of self-enhancement and self-verification.

We may initially accept the information about the self but later we tend
to evaluate it to have a consistent view of our self.

Mechanism to enhance self-esteem

Self-esteem could (at least temporarily) increase through enhancement.
We often use consciously or without awareness different mechanisms to
enhance our self-esteem. The following are some of the commonly used
techniques. One or more of the following techniques can be used:
a. Self-serving bias: perceiving one’s own self in a favorable manner.
This includes taking credit for success and attributing failures to
external factors. For example, a pastoralist may say that he is
successful in breading his cattle but blame his neighbors that they
casted spell (magic) to kill his goats.

 Unrealistic optimism (illusory optimism): associating ourselves

to good things and underestimating the likelihood of bad events
to face us. Ex: a graduating student may say “even if 95% of
engineers could be jobless but I will not be”.
 False consensus effect: the tendency to overestimate the degree
to which others share our behavior, thoughts, and feelings
(especially when they are undesired). For example, a father
who lost his son stated that “I know that most people have
faced (will face) the same problem”.

39
  False uniqueness effect: the tendency to underestimate the
similarity of others feeling, behavior and thought to our
desirable and successful behavior, attitudes and thoughts. “You
know I am the only person to buy a car from this vicinity”.

b. Self-handicapping: a deliberate action that involves intentional self-

defeat behavior to excuse future anticipated failure or to enhance
success. For example, deliberately missing classes to be called
“brilliant” and giving advantage for the opponents in difficult tasks
reflect self-handicapping.

c. Bask in reflected glory (BIRG): increasing self-esteem by

associating one’s own self with successful others. For example,
people increase their self-esteem through becoming fans of dominant
football teams (e.g. Barcelona, Real Madrid, etc.). If our group fails
we develop cutting off reflected failure (CORF). This occurs when
the sense of “we”, due to success, changes to “them”, when the group
fails.

d. Downward social comparison: comparing ourselves to less

successful and less competent others in order to boost our self-
esteem. In addition, there could be temporal comparison,
comparison between our past and present. For example, a farmer
may say “don’t complain that you don’t have a shoe because there are
many others without feet”.

2.3. Self-Regulation: Controlling the Self

Self regulation refers to peoples ability to consciously direct, alter or

control (activate or supress, increase or decrease) their own actions,
emotions, and thoughts. Slef regulators ignore lesser rewards at the
expense of the larger ones. This is related to the ability to delay
gratification.
For example, students may sacrifice their sleep inorder to study, studying
at the expense of watching football, losing short term happiness gained

40
from drug abuse for the sake of long term wellbeing. In adition sex, drug
addiction, dieting, sex, anger, etc require self regulation. Self-regulation
is related to self-efficacy, and locus of control.

2.3.1. Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to feeling of self-competency and effectiveness. It is

also related to positive thinking, optimistic belief in our own competence.
Self-efficacy is different from self-esteem (self-worth). For example,
people who feel controlling their own outcomes have higher self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy has also an influence on a person’s performance on a task,
on his/her social behavior and health. Moreover, people with strong
feelings of self-efficacy are more persistent less anxious, and less
depressed. They also live healthier, more focused lives, and more
academically successful. People with low social self-efficacy lack social
skills resulting anxiety and avoidance of social situations.

2.3.2. Locus of control

Locus of control refers to the belief that things (outcomes) are either
controlled by internal forces or external situational factors.
o Internal locus of control: outcomes controlled by personal factors
(desire, motivation, effort). Individuals with internal locus of
control orientation tend to be more successful, delay short term
gratification for long term, etc.

o External locus of control: when the fate of individuals is

determined by external factors (e.g. chance, blaming, justification,
etc.).

2.3.3. Self-control versus learned helplessness

41
Self-determination refers to perceived self-control, controlling what we
do and what others do to us. Self-control can involve controlling one’s
own psychological states, wellbeing, and achievements.
In contrast to self-determination (personal control and choice,
opportunity to change one’s own condition), people who fail to control
their environment tend to be frustrated, stressed, and experience health
related problems. This refers to Martin Seligman’s term learned
helplessness. People’s initial inability to control stressful situations may
lead to the desperate feeling of not being in control.

2.4. Self-presentation

Self-presentation refers to the way we present ourselves to others in

favorable ways. Self-presentation helps us to shape how others perceive

Activity 2.4.
Dear learner, what techniques do you use to present yourself to others to appear credible,
knowledgeable, and acceptable?
42 1. List down how you dress in presenting your senior essay paper?
2. What do you say in order to persuade your parents to send you some money?
3. What do you tell to a girl/boy you want to attract for the first time?
us. In other words, it refers to managing impression of others about us in
order to gain influence, power, reward, or sympathy.

Strategies of self-presentation
Self-presentation strategies are helpful to create favorable first
impression on others. Self-presentation is also called impression
management.
 Self-promotion: a tactic in which individuals present themselves
to others as competent, skillful and creative.
 Ingratiation: a tactic in which individuals use favors or flattery to
be liked by others. Ingratiation involves agreement, saying nice
things, flattery, and interpersonal warmth.
 Exemplification: a tactic in which people create an impression
that they are morally superior, virtuous, or righteous. The
individuals go beyond the limit to be perceived as committed or
hardworking.
 Intimidation: occurs when individuals want to be perceived as
dangerous and powerful.
 Supplication: a tactic in which individuals present themselves as
weak and a person who needs compassion and assistance of others.
 Self-handicapping: a tactic used when individuals produce
obstacles to success with the purpose of preventing observers from
making dispositional inferences about their failure. Handicaps
protect our self-esteem and public image by allowing us to attribute
failures to something temporary/external (e.g. I was feeling seek)
than to lack of talent or ability.
 Entitlement: occurs when individuals take credit for positive
achievements.
 Sandbagging: occurs when individuals make false claims of
inability or engage in a fake demonstration to create low
expectations of their performance.
 False modesty: people sometimes present a different self than
they feel. The clearest example, however, is not falls pride but false

43
 modesty. False modesty is a “shallow” or superficial gratitude
offered to appear humble for others, while “in the privacy of one’s
own mind” crediting oneself.

Self- Impressio Prototypic Behaviors Typical statements

Presentation n Sought
Self- Competenc Boasting, showing off “I have ample experience as a
promotion e manager from bottom to top
level:
Ingratiation Likeability Compliments, favors “You are the most intelligent
boss I have ever had”
Exemplificati Moral Self-denial, martyrdom “I work 24/7 without rest, I am
on also known for my generosity”
Intimidation Power or Threats “If you don’t follow my orders,
fear I will give you an axe”
Supplication Helpless Self-deprecation “Please teacher help unless I
will be going crazy sooner”
Sandbagging Deceiving Undermining one’s own A coach of strong team may
the skills state that his weaker opponent
opponent will win.
False Gratitude Self-promotion A valedictorian stated that he
modesty wrapped up with is the weakest student in the
modesty class.

2.4.1. Self-Serving bias

As we process self-relevant information, a potent bias intrudes, we

readily excuse our failures. Accept credit for our success, and in many
ways see ourselves as better than average. Contrary to the presumption
that most people suffer from low self-esteem, researchers consistently
find that most people exhibit a self-serving bias. Self-serving bias is the
tendency to perceive oneself favorably. Among the various types of self-
serving biases few of them will be described here after.

Explanation for positive and negative events

Situations that combine skill and chance (games, exams, job applications)
are especially prone to this phenomenon. Time and again., experiments
have found that people readily accept credit when told they have
succeeded (attributing the success to their ability and effort), yet
attribute failure such external factors as bad luck or the problems’

44
 inherent in “impossibility”. Similarly, in explaining their victories,
athletes commonly credit themselves (their efforts). But attribute losses
to factors beyond their control like bad breaks, bad referee calls, bad
weather, or the other team’s super effort or dirty play. Students also
exhibit self-serving bias.
After receiving an exam grade, students who do well tend to accept
personal credit. They judge the exam to be a valid measure of their
competence. On the other hand, those who do poorly are much more
likely to criticize the exam.
Dear learner, if you
score “A” in this
Seeing oneself as better than average
course, what would
Self-serving bias also appears when people
be your explanations
compare themselves to others. For example, on
for scoring “A”? Or
nearly any dimension that is both subjective and
do you afraid of
socially desirable dimension, most people see
scoring “F” in this
themselves as better than average. For instance,
course? Why?
most businessperson see themselves as more
ethical or honest than the average businessperson, similarly; while most
people perceive themselves as more intelligent than their average peer,
most people view themselves as healthier than most of their neighbors.
In general; by defining ambiguous or subjective criteria in our terms,
each of us can see ourselves as relatively successful or better than
average people.
Dear learner, in what aspects do you think that you are better than your
friends?

Unrealistic Optimism
Optimism predisposes a positive approach to life. Many of us however,
might have “an unrealistic optimism about future life events.” Students
may perceive themselves as far more likely as their classmates to get a
good job, draw a good salary, to have good car, and own a home. And as
far less likely to experience negative events, such as alcoholic, jobless
(unemployed) or get sick and die. Such illusory optimism increases our

45
 vulnerability. Those who cheerfully shun seat belts, deny the effects of
unsafe sex and stumble in to ill-fated relationships remind us that blind
optimism, like pride.

Optimism definitely bats pessimism in promoting self-efficacy, health.

And well-being yet a dash of realism can save us from the perils of
unrealistic optimism, Self-doubt can energize students, most of whom,
especially those destined for low grades-exhibit excess optimism about
upcoming exams. The moral: success in school and beyond requires
enough optimism to sustain hope and enough pessimism to motivate
concern.

Summary
The self is the totality of a person. It includes self-concept, self-esteem,
self-awareness, and social identities. We often try to present ourselves in
a different manner such as through a good attire, self-promotion, and

Self-Assessment Questions (Unit 2)

Direction: Choose the Best Answer From the given Alternatives and encircle the letter of
your choice.
1. A person may define himself as a male and husband. This is typically
related to:
A. Professional identity B. Gender identity
C. Religious identity D. All
2. A cognitive structure that organizes information about the self is termed
as self-:
A. Schema B. Identity
C. Consciousness D. Awareness
3. Answers to the question who am I?
A. Self B. Self-concept
C. Self-esteem D. Identity
4. A person who feels that he is worthless, failure and unimportant may be
experiencing:
46 A. High self-esteem B. Low self-esteem
C. Self-efficacy D. Low self-presentation
5. A doctor may present himself as “a little scholar”. This is more related to:
A. Self-promotion C. False modesty
modesty. This attempt is called impression management or self-
presentation strategy.

Further Reading
Augoustinos, M., & Walker, I. (1995). Social Cognition: An Integrated
Introduction. London, UK: Sage.
Meyers, D.G. (2009). Exploring social psychology (6thed). New York, NY:
McGraw Hill.
Lewis, M.A. & Neighbors, C. (2005). Self-Determination and the Use of
Self-Presentation Strategies. The Journal of Social Psychology,
145(4), 469-489.

Chapter Three
Social Perception & Cognition

After studying this unit you should be able to

• Define and explain Social cognition
• Explain impression formation and management.
• Describe schemas, Heuristics and errors in social cognition.
• Understand causes of errors in social cognition

3.1. Social Cognition

3.1.1. What is social Cognition

People usually think, reason, and recall information related to others in
social contexts. In perceiving other people, we need to encode, store, and

47
memorize information concerning other people. Therefore, social
cognition is all about how people make sense of the social world
(including themselves, other people, situations).
Social cognition usually base on two basic processes in perceiving others
or making social judgments:
 Controlled [explicit] process: deliberate and thoughtful process
that involves conscious and reflective thinking and decision
making.
 Automatic [implicit] process: following effortless intuitive
approach in making social perception. This approach doesn’t
involve conscious attempts to think, solve problems, and make
decisions. Automatic processes depend on:
o Schema: existing mental templates (formed based on past
memory) that guide intuitive perception.
o Emotional reaction: a quick emotional reaction that usually
happen before effortful logical thinking.
o Mood: people in different mood have different cognitive
processing strategies. For example, depressed people are
more likely to be thoughtful about themselves compared to
people in state of happiness.
3.1.2. Models of Social Cognition

Naïve Scientist -
Models of Social Cognition
Naïve scientist: people are like
scientists they make effortful
thought to guide their social

Gather evidence
perception.

Cognitive miser: people will

invest minimum time and effort

to test hypothesis so they depend on heuristics.

Motivated tactician: people

are neither exclusively

to arrive at an cognitive miser or a naïve

scientist, they use multiple
strategies depending up on

answer
their goals and objectives.

48
o What does the birth
certificate say
o Are there other
sources of evidence
o Where can I get more
info
o This is really effortful –
lots of evidence and info
to sort through
a) Naïve Scientist
This approach states that people are naïve scientists and they usually
make rational effortful thinking, rely on evidences, and test hypothesis to
make social perception or judgments.

b) Cognitive miser
In contrast to the naïve scientist model, the cognitive miser approach
states that we don’t have a lot of time and therefore we do as little
thinking as possible. Therefore, we depend on other people’s judgment or
rely on heuristics (cognitive shortcuts) in making social perceptions.

c) Motivated tactician
The third approach propose that people use flexible information
processing strategies depending up on their goals and objectives.
Sometimes they depend on a shortcut (when they need quick judgment)

49
and other times they follow a rational effortful approach (when they need
accuracy).

Social Inference

- Short time
- No time shortage - Cognitive load
- No cognitive load (busy)
- Important - Less important
- Information - No data

Systematic Processing Heuristic processing

Act as a Naïve
Act as a Naïve a
scientist
cognitive miser

Fig 3.1. Motivated Tactician Model

d) Dual Process Theory

Dual process theory is an integrated approach that combines the
previous models. According to the model, impression formation follows
two distinct processes; categorization and individuation. First people
depend on representative heuristic or categorization. Then, if a person
doesn’t fit in the category, they tend to switch to the individuation,
person perception on the basis of individual attributes, as a distinct
person from any category.

Stage 1: Stage 2:
Categorization Individuation

Fig. 3.2. Dual process Model of Impression Formation

3.1.3. Errors in Social Cognition

50
In social perception and cognition, people often do not rely on conscious
processes and therefore they are prone to make different cognitive
errors. The following conditions are some processes that definitely lead
to erroneous judgments and conclusions when we think about other
people.

Heuristics
Heuristics refers to using easy mental shortcuts instead of effortful
conscious judgments. There are two types of heuristics:
 Representativeness heuristic: a quick judgment of putting
people into some specific categories. For example, judging a
bearded person who wears an eye glass as a professor.
 Availability heuristics: a quick judgment of probability of events
based on how information is available in the memory. For
example, we are more likely to overestimate deaths due to
airplane crash compared to statistically dominant traffic
accidents.
 Anchoring heuristics: tendency to be biased in making
quantitative judgments based on the initial value (anchor).
Suppose that you want to bargain on buying a product. You are
more likely to give higher value later if the initial price tag is
10,000 than 5,000 for the same product.
 The false consensus effect: he extent to which we overestimate
the similarity with others. For example, we are more likely to
estimate that the majority of will choose the political party we
have chosen.

Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is a tendency to look for information that confirms our
precognition and ignoring information that contradicts our expectation.

Counter factual thinking

51
Counter factual thought is imagining better or worse alternative
scenarios that might have happened. Imagining worse scenarios
(compared to a better scenarios) increase our self-esteem. That is why
bronze medalists feel happy than silver medalists.

3.1.4. Self-fulfilling prophesy

Self-fulfilling prophecy refers to a belief that ultimately result in its own
fulfillment. For example, an individual may act as others expect him in
social setting. The classic experiment from Rosenthal demonstrated that
teachers’ expectation about their students had affected the behavior of
their students. Student Behavior
EX: Ahmed performs
Teacher’s Behavior better
Teacher’s Cognition
EX: Smiling &
EX: Ahmed is a best student
encouraging

Fig. 3.3. Self-Fulfillment Prophecy

3.1.5. Social Categorization

Social categorization is a process of matching a person to an existing
social category. This categorization may base on religion, race, ethnicity,
age, and gender. As we have seen above, in quick person perception,
people depend on heuristics; they assign individuals to different social
categories on the basis of their shared characteristics. However, the rigid
all-or-nothing categorization doesn’t consider the basic fact that some
social categories have fuzzy or flexible boundaries. For example, it is
easy to quickly to classify individuals as Somali, Oromo, or Amhara.
However, how do we classify a person who has a Somali father, Amhara
mother, and doesn’t speak Somali language?

Therefore, some individuals are categorized as more “typical” or

“atypical” of a category. Typicality is related to prototypes. A prototype
is the most representative members of a category that comes to our mind
quickly. These social prototypes are called stereotypes (see chapter 6).

52
Social categorization, categorizing individuals may lead to negative
stereotype, stereotype threat, out group bias, prejudice and ultimately to
stigma and discrimination.
Stereotype threat. We have seen that our belief out others may be
actualized. Similarly, self-fulfilling prophesy may have group implication
when the group members conform to the negative stereotypes associated
to their group.

3.1.6. First Impressions

Impression formation refers to the process in which we develop an idea,

feeling or attitude about something or someone. We form an overall
impression of someone’s character and abilities based on available
information about their traits and behaviors. For example, if you see a
new teacher with a wrinkled clothing, you will most likely judge him
negatively until you gain a counter evidence against your initial
impression. Impression formation depend up on a number of factors
including recency and primacy effect, perceiver’s cognitive processes,
and other factors.

Cognitive Processing

53
- Process of impression
formation
- Processing principles
(conservatism &
accessibility) influence
impression formation
- Depth of processing
moderates the types of
impression we form
Process of impression formation - Processing principles (conservatism &
accessibility) influence impression formation - Depth of processing
moderates the types of impression we form
Recency and primacy effect

3.2. Attribution

Dear learner, would you please define attribution the

way you understand it?

54
Attribution: is the process of assigning causes, reasons or explanations
for behavior.
Example: we may say: why did my father said you are not honest? Why
didn’t my friend greet me today? Why people act as they act?

3.1.1. Attribution Theories

A. Heider’s classic work on attribution

Fritz Heider (1958) in his book entitled “The psychology of interpersonal

relation” said that we all are “naïve scientists” –motivated to know and
understand others to manage and control their social lives by observing,
analyzing, and explaining their behaviors. He identified two types of
attribution (internal versus external attribution).
◦ Internal (personal) attribution: the process of assigning causes
to internal, stable dispositional characteristics of the actor (such
as: character, personality, desires, beliefs or needs).
◦ External (situational) attribution: the process of assigning
causes external to the individual or situations (such as: other
people, environment, luck, and task).

B. Correspondent inference theory

This theory was proposed by Edward Jones & Kith Davis (1965) to
explain about internal attribution about others.

This theory states that we tend to conclude that a person’s overt

behavior is caused by or corresponds to the person’s internal
characteristics, beliefs or dispositions. We infer from the action if the act
corresponds to an enduring personal characteristic. We make personal
attribution (correspondent inference) depending on the following 3
factors: choice & intent, effects and social desirability.

 Choice & intent

55
If we believe that the person freely chose and intended to do what he/she
has done, we tend to make a correspondent inference (the individual
really wants to do so).
◦ Choice: freely chosen behavior is more informative than coerced
behavior. Correspondent inference is made when it is proved that
the individual freely chose to do act (not forced by others).
◦ Intention: we make internal attribution if the behavior is
intentional (not accidental). If the person intended to do
something this shows that the individual wanted the behavior to
occur. If we believe that the act of the individual is not
intentional, we are saying that the actor is les responsible for
his/her action.

Look at the following example: John Hinckley fired a gun

on a president Ronald Regan on March 30, 1981 in
Washington and wound him. At his trial his lawyer
suggested that he was insane (didn’t know what he was
doing). Finally, the jury returned a verdict of not guilty
due to insanity by assuming that he had no intention to
harm the president.

 Effects: consequences of the behavior

Non-common vs common effects:
Non-common effects or acts that produce only a single desirable
outcome (noncommon effect) reveal a person’s motive than acts
that produce many desirable effects (common effects).

For example: Johannes is considering job opportunities at 3

different organizations.

Organization A: far from his family, high paying, and good

security
Organization B: near to his family, high pay and good
security

56
 Organization C: far from his family, high pay and bad
security

Now, we can understand his motive well if he chooses

organization C than A and B.

 Social desirability: behavior approved by other people

Socially undesirable behavior: deviant and socially unacceptable
behavior tells us more about the person than socially desirable or
acceptable behavior.
For example: keeping silent or crying at a funeral show nothing about the
true feeling of the individual but if the individual laugh at the ceremony
this may show his/her internal motives of the person (may be intense
hate for the deceased person).

Freely
chosen
behavior

Intended Non
Internal
behavior common
attribution effects

Socially
undesirable
behavior

Correspondence bias: people’s tendency to estimate that the

cause of the behavior is internal even when different evidences
suggest it is caused by external factors.

C. Co variation theory

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It is proposed by Harold Kelly (1967, 91). Like Heider Kelly believes that
people are like scientists, they make attribution by making comparisons
and thinking in terms of “experiment”. People make attributions by using
the co variation principle.

The covariation principle: states that something can be a cause for

behavior, if it is present when the behavior occurs and absent when it
does not occur.
◦ If the behavior is present when a situation (person, object, or events)
is present and absent when that same situation is absent, then the
situation can cause the behavior. In other words the cause of any
behavior is the factor that covaries (often occur at the same time)
with that behavior.

To show this concept, assume that your friend Daniel saw Amharic movie
entitled “Men’s affairs” and praised it. Here you may ask what caused
Daniel’s behavior. Is it the movie? Is it Daniel himself?
According to Kelly we need 3 types of information to make attribution.
 Consensus information: how different people reacted to the same
situation or event. How do other people who saw the film react (feel)
about the film? If there is high consensus: everybody liked it-it is
probably a good movie (it is the movie that caused Daniel’s behavior).
If others don’t consider the movie as a good movie, there will be low
consensus (Daniel liked the movie but nobody else did)-it is
attributed to the person not the movie.
 Distinctiveness information: how the person reacts to different
stimuli (finding something unique, unusual in the situation). What is
the reaction of Daniel for other similar movies?
 Low distinctiveness: nothing special about the situation. Here we
make person. Example: Daniel raves about all films, there is
nothing special about the film, we can conclude that Daniel
appreciates everything.

58
  High distinctiveness: if there is something unique about the
situation, the behavior is attributed to the situation. Example: if
Daniel doesn’t appreciate other movies or if this is the only move
Daniel has liked, the behavior is attributed to the situation (the
film).
 Consistency information: stability of the behavior. If the behavior
occurs at different times and situations, there will be high consistency
and the behavior will be attributed to the situation. Correspondent
inference theory failed to consider consistency.
 Low consistency: if the behavior is not repeated at another time
or situation, it is attributed to the person. Example: if Daniel
doesn’t always praise the film or say “the film is not good” at
another time, the behavior is attributed to personal factors good
emotional state, personality (a tendency to exaggerate everything),
etc.
 High consistency: stable, repeated behavior. If Daniel praises the
film on other occasions, it is attributed to the situation (film).
Generally
 Low distinctiveness, low consensus, and high consistency  person
attribution
 High distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency situational
attribution

59
Combining information in our real-life context
Different researches suggested that people tend to overemphasize the
person rather than the situation in causal analysis.

When we make attributions, we may not have all the 3 sources of

information. Sometimes the cause may lie between the person and
situation such as combination of high consensus and low distinctiveness.
For example: everybody likes this film, Daniel who likes other films also
likes this film. Here the cause of the behavior can be the situation (film)
or the person (personality).

If there is high distinctiveness (Daniel doesn’t like many other films) and
low consensus (many other people don’t like the film) we may be troubled
to make attribution. But, here, we may use our knowledge about the
situation and the person.

Two principles we may apply under conditions of limited information:

 The discounting principle: states that we tend to reduce the
influence of any potential cause for an event when other reasonable
causes are present. For example: if you see a person insulting others
(personality/internal cause) and you also know that the person has a
mental problem (external cause), you are less likely to make
60
 personal attribution than if you didn’t know his problem. For
example: if you observe a nurse helping patients, you may think that
it is requirement of her job. Here we tend to discount the influence
of other potential causes such as: altruism because the most obvious
cause is that it is part of her job.
 The augmentation principle: states that perceivers tend to
increase the importance of the factor in attribution instead of
discounting the influence of the potential causes.

In covariance theory the uncommon effect (behavior) is explained by

augmentation principle. According to this principle if there are
greater numbers of negative effects of the behavior, it is useful for
making internal attributions.

D. Two-step and three-steps models

Two-step model:
It is proposed by Yaccov Trope (1986)
This theory states that we make attribution first by automatically
categorizing the behavior and then making careful and deliberate
inference about the person.

 First step: the behavior is identified automatically, quickly.

 Second step: the attribution made in the first step is adjusted.
-Inferential adjustment-the perceiver looks at the behavior,
the situation and prior information about the actor (usually
towards the person).

Our knowledge about the situation may help us to understand the

behavior even in the absence of knowledge about the person. For
example: if one person cries at a wedding, we make inference about the
cause of behavior. Our prior knowledge may help us to adjust our initial
impression of the person’s behavior.

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Two-step model of attribution process-we make personal attribution and
then adjust to account for situational factors.

E. Three-step model
Daniel Gilbert and his colleagues (1089, 91) proposed this three-step
model by being influenced by the two-step model.
 Stage 1: automatic categorization of the behavior automatic
categorization of the behavior.
 Stage 2: characterization-making internal attribution
 Stage 3: correction-adjusting the attribution based on
situational factors

This theory divides two-step model’s categorization into two

(categorization and characterization). The third step is the same with two
model’s inferential adjustment step.
According to Gilbert stage 1 and 2 are relatively effortless, automatic
process and require little attention while the correction based on
situational factors is conscious, deliberate and effortful.

If the first two steps are not correct, correction will be made. In other
words correction occurs when there is obvious conflict between our
initial impression and new, received information.

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 5.1.2. Attribution Biases

Attribution biases: refers to making inaccurate attributions. Attribution

biases may occur due to limited information processing ability, lack of
time and interest. When people have no enough time to process the
information, they tend to use heuristics: mental shortcuts.

Cognitive heuristics

False consensus effect

Base rate fallacy: is people’s relative insensitivity to numerical base rates

and rather being influenced by graphic, dramatic events such as seeing a
lottery winner on TV; photograph of dead bodies; destruction caused by
floods, etc. People tend to overestimate deaths caused by shootings, fires,
floods, terrorist attacks, and underestimate deaths caused by cancer,
heart attacks, strokes, and diabetes despite the fact (statistics) that the
majority of deaths are caused by them.

The fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Sometimes called correspondence bias. It is the tendency to overestimate
the influence of personal (predispositional) causes and underestimate the
influence of situational factors on behavior. For example: blaming the
poor for his/her poverty rather than the environment. They following are
common factors that lead to FAE:
- Lack of enough time: may lead people to make quick impression of
others based on a brief sample of behavior.
- Cognitive business: if we are busy cognitively we tend to use
heuristics (shallow information processing).
- Attention: lack of attention or inability to consider external factors.
This can be due to perceptual bias, salience of behavior. Since our
senses are directed outward the “actor” becomes the focus of our
attention (figure) and the situation (background). That is why
people focus on the person (figure) by ignoring the situation
(background).

63
 - Culture: individualistic cultures like western (Europe and USA)
tend to emphasize the individual, personal and make the person
responsible for his/her behavior whereas collectivist cultures like
Easterners (China, India, etc) focus on the social relationships.
- Justification: publicly justifying attributions may decrease the
fundamental attribution error.

Actor observer effect/bias

Actor-observer bias is the tendency to attribute our own behavior to
external factors but others’ behavior to internal factors. This occurs
when the perceiver overestimates the influence of external situational
factors for his/her own behavior and underestimate the influence of
internal personal factors for others’ behavior (especially if the outcome is
bad).
In actor observer bias the observer (not the actor) makes fundamental
attribution error.
Why actors attribute their own actions to external factors (situations,
others) and observer or people who witnessed the act attribute the same
action to internal factors (traits, abilities, attitudes, interest, etc.)?
- The difference in information they have: the actor knows more
about his own behavior but observers more likely tend to have less
information about the behavior of the actor. An actor can compare
his current action with his other many different past actions he
made at different situations. But most of the time the observer
doesn’t know the behavior of the person at different times or
situations, therefore, he/she make fundamental attribution error. If
the person had observed the behavior of the actor at different
situations, he/she tend to attribute this behavior to external factors.
- Figure ground relationship. We tend to focus on the figure (actor)
by ignoring stable unchanging background (the situation). Because
the actor is perceived as a stimulus.

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Self-serving bias

Self-serving bias is a tendency to think well of ourselves. It is taking the

credit for our success and making excuses for our failure. (The tendency
to make attribution for positive outcomes and making external
attributions if the outcome is negative).
- Making internal attribution for successful behavior and external
attribution when we fail. It allows us to maintain our self-esteem.
For example: a person takes full credit for getting “A” and denies
responsibility for scoring “F”.

Summary

Understanding the causes of others behavior that is attribution. By

attributing ideas or information people understand the causes of other’s
behavior. Just by observing the verbal and nonverbal information people
try to attribute others behavior. Even though it helps in understanding
other’s behavior it also brings the wrong idea on others. In the same way
just with few information people try to form impression on others, here
again both correct as well as incorrect impressions people get. The first
impression creates a wonderful understanding on others; people use lot
of methods for impression management. In all these activities there is a
possibility of errors in judgment. To minimize the mistakes, social
psychologists have brought out effective strategies.

65
 Self-Assessment Questions

The following sentences are incomplete fill in the blank Spaces

with the appropriate phrases or word.
1. Attributing behavior to the person’s disposition and traits is
called_____________.
2. An event referring to the extent to which an individual respond, to
a given stimulus or situation in the same way on different occasions
is _____________.
3. When an individual respond in the same manner to different stimuli
or events it is known as___________________.
4. ______________refers to attributing behavior to the environment.

Further Reading
Delamater, J.D. (2003). Handbook of Social Psychology. New York:
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. ISBN 0-306-47695-9.
(Abbreviated on reading list as JD.)

Cardwell, M., Clark, L. & Meldrum, C. (2004). Psychology (3rd ed).

London, United Kingdom, Collins.

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 UNIT FOUR
ATTITUDE FORMATION AND CHANGE

INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with how people form attitudes towards people,
events and even objects. In addition, attitude change and persuasion are
also concerns of this chapter.

Objectives
At the end of this unit, the learners will be able to:
 Define attitude and persuasion
 Explain attitude formation theories
 Discuss factors affecting attitude change
 Appreciate attitude change approaches

4.1. Definition and Formation of

Attitudes

67
4.1.1. Definition and Components of Attitudes

How do you define attitude in your own terms?

Attitude is defined as a set of positive or negative beliefs or opinions

towards peoples, events and objects. Attitudes range from extremely
negative opinions such as rivalry and hatred to extremely positive
opinions such as love, friendship. Attitudes are evaluative judgments
(e.g. good/dad, important/unimportant) about people, objects, and
thoughts.

Attitudes are relatively enduring learned predispositions to perceive,

feel, behave or react in a certain situation based on our frameworks of
past knowledge called schemas. They help us to organize and act as per
information we have formed about things, events, and situations.

Attitude refers to general and enduring opinions, views, feelings and thoughts people hold
towards objects, people, and events.
4.1.2 Component of Attitudes

Attitudes have three basic components; affect behavior and cognition

(ABC Components).
 Affect (emotion): negative or positive emotions, sentiments or feelings
about a certain person, object, or thoughts. Human feelings include
happiness, joy, anger, sadness, surprise, contempt, etc.

 Behavior: a tendency to act in a certain manner in accordance with

our attitudes. Behavioral expressions often base on our cognition and
feelings towards something.

 Cognitions: internal beliefs, knowledge, and thought about a certain

person or object. This may include judgment, thinking, reasoning, and
moral judgment.

To elaborate this point, look at the following examples:

68
Example 1:
You feel good about “EPP political party” (affect), determined/decided to
vote it in the coming election (behavior) and your opinion that this
political party is good for the development of the country (cognition).

Example 2:
Mr. Beddel has a negative attitude towards premarital sex. Look at the
following hypothetical statements:
“I feel sad when girls and boys commit sexual intercourse before
marriage” (affect),
“I am also teaching my children not to do so” (behavior), and
“It is not ethical to have sex with someone’s wife or husband (cognition)

4.1.2. Theories of Attitude Formation

Attitudes are learned rather than innate. The learning of attitude is an

integral part of the socialization process and may occur through direct
experiences or vicariously through interactions with others. Attitudes can
be formed through various ways. Some of the major theories which
discussed how attitudes are formed are presented below.

A. Mere Exposure Effect [Direct Experience] Theory

69
According to Robert Zajonc, unlike an old adage familiarity breeds
contempt, people tend to develop more positive feelings towards objects,
events or a person when we are more exposed to them. Many of the
attitudes people hold are the products of direct experience with the
attitude object (e.g. conversation, touching, tasting, and seeing). For
example, Semira has developed positive attitude towards a person after
seeing him often on her way to and from work.

B. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning (association) theory states that learning occurs
when something is association with another thing. For example, children
may develop good attitude towards their neighbors if they gave them a
candy. Similarly, advertisers try to create a relationship between a
product and other positive events.

C. Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning holds that reinforcement leads to formation of
positive attitude towards a person, object, organization and so forth and
punishment leads to formation of negative attitudes. For example, people
form positive attitudes towards a soft drink company when they are given
free gifts as rewards.

D. Vicarious learning
Albert Bandura stated that attitudes and thoughts are learned from
significant others such as parents and teachers. Vicarious learning is a
result of observing others (parents, peers, teachers, and other prominent
personalities) punished and rewarded for what they do. It is adapting
other’s attitude towards something. According to this theory, rewarding
a model entrepreneur may motivate the rest.

[Link] Approach Theory

70
The functional approach asserts that attitudes are formed to satisfy
current needs. People hold attitudes that fit their current psychological
needs and when those needs change, so will their attitudes. Thus, people
could have similar attitudes toward an object but for different reasons.

4.1.3. The Relationship between Attitude and Behavior

There is a higher relationship between attitude and behavior, but not

always. In other words, attitudes influence behavior and vice versa.
Attitudes determine people’s behavior or reaction to objects, events,
social situations and themselves. Thus, attitudes are used to predict
people’s behavior in wide range of contexts or predict how people behave
in various social contexts

The following two theories explain why behavior influences attitudes.

A. Cognitive dissonance theory

This theory is developed by Leon Festinger in 1957. He holds that,

humans have a great tendency for maintaining cognitive consistency.
Thus, they tend to change their attitudes to make them consistent with
their behaviors. According to this theory, cognitive dissonance is a
state of psychological discomfort due to holding two inconsistent
cognitions or [Link] discrepancy between what we feel and what
we do, what we think and what we do can be expressed in the following
example.

For example, when someone who drinks alcohol holds two contradicting
cognitions he is more likely state 1) “drinking alcohol leads to liver
damage” and 2) I drink alcohol.

1: Drinking is harmful, nevertheless I drink→ Dissonance

2: Smoking is risky, and I smoke →Dissonance

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Cognitive dissonance theory states that either the attitude or behavior of
an individual must be changed to avoid the dissonance and to maintain
cognitive consistency.

For example, a person who smokes, and knows that smoking is risky
must change his behavior (stop smoking) or consider smoking as not bad
(changing attitude). In this example, changing behavior is a healthy way
of dealing with the dissonance.

There is also unhealthy way of dealing with dissonance for example, use
defense mechanisms especially rationalization such as saying “it is not
supported by research that smoking kills people”

B. Self-perception theory

More often we are not clear about our attitudes. This theory sates that
we can infer our attitudes from our behaviors. This theory was proposed
by Daryl Bem in 1967. He suggested that, individuals generalize about
their attitude by perceiving their own behavior. Our behaviors can help
us to understand our own behavior.

Look at the following examples:

“I ate banana 3 times today; I must have loved it”

“I greeted the girl 5 times, I must have loved her”.

4.1.4. Functions of Attitudes

 Ego- defense function: attitudes protect us from threats to the

ego (self)-anxiety. Holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem by
justifying (giving reasons) for things we feel guilty. For example: if
a person excessively hates his/her parents he/she may feel guilty.
To avoid this, he/she may start to love his/her parents to avoid this
feeling of guilt.

 Adjustment (instrumental) function: attitudes are helpful to

increase reinforcing behaviors and decrease or avoid behaviors

72
 leading to punishment. For example, people praise their bosses and
sometimes keep silent if they think the attitude is not pleasant for
the boss to avoid punishment and to get reward.

 Value expression function: attitudes show who we are and the

value we have. Example: “I believe that abortion must be abolished
to save dying infants”. They may make us feel good because we
have expressed our identity. Value expression of attitudes can be
expressed nonverbally in bumper sticker, T-shirt and cape slogans.
 Knowledge function: Helps the person to structure the world so
that it makes sense. Attitudes are helpful to bring new concept
about people, objects, events, and so on. They provide meaning
(knowledge) for life.

Self-Assessment Question 3.1

Direction: Choose the Best Option from the Given Alternative
Choices.

___1. A person may like a commercial advertisement about soap because it is

associated with pictures of camels. Which theory of attitude formation
explains this statement?

A. Classical Conditioning C. Vicarious learning

B. Operant Conditioning D. Mere exposure effect

___2. An old person may prefer a cloth on which pictures of cattle are
imprinted. This may function is known as_______

A. Knowledge C. Adjustment
B. Value expression D. Ego defense

___3. Cognitive dissonance theory states that:

A. We tend to increase contradictory thoughts

B. We are more likely to rationalize when our attitude and behavior

73
4.2. Persuasion and Attitude Change

How Do You Define Persuasion?

Attitudes can be change through persuasion after they have been formed.
Attitude change attempts are common in our daily interaction with peers,
family, teachers, and sheiks frequently target our attitude. Persuasion is
a deliberate attempt to change others’ attitudes or behavior through
arguments and other convincing strategies. Different advertisements,
political debates, billboards, etc. aim at persuasion.

Attitude changes when a person receives new information from others

(people, media)-cognitive change, by direct firsthand experience with the
attitude object-affective change and when something forces the person
behave in a different way from the normal (behavioral change).

4.2.1. Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Elaboration likelihood model maintains that persuasive message

processing style is a determinant factor in persuasion. Type of
information processing is related to the involvement of the audiences in
thinking about the message. It may enhance or affect persuasion.

ELM states that there are two routes to persuasion, some audiences may
critically examine and some rely on unrelated factors to be persuaded.

 Central-route processing: when the recipient of the message

attentively considers the issues, ideas and arguments involved in
persuasion. It is based on reasonable information processing.

 Peripheral-route information processing: occurs when people

are persuaded only based on factors unrelated to the nature and
quality of the message. Instead they are influenced by extraneous

74
 or irrelevant factors such as: the person delivering the message
(such as: similarity, expertise, trustworthiness,), the length of the
message, other factors occurring along with the message (such
as: music, pictures, smells, and other pleasant experiences).

It is clear that central-route information processing leads to long-lasting

and effective attitude change. However, if the target (listener) is
inattentive, bored, distracted, tired, and the nature of the message
becomes less important for the listener, peripheral-factors are very
important (e.g. using celebrity to advertise products). Practically, these
two cognitive processes are not mutually exclusive. Most of the time they
can occur in parallel in the same persuasive attempt.

4.2.2. The Yale Communication Model

There are different factors that can promote and affect persuasion. These
factors are related to the message source factors, characteristics the
message, and the characteristics of the listener or audience.

The source
The quality of the source (speaker): the qualities of a communicator, a
person who delivers the persuasive message plays important role in
persuasion and attitude change.

 Credibility (expertise): message from recognized authority tend

to produce a significant attitude change.
 Attractiveness: speakers who are physically and socially
attractive, famous, lovable, tend to produce greater attitude
change. For example, a product advertised by physically attractive
person tends to be sold more than a product advertised physically
unattractive person.
 Trustworthiness: believable and reliable speakers are more
persuasive than unreliable communicators.

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  Intention: the message will be more persuasive if the speaker
doesn’t have anything to gain from presenting a particular
message.
 Similarity: communicators easily persuade audiences similar to
them for example, in terms of religion, age, and ethnicity.

The message
The second important factor is characteristics of the message itself in
persuasion and attitude change. Attention, emotion, acceptance, and the
presence of other messages are some of the characteristics listed below.
Attention:
 The message must attract the attention of the audiences. For
example: using vivid colors, upside down and back ward printing
signals, unusual musical sounds, sexually stimulating pictures, and
other things that can produce strong mental images.

Emotional Appeals:
 Using messages that are strongly connected with emotion; fear,
joy-producing climax and excitement, anger, etc. to sway
audiences.
 Fear appeals: fear producing messages are more effective
than unemotional messages. For example, using a picture of
skeletons in a campaign against traffic accident. Fear
producing messages should be a) relatively strong (but not
too strong), b) let the audiences think that the problem will
likely happen to them and c) show effective ways of avoiding
it.
 Fun appeals: fun evoking messages are important in
advertising many products. We can support logical messages
with fun producing stimuli.
 Message framing: the way in which the message is
presented. Expressing the same message in different ways is
very effective in persuasion.

76
  Message acceptance: the persuasive message should be
consistent with the attitude of the receiver. In contrast,
according to reactance theory, individuals will not be
persuaded if the persuasive message restricts their freedom
(e.g. campaign to raise tax).

 Two sided versus one sided argument

o Two sided messages (arguments): arguments that include

both the communicator’s position and the position the
communicator is arguing against. Two-sided message work if
the audiences are intelligent, educated, and not in favor of the
communicator.

o One sided argument: are arguments in which only the

communicator’s side is presented. This kind of arguments or
messages is best if the audiences are mostly uneducated,
emotional, and already in favor of the message.

 Primacy and recency effect: Order of presentation

o The Primacy effect: when the message comes before other

persuasive messages.

o Recency effect: when the message comes at the end after

other persuasive messages are presented.

When the audiences are required to act after the persuasive message the
effectiveness of message depends on the passage of time even though the
exact duration of the time is not clearly known. .

 If there is a time gap between the delivery of the persuasive

message and required action to be done, presenting the message
first (primacy effect) is more effective.
 If there is no time gap between the message and the required
action (if action is required immediately after the message has
been delivered), the last message (recency) is effective in
persuasion.

77
For example, if you are to debate on an election campaign, you will be
more persuasive if you present your ideas first when the election is to be
conducted tomorrow (short time). However, if the election is going to be
conducted after a week, you have to present your ideas last. Frequency:
we tend to be persuaded if the message is presented many times
(repeatedly).

Characteristics of the Channel

The channel is a means by which the message is presented. For example:

printed messages, spoken messages, pictured messages, and videos.
Most of the time two or more of these channels is used at the same time.
For example: TV combines visual and auditory channels. Messages
delivered to many people can be used through radio, TV, and newspaper

 Person-to- person (one-to-one) messages are more persuasive

than messages presented to a mass simply because the listener
may ask for clarifications.
 Mass-communication: limits the chance to seek clarification.
However, in some live radio/TV programs and most social media it
is possible to ask for clarification and give possible comments.
Characteristics of the Audience

In addition to the above listed factors the nature of the listener also
influences persuasion. The following are some of the audience related
factors:
 Intelligence: generally, less intelligent people are persuaded than
more intelligent people. But, intelligence may lead to both
persuasiveness and resistance. Intelligence of the recipient may
enhance persuasion when their intelligence helps them to
understand and recall the message clearly later. Whereas
intelligence of the audience may hinder persuasion when the

78
 audiences have greater understanding about the message (know
both positive and negative sides of the message) due to their
confidence in their own attitudes.
 Need for social approval: peoples having higher desires for social
approval (need to be approved of or liked by others) tend to be
easily persuaded.
 Self-esteem: peoples’ positive opinion about themselves. It is
easier to persuade people with moderate self-esteem than
individuals with high or low self-esteem.
 Experience: naïve (a person without experience about the
message tend to be persuaded than experienced audiences.
 Number of audiences: it is easier to persuade people when they
are attending to the message with others rather than alone.
 Gender: earlier studies suggested that it is easier to persuade
females than males but recent studies found no difference in
persuasion between male and female.

4.2.3. Techniques of Persuasion

Different techniques of persuasion have been devised. Among these the

following are the major.
1. Foot-in-the-door technique: a technique in which small logical
request is presented first and then after the listener agreed on the
first request, another larger request that the listener will probably
comply (agree) with will be followed. In another words it occurs when
small minor requests are followed by larger requests. Here
individuals may think “…how do I object after initial compliance…?”
Example: you may ask your friend to borrow 10 birr, and then after he
agreed you may ask him to give you 100 birr. This technique is
effective if the desired request is relatively small.

79
2. The low-ball technique: it is similar with foot in the door technique.
It is a technique in which a person is convinced to agree to a low
price, then, induced to pay a higher price. It is most often used in
commercial places. First the customer is told unrealistic lower price
then, before the deal is completed, the salesperson claims to have
discovered a mistake and tells the customer that the sale can go
ahead only at a much higher price.

For example a sales person may ask you 1000 birr to sell you a latest
mobile apparatus that you want to buy it, then after calling his friend
he said “…sorry the price I told you is not the actual price my friend
told me through phone that the actual price is 1200 birr.” If you are
very eager to buy the apparatus you will not be troubled to pay
additional 200 birr.

Example 2: 200 birr may be written on the catalogue for the shoes.
Then after you agreed to buy the shoes, you will be asked additional
payment for the handling.

3. Door-in-the-face technique: a technique in which individuals tend

to comply with the second smaller request after rejecting the first
larger, unreasonable request. It is very effective technique in
charitable donations.

For example: your friend asked you to give him at least 500 hundred
birr for graduation. You said:
“…I wish I could that is very difficult to me…” Your friend continued
“ ..Ok could you give me 300 0r 200?”
Finally you agreed to give him 100 birr.
It is also called the rejection-then-retreat technique

In 1975 a US social psychologist Robert Beno Cialdini with his

colleagues in their experiment asked students if they were volunteers

80
 to spend two hours per week, for two or more years, as unpaid
counselors at a local juvenile detention center.

No one agreed to this, but when they were then asked whether they
would be willing on just one occasion to visit a group of juveniles from
the detention center on a two-hour trip to the zoo, 50 per cent agreed,
compared with 17 per cent in the control group who received only the
second, smaller request.

4. Name calling: mocking and undermining the other party.

5. Plain Folk (common man) technique: using advertisers that represent

the “average” or the norm for example: most of the time political
communicator wears common, ordinary, clothes, use ordinary simple
languages, in face-to-face audio-visual communications that reflects
the inner common feelings of the people.

6. Appeal to authority (association): referring to prominent famous

figures, persons to support a position, an argument or the idea.

7. Band wagon: persuade people to do something by letting them know

others are all doing it. Saying “everyone is doing it” thus, “join the
crowd”.

8. Free or bargain: a speaker suggests that the public can get

something for nothing or almost nothing.

9. Card Stacking: describing only one side of the message.

10. Repetition: repeating the same message again and again

that viewers will remember the advertisement and will buy the
product.

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11. Testimonial: using words (quotations) of famous person to
persuade people. Example: using the famous word (YICHALAL! -
meaning “it is possible!” said by Haile G/Sillassie. This is done in an
effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority
or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own.

12. Glittering Generalities: using intensely emotionally

appealing words that are highly related with the values, beliefs or
attitudes and ideas of the audiences. And offering no evidence to the
audience. They appeal to emotions (such as: as love of country, home;
desire for peace, freedom, glory, honor, justice, religion, etc.) They
ask for approval without examination of the reason. Though the words
and phrases are vague and suggest different things to different
people, their connotation is always favorable: "The concepts and
programs of the communicator are always good, desirable, and
virtuous."

13. Reciprocity: social exchange. Reinforcing audiences by

expecting response from them. For example: A girl is selling chips
near a street and you asked her if it is delicious and the price. Then,
she told you that you can taste it by expecting that you will respond to

Activity – 3.1
this by buying it.

1. List commonly used persuasion techniques by your local media

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Mention unacceptable/immoral techniques of persuasion in your community
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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 Summary
Attitudes refer to opinion of people towards, objects, events, and people.
Psychologists have articulated that attitudes are formed through various
means. People may form attitudes based on rewards and punishments
according to operant conditioning theory. On the other hand, classical
conditioning theory maintains that associating people and events to
something may determine the attitude they form about those things. The
third approach, vicarious leaning, solely focuses on adapting prominent
people’s attitude, feelings, and thoughts.
Persuasion was also part of this module. It is an attempt to change the
already formed attitude, belief or opinion through deliberate acts. These
acts range from logical techniques such as glittering generalities, band
wagon, and appeal to authority, and card stacking to more logical
approaches that include two sided arguments.

Further Reading
Bohner, G., & Wänke, M. (2002). Attitudes and Attitude Change. London,
UK: Psychology Press.
Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1995). Attitude strength, attitude structure and
resistance to change. In R. Petty and J. Kosnik (Eds.), Attitude
Strength. (pp. 413–432). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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 UNIT FIVE
SOCIAL INFLUENCE
INTRODUCTION
In the preceding units, we hope, you have been familiarized with the
discipline social psychology, understood how we become socialized and
how we think about one another. In this unit now, you will read about
social forces such as conformity, compliance and obedience. Learning
these influences you may better understand why people feel and act as
they do. And you may yourself become less vulnerable to unwanted
manipulation and more adept at pulling your own strings.

Unit Objectives

After completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Understand about conformity and obedience
 Compare and contrast obedience and compliance
 Analyze the basic models of persuasion
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5.1. Conformity

What is conformity?
Social influence is the efforts made by one or more persons to change the
attitude or behavior of one or more others. Unfortunately, the efforts
made at social influence are extremely common part of life in today’s
world most of us practice many forms of social influence each day.
In the course of social interaction, we human beings almost always affect
and influence one another’s attitudes and behavior. We often attempt to
influence others and others still involve influencing us too. Studies on
social influence helps to illuminate the invisible forces by which our
social world move us about, hence, it has long been a central focus of
social psychology. The great truth about the power of external (social)
pressure would sufficiently explain our behavior if we were passive. Of
course, social situation does profoundly influence individuals. But
individuals also influence the social situation. Thus; we are both the
creatures and creators of our social world. Each of the following topic
deals with the preceding two great truths. Among which conformity,
compliance, obedience, and persuasion are included.

Conformity is the most common and pervasive form of

Conformity
social influence. It is generally defined as a change in Conformity is a social process in
which people tend to agree with
behavior or belief as a result of imagined group the positions of the majority.

pressure to much their actions. It is a type of social

influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behavior in order
to adhere to exiting social norms.

Asch’s Classic Study on Conformity

85
Solomon Asch in 1950 in his experiment asked his participants to give
visual judgments by identifying a line that matches one line in the 1 st
card from the second card having 3 lines of different lengths. After
identifying the line that match the first card from the second card, the
participants has to announce aloud the line identical with the “standard
line” from 3 different lines having different lengths. Here the first all 6
participants were confederates, they were instructed to announce the
wrong line. The last participant(s) was (were) real participant.

More than 35% of

participants chose
the wrong line to
conform to the
group

Finally, Solomon Asch found that even though the task is easy, about
35% of participants in each group conformed to the group-chose the
wrong line at least once. Some participants conformed almost all the
time, whereas others never did. They make wrong choice because others
did it. Asch varied the number of confederates and concluded that as few
as 3 people giving the wrong unanimous (the same) answer were enough
to produce conformity. If one of the confederates (participants instructed
to choose the wrong line) gave the correct answer, there would be
decrease in conformity by real participants.

5.1.1. The Basis of Conformity: Why Do People Conform?

Most often, we go along with others due to various reasons. Generally

speaking, there are two important motives seem to underlie our tendency
to conform, normative influence, and informational influence. Normative
influence is conformity based on a person’s desire to fulfill others’

86
expectation, often to gain acceptance. It is “going along with others” to
avoid rejection and liked by those we liked or respected, to stay in
people’s good graces, or to gain their approval. Informational influence
is conformity that results from accepting evidence about reality provided
by other people. This occurs when people desire to be right or accurate
and so that they obtain others’ acceptance. Therefore, when reality is
ambiguous, we tend to use others’ opinions and actions as a guide for our
behavior are right and accepted by others.

5.1.2. Factors Affecting Conformity

Many variables determine whether, and to what extent, conformity

occurs, however, the following have been considered as important ones.
a) Types of social norms
Social norms are rules indicating how individuals are expected to behave
in specific social situations. Social norms can be formal or informal in
nature. Besides, another important distinction is that between
descriptive norms and injective norms. Most people obey and conform to
the norms of their groups or societies most of the time.

Descriptive norms are ones simply indicate what most people do in a

given situation. They influence behavior by informing us about what is
generally seen as effective or adaptive behavior in that situation. In
contrast, injective norms specify what ought to be done; what is
approved or disapproved behavior in a given situation.
b) The difficulty or ambiguity of the task
Researchers have discovered that conformity did grow if the judgments
were difficult or if the subjects felt incompetent. If a task is difficult or
ambiguous for the members may perceive that they are not competent,
hence, tend to conform to those they assumed well-informed.

c) Relative perceived status of the group and the subject

87
 As you might suspect, higher status people tend to have more impact
compared to people of lower socio-economic status. In most cases the
influence of stigmatized or marginalized people tend to be less.

d) Group cohesiveness
Cohesiveness is a “we feeling”, the extent to which members of a
group are connected together (e.g. attraction for one another). The
more cohesive a group is, the more power it gains over its members.
e) Group size and unanimity
Social impact theory assumes that social influence increases with
group’s immediacy and size. But there are diminishing increments
with increasing numbers i.e. increasing the number of people beyond
yields diminishing returns conformity is highest when the group 3-5
people. Moreover, the puncture on a group’s unanimity deflates social
poser observing someone else’s dissent-even when it is wrong-can
increase our own independence.
f) Public responses
People conform more when they must respond publicly in from of
others rather than writing their ideas privately.
g) Prior commitment
Once having made a public commitment, people stick to it because
they are more accepting after commitment they hate to appear
indecisive.

5.2. Compliance
Compliance is a form of social influence in which one or more persons
attempt to influence one or more others through direct requests or direct
demands. Although compliance techniques take many different forms,
studies confirmed that they a rest to some degree on six basic principles.
These include liking/friendship, commitment/consistency, scarcity,
reciprocity, social validation, and authority.

5.2.1 Tactics of compliances

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These basic principles underline many techniques that professionals―
and we ourselves― use for gaining compliance from others. Based on
these principles, the specific compliance techniques are discussed as
follows:

A. Tactics based on liking: Using impression management

Most of us engage in active efforts to regulate how we appear to others
in order to appear in the most favorable light possible. Impression
management may take other-enhancement; efforts to make a target
person feel good in our presence, and self-enhancement; efforts to
boost our image.

B. Tactics based on commitment or consistency

Have you ever been approached at your local market a salesperson who
offered you free samples of various items? Actually, this person hopes
that once you have accepted the gift, you will like the taste of the food
and will be more willing to buy more. This is known as foot-in-the-door
technique; procedures for gaining compliance in which requesters begin
with a small request and then, granted rise to a larger one.

C. Tactic based on reciprocity

Reciprocity is a basic rule of social life we usually do unto others as they
have done unto us. One of these is the door-in-the-face technique; a
procedure for gaining compliance in which requesters begin with a
larger request and then, when this is reused, retreat to a smaller one.
“That-is-not-all” and “foot-in-the-mouth” techniques are also other
variations of reciprocity tactic. That-is-not-all is a technique for gaining
compliance in which requesters offer additional benefits to target
persons have deceived whether to comply with or reject specific
requests. Whereas, foot-in-the-mouth technique is a procedure for
gaining compliance in which the requester establishes some kind of
relationship, thereby increasing feeling of obligation to comply.
89
D. Tactic based in scarcity:- it is a general rules of life that things that
are scare, rare, or difficult to obtain are viewed as being more valuable at
than those that are plentiful or easy to obtain. One of the most common
of these is playing hard to get. It is a technique used for increasing
compliance by suggesting that a person, object item, place or outcome is
scarce and hard to obtain. A related technique based on the same
principle is one frequently used by retailers.

E. putting others in good mood― infusion of affect makes people to

feel happy and puts them in a better mood, and as a result, can increase
our tendency to like and say yes to various requests.

5.3. Obedience
Obedience is a response to demand or command of someone who is
perceived as having some form of authority. It is a form of social
influence in which or person simply orders one or more other to perform
some actions. It is a very similar phenomenon to conformity but it can be
distinguished by an emphasis on the impact of legitimacy (as opposed to
other social pressures); and it usually involves a single person-the
authority. For instance; the influence of a teacher on his/her students, a
manger on other workers, a commander on soldiers, a sports’ coach on
players; to name just a few, seek to influence others though order to do
something.

What is the difference between compliance and obedience?

Compliance is a response for requests of people having no authority to

order while obedience is a response for a request of people having
authority.

Historical accounts of obedience

The followings are some of historical events that typically reveal the
dangerous nature of blind obedience:

90
  Hundreds of converts of religious teachings of Reverend Jim Jones
obeyed him to commit a suicide in order to enter the heaven in
1978, in rural areas of Guyana, South America.

 During World War II, German soldiers executed millions of Jewish

by obeying Nazi officials.

 American soldiers massacred innocent people killed innocent

people in the Vietnamese village of May Lai by blind obedience.

Milligram’s experiment of obedience

Stanley Milligram (1963) wanted to know how participants will be

obedient. In his experiment, first, he placed an advertisement on local
news paper seeking male participants. He took volunteer participants
and told them that the aim of the study to know the effect of punishment
on learning rather than revealing the true nature of the experiment (how
teachers would be willing to administer the shock).
The volunteers were assigned as teachers and his associates or
confederates (full informed individuals about the study) were assigned as
learners. The “teachers” (participants) were instructed to teach learners
list of worlds to ask them these lists, and finally to administer an electric
shock when students make errors. As the number of errors increase, the
teacher is told to increase the level of electric shock ranging from 15-
volts (minor shock) through150- volts (strong shock) up to 450 (severe
shock).
The teachers were made to believe that they are administering shocks
but in reality the learners were not receiving shocks. Then the teachers
were given a sample of 45 volt of electric shock.
The learners look liked as they were receiving electric shock. They were
instructed to make errors consistently. Then the students were made to
respond to the shock vocally and actively (actually the learners’
responses were pre-recorded), their response increased with the
increasing level of shock.

91
The learners asked to let out from the study but the experimenter urged
the participants to keep on administering the shock. He told the
participants that the shock can be painful but would cause no harm.
Almost all teachers followed his instructions.

The result of the experiment showed that about two thirds (26
participants) obeyed to deliver shocks up to 450 volts.
Explanations for obedience

According to Milgram, there are different factors that increase the

likelihood of obedience to authorities. Proximity to the victim and
authority figure, socialization, assumption of responsibility, and other
related factors best explain why some people obey and why others do
not.

The first factor is proximity or closeness to the victim or the authority

figure. Victim proximity, closeness of the participant to the victim, often
lowers obedience to harm the victim. Similarly, the nearness of the
authority figure to the participant (authority proximity) increases
obedience to authorities.

The other factor is responsibility, believing that the authority figure will
take the blame. Obedience tends to be high if the authority figure is
responsible for any harm. However, level of obedience tends to be
decrease if the person is responsible for his/her own act.

Socialization, if people have been socialized from child hood to be

obedient, increases the probability of unquestionable obedience to people
on position.

Finally, foot in the door effect, the tendency of people to accept major
demand once they have accepted minor demand, is another factor behind
obedience.

92 Activity
1. What is conformity?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
 Summary
Conformity, compliance and obedience are much related terms in social
influence. However, the degree of social influence differs. Conformity is
simply accepting the views, beliefs, and thoughts of others. Similarly,
compliance is a form of social influence in which a person responds for
demands of people’s requests willingly. However, obedience refers to
responding to the demands of people in authority.
Self-Assessment Question (Unit Four)
Direction: Write True for Correct Statements and “False” for the incorrect
Statements.
_____1. Stanley Miligram is known for his experiment on conformity.
_____2. Compliance is responding to demands based on one’s own willingness.
_____3. Informational influence occurs when we simply follow others without
consideration.
_____4. Reciprocity tactics base on scarcity.
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_____5. It is believed that conformity increases when the task is relatively
difficult.
 Further Reading
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority: An experimental view.
London, Great Britain: Harper and Row.
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American,
193(5), 31-35.

Chapter Six
Stereotype, Prejudice, &
Discrimination
Objectives

By the end of this chapter you should be able to:

 Define key terms;

 Define different types of discrimination and know the
theories of freed for prejudice;
 Acknowledge the role the environment plays in
prejudice;
94  Recognize the effects of prejudice; and
 Understand how the contact hypothesis encourages the
reduction of prejudice.
6.1. Stereotype
Stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination are
overlapping terms. Stereotype refers to overgeneralized Stereotype
Negative or
thought, attitude or belief towards a group and their positive
members. Statements like “the British are reserved…the generalized
Germans are serious…Ethiopians are aggressive…women belief about a
don’t like mathematics…males are aggressive…etc.” group and its
shows stereotype. In stereotypes people sometimes give positive
attributes to the whole members of a group but in most cases, the
negative attributes predominate. In Ethiopia, the Eastern Ethiopian
communities are considered as outgoing and lovely, the Southern as
hardworking, and the Northern as aggressive and war hero.

Sometimes, stereotypic thoughts may have some truths but the problem
is that they are overly generalized and inflexible. Negative stereotypes
pave a way for prejudice and discrimination.

The stereotypes cab be:

- Gender stereotype
- Ethnic stereotype
- Racial stereotype
- Religious stereotype:
- Cultural stereotype

Stereotype
Generalization
Prejudice Discrimination
Negative Negative behavior
belief

Stereotype is closely associated with social categorization, the process

of seeing oneself or others as a member of a social group. Based on
social categorization, social identity develops. Social identity refers to a
process through which we extend our identity from the self to other
group members, from “I” to “we”. Group memberships not only help
define our self and tell us who we are, but they also connect us to some
people (fellow in-group members) at the same time as they divide us from
others (out-group members).

Ingroup

95
Social Identity Theory

Henry Tajfel asserted that individuals want to enhance their self-esteem

through group membership. This leads to ingroup bias. This process is
related to:

 In-group favoritism (which occurs even in minimal intergroup

situations) and out-group hostility, which as we will see requires
other ingredients such as threat or direct inter- group conflict. Only
when in-group preference is joined by threat or conflict do people
shift from simply rewarding the in-group to actively punishing the
out-group.

Discuss if there is any type of prejudice that you have observed in the pastoral and agro
pastoral community in line with the forms of prejudice?

6.2. Prejudice
Prejudice literally means a prejudgment (usually
negative) toward the members of some group, based Prejudice
Negative
solely on their membership of that group. According to attitude
Allport (1954), prejudice has three components: towards a
group and its
individual
 Affective: feeling (usually negative) about an
object/person (for example, hostility).
 Cognitive: belief about a particular group or person.
 Behavioral/cognitive: intention to act in a particular way. Allport
believed there

were various stages that prejudicial behavior goes through:

 antilocution (hostile talk, for instance),

 avoidance,
 discrimination,
 physical attack,
 extermination

Types of Prejudice

 Sexism: this is prejudice and discrimination on the basis of a per

son’s gender.
 Racism: this is prejudice and discrimination on the basis race (e.g.
Black/white) or ethnicity.

96
  Ageism: this is prejudice and discrimination on the basis of age.

Other forms of discrimination include:

 Reluctance to help: to maintain disadvantage individuals,

organizations or societal structure may show a reluctance to help
minority groups in or der to benefit their cause.
 Tokenism: a small effort is made to give the impression that help is
being offered to the minority group in or der to avoid accusations of
prejudice or discrimination.
 Reverse discrimination: discrimination which favors a minority
group may have short term benefits.

6.2. Discrimination
Discrimination is, therefore, this behavioral display of prejudice.

Forms of Prejudice and Discrimination

a) Sexism

This is prejudice and discrimination on the basis of a person’s gender.

Usually this focuses on discrimination against women. It is promoted by
the existence of stereotypes and sex role behavior where there is a
shared image of a social group and appropriate sex role behaviors. This
may have originated because structurally men held more powerful
positions. In psychology, evidence of sexism is found in the very fact that
the most eminent historical figures are men.

Additionally, there is a division of traditionally female fields (for example,

“people fields” such as educational or clinical psychology) and male fields
(academia or more “scientific” areas such as cognitive psychology).
Paludi (1992) believes this may be because the “gatekeepers” in
psychology are men and they determine the career paths of others.
Sexism is also maintained by the presentation of females within the
media (for example, ideal body sizes for women but not men), and the
process of attribution.

b) Racism

This is prejudice and discrimination on the basis of ethnicity or race. It

has accounted for many acts of widespread genocide and in social
psychology racism has focused on anti-Black prejudice, largely within the
United States. New racism suggests that negative attitudes and
behaviors express themselves more subtly than was previously the case

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but nonetheless exist as aversive, symbolic, modern, ambivalent or
regressive racism. All of these still represent negative attitudes or
behaviours towards a racial out-group. Detecting racism can therefore be
difficult but can be found in the descriptions given of situations, of words
used, in schemas or stereotypical associations.

c) Ageism

This is prejudice and discrimination on the basis of age. Generally the

negativity will be expressed towards the older generation, who are
perceived to make little contribution to society compared to the young.

6.4. Explaining Prejudice and

Discrimination
Authoritarian personality theory

Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson & Sanford (1950) aimed at

studying the bases of prejudice. They used interviews focusing on
political ideas and childhood experiences and projective tests and scales
including the measurement of antisemitism, ethnocentrism, political and
economic conservatism and potential for fascism (F scale).

They found that a certain type of personality – the authoritarian

personality pattern characterized by hostility, rigidity and inflexibility,
intolerance. Authoritarian leaders mostly cling unto traditional values
and respects authority that may have originated in childhood. The
authors believed that this personality pattern can be traced back to
unconscious early childhood experiences.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

Frustration-aggression hypothesis states that frustration always leads to

aggression and that aggression is always caused by frustration. When
frustration cannot therefore be directly expressed, then it is displaced
indirectly onto others (hence one finds a scapegoat!). In this way
prejudice is cathartic as it allows the release of emotional energy.

Dogmatism/closed-mindedness and belief congruence theories

Dogmatism or closed-mindedness theory states that close-mindedness

accounts for prejudice because such individuals have a rigid and
intolerant cognitive style that predisposes them to be prejudiced simply
because it is a way of thinking. There is a resistance to change when

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encountering contradictory beliefs and a need to retain the existing belief
system.

In his belief congruence theory, Rokeach then proposed that prejudice

derives from dissimilar views amongst people (there is incongruence).

Social Identity Theory

Tajfel’s minimal group paradigm and social identity theory (1957, 1959)
Found that when divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice
results simply from the awareness that there is an “outgroup” (the other
group). When boys were asked to allocate points to other (which might
be converted to rewards) and were told that they were either part of
their own group or the outgroup, then they displayed a strong ingroup
preference. That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys
who they believed to be in the same group as themselves.

This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s social identity theory
(1979), which states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of
personal and social identity, and this is partly achieved by emphasizing
the desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between
other “lesser” groups. As such, prejudice occurs directly as a result.

Realistic conflict

According to Sherif, Harvey, White,Hood & Sherif (1961) prejudice arises

from conflict between groups, especially in the presence of competition.
Sherif’s robber’s cave experiment showed that groups of unknown boys
went through three stages when placed in summer camp. First, group
formation (they divided themselves into two distinct groups), then
intergroup competition and finally conflict reduction. Most critically in
terms of research on prejudice, it was found that when a tournament
took place there was an apparent conflict of interests as both groups
aimed to win and since this was not possible hostility emerged. Thus,
prejudice and discrimination could result from such a conflict in the
environment.

Effects of Prejudice

Dehumanization

People have their dignity taken away; they are seen only as a group
member based on shared characteristics and not as individual human
beings.

Stigma

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Individuals are seen only in term of some negative characteristic (within
the social context) that they are believed to possess. These may be
visible, such as race, or “controllable,” such as smoking.

Self-worth, self-esteem and wellbeing

Discrimination and prejudice may decrease a sense of self-worth, lower-

self-esteem and threaten psychological (and physical) wellbeing, for
example, anxiety and depression.

Stereotype threat

We feel threatened by the fact that we think we will be treated stereo-

typically and judged according to negative stereotypes, and as a result
behave accordingly.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Prejudicial expectations influence social interaction such that the behav-

iour of others may be changed so that it conforms so that set expectation.
Thus, the self fulfils the prophecy or expectation.

5.4. Reduction of Prejudice and

Discrimination
People in modern societies are evaluated and rated in terms of a great
many attributes, including race, ethnic membership, gender, occupation,
income, education, accumulated wealth, age, physical attractiveness,
sexual orientation, disabilities, and social skills. Conceived in this
fashion, individuals and groups are ranked from high to low and from
better to worse, which results in differences in power, privilege, and
status. Research findings show these differences usually result in
prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination. Social psychologists have
investigated strategies that people can use to reducing these prejudices,
stereotypes and discrimination. Therefore, in this section we will
consider some of these actions

Whatever the precise roots of prejudice, stereotype and discrimination,

there can be no doubt that they are negative and brutalizing forces in
human affairs. Reducing these social phenomena and countering their
effects, therefore, are important tasks. In this final section of the unit, we

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will discuss the findings of careful research that help to effectively
reduce negative prejudices, stereotyping, and discrimination.

Contact hypothesis

Allport (1954a) proposed that prejudice can be reduced when there is

contact between groups, and this can include equal status contact and
the pursuit of common (superordinate) goals. Segregation leads to
ignorance and reinforcement of negative stereotyping, but prejudice can
be reduced by ensuring contact between groups such that they come to
realize that there is some equal status and that each group is made up of
individuals. If conflicting groups are made to co-operate with each other
to achieve a common goal, then this may also reduce prejudice.

Education

Prejudice and discrimination are also reduced when people know about
equality and freedom of people and showing them how these values
conflict with stereotyping others. In some psychological studies, people
were forced to confront the inconsistency between the positive values of
equality and freedom that they hold and their negative perceptions of out
group members. When their inconsistencies were shown by their
contradictory statements on a questionnaire, this often reduced their
prejudices.

Strongly condemning prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination

Prejudice and discrimination are more likely to be reduced, when people

strongly condemn prejudices and discrimination. When public norms
against various forms of prejudice are more prominent, this can reduce
discrimination.

Activity 7.3
1. Discuss “super-
ordinate goals” and
how it can be used
to reduce prejudice,
stereotypes and
discrimination. Use
example while you
are discussing

_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
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_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
_____________________
 Summary
Dear learner, following are some of the major points we discussed in
this unit.
 Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination permeate the world’s
cultures and exact significant economic, social, and psychological
costs from their targets. Intolerance toward members of other
groups is also costly for those holding these prejudices and
stereotypes, as well as for societies in which discrimination exists.
 Prejudices are the generalized attitudes we have towards members
of particular social groups, stereotypes are the beliefs we have
about members of social groups, and discrimination is behavior
directed towards people on the basis of their group membership.
 People high in social dominance orientation want their own groups
to dominate other groups and to be socially and materially superior
to them. As a result, they are more likely to hold negative
prejudices against and stereotypes of other groups.
 We often express or adopt the prejudices, stereotypes, and
discriminatory tendencies held by those whose social approval we
seek.

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  Individuals with conformist tendencies, who are high-self-monitors,
or who are uncertain of their group standing are especially likely to
adopt their group’s existing prejudices.
 Because norms regarding prejudice and discrimination change over
time and differ across locations, attitudes and behaviors—at least
as they are publicly expressed—change as well.
 Negative prejudices, stereotypes, and discrimination can help us
manage our personal and social identities. For example, by
scapegoating members of weak minority groups or by elevating our
groups over other groups, we can view ourselves in a more
favorable light.
 Persons with high self-esteem are particularly likely to derogate
members of out-groups, but only when their high self-regard is
threatened.
 Stereotyping allows us to gain potentially useful information for
relatively little cognitive effort.
 Stereotyping others helps us interpret ambiguous behavior,
provides ready explanations for why certain others act as they do,
and suggests standards for how we should evaluate members of
different groups.
 People are more likely to rely on their stereotypes when they have
a high need for structure and when their moods and emotions leave
them unmotivated or unable to process information about others
thoroughly.
 Situations that demand a lot of cognitive resources also make
stereotyping more likely.
 Negative stereotypes brought to mind by overhearing an ethnic
slur can lead people to evaluate the targeted person less favorably,
but not when the target’s individual characteristics appear
incompatible with the stereotypes. Illustrating another kind of
interaction, only persons already possessing strong, unfavorable
stereotypes tend tobe negatively influenced by ethnic slurs.

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 Self-Assessment Questions (Unit Seven)
Direction: Choose the Best Answer from the given alternatives and
circle the letter of your choice.
1. A negative prejudgment of a group is
A. Stereotype C. Prejudice
B. Discrimination D. Social Belief
2. Over generalized belief towards the pastoralists is:
A. Prejudice C. Discrimination
B. Stereotype D. A False Belief

3. An unjustifiable negative treatment toward a person because of his

ethnicity:
A. Discrimination C. racism.
B. Prejudice D. Sexism

4. Simply categorizing the pastoral community based on their clan leads

to conflict and prejudice. This is explained by:
A. Socio-biological theory C. Terror management theory
B. Social identity theory D. Socio-cultural theory

Further Reading

Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behavior. Social Science Information, 13(2),
65-93.
Smidt, W.C. &Kinfe Abraham (Eds) (2007). Discussing Conflict in Ethiopia: Conflict
management and resolution. Zurich, Germany: LIT Verlag.

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