The concept of the shape of the Earth. Ellipsoid/geoid/sphere.

Geoid – shape that the force of gravity acts everywhere perpendicular to its surface.
All points on a geoid surface have the same effective potential (The sum of gravitational
potential energy and centrifugal potential energy).
For normal navigational needs, it is assumed that Earth is a sphere. With the development
of radionavigation and satellite systems, there is a need to treat the Earth as a rotary
ellipsoid – for greater accuracy.
An Earth ellipsoid – mathematical figure approximating the shape of the Earth. Used as a
reference frame for computations in geodesy, astronomy and geosciences.
Ellipsoid – a body formed by the rotation of the ellipse around the minor axis.
On the ellipsoid:
Equator and parallels are circles
The meridians are ellipses
The value of the ellipse’s radius varies according to the latitude

Earth as a sphere:
The small circles - a circle that is found on the surface of the globe as a result of cutting
it with a plane that does not pass through the centre of the globe.
The great circles – created on the surface of the globe as a result of the intersection of its
plane passing through the centre of the globe.
Equator – a large circle whose plan is perpendicular to the axis of the Earth and passes
through the centre of the Earth.
Parallel – a small circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the Earth and parallel
to the plane of the equator.
Meridian – half of the great circle running from the North Pole to the South Pole. It is
created on the surface of the globe as a result of the intersection of its plane passing
through both poles of Earth & through the centre of Earth.

Definition of the latitude and longitude. Difference in latitude and

longitude.
Latitude φ - the middle angle between the plane of the equator and the line joining the
point with the centre of the Earth – the angular distance north or south from the equator of
a point on the earth’s surface, measured on the meridian of the point.
Longitude λ – the angle between the plane of the Prime (Greenwich) meridian and the
plane of the meridian passing through the point – the angular distance of the meridian of a
given point from the Prime meridian measured at the Equator.
The difference in longitude – difference in the angular distance between the meridians of
two points from the Prime meridian.
Δλ = (±) λB – (±) λA
If the value is greater than 180*, it must be completed to 360* and the result is given the
opposite sign.

Meridian Sailing/Great Circle Sailing, Parallel Sailing (a)

Meridian Sailing/Great Circle Sailing – The meridian is a Great Circle, hence the change in
latitude by 1 minute corresponds to the distance equal to 1 nautical mile.
Δφ’= D [Nm]
Δλ =0
Parallel Sailing – When we sail along parallel of latitude, we are dealing with a distance
called navigational departure.
Departure ‘a’ – The length of the arc of any parallel between two points lying of the
same parallel, expressed in nautical miles.

𝐚
Δλ = [Nm]
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛗
 Distance & speed units in navigation
Nautical/Sea Mile (Nm) – the length of one minute of a large circle, such as an equator
or meridian (with assumption: Earth is a sphere).
Based on the spherical shape of the Earth, its circumference is equal to
360*×60 =21600 arc minutes, hence:

1 Nm = part of the mean circumference (obwód) of the Earth

1 Nm =

1 Nm = = 1,852 km
In 1928, the International Hydrographic Organization established 1 Nm as 1’ along meridian at
latitude 44*30’.
1 Nm = 1852 m = 1’ along meridian at latitude φ = 44*30’
Cable (cbl) – a unit of distance representing one tenth of the nautical mile.

1 cbl = = 185,2 m

Other English units:

INCH  1” = 2,54 cm (length, draft)
FOOT  1’ = 12” = 30,48 cm (length, draft, depth)
YARD  3’ = 36” = 91,44 cm (length)
FATHOM  6’ = 2 yards = 1,828 m (draft)

Knot (kn) – unit of speed corresponding

to the distance travelled 1 Nm in 1 hr.
 Systems of counting directions/point system
360* system (circular) – from 000* to 360* clockwise by E, S, W up to N
(always 3 digits)
180* system:
1) from 000* to 180* by E – half NE – and from 000* to
180* by W – half NW

2) from 180* to 000* by E – half SE – and from 180* to

000* by W – half SW

90* system (quarter system) – directions counted from N & S by E & W – to 90*.

Angle quarters:
- N to E (0*-90*)
- S to E
- S to W
- N to W
Compass point system – the oldest way of determining directions at sea, used to determine
the direction of winds and sea currents. 360* has been divided to 32 points, so 1 point has
degrees.

Course, heading, bearing, relative bearing, opposite directions

True Heading (Hdg), True Course – The angle between the north of the N-S line and the
fore part of the line of symmetry of the ship.
Course is not a line!  It is an angle & its angular measure is degrees.
True Bearing (TB) – The angle between the north of the true meridian and the line
connecting the observer to the object (in the 360* system).
Opposite Heading (oHdg) – the opposite course differing from True Heading by 180*.
Opposite Bearing (oBrg) – the opposite bearing differing from True Bearing by 180*.
Relative Bearing (RB) – clockwise angle in degrees from the heading of the vessel to a
straight line drawn from the observer (object).
For RB, the reference line is the longitudinal line of symmetry of the ship, not the N-S line,
not like for Hdg & Brg.

Systems of counting the Relative Bearings:

- 360* system – angle from the forward part of the ship’s symmetry axis to
the right of the line connecting the observer to the target object  rarely
used.
- 180* system – angle from the forward part of the ship’s symmetry axis to
the right or left to the line connecting the observer to the target object (max.
value 180*)  most frequently used
- 90* system (quarter system) – angle from the fore or aft part of the ships
symmetry ais to the right or left to the line connecting the observer to the
target object (max. value 90*)
For example: RB = 250* = P 110* = P 70* Stern
 Speeds, measuring line, log correction factor, log percentage
correction
Speed  scalar, magnitude only.
Velocity  vector, both magnitude and direction.
Linear speed  rate of motion in the straight line.
Angular velocity  change of direction per time

Speed Through Water (STW) – distance passed on the surface of water covered by the
time at which this distance has been travelled.

Speed Over Ground (SOG) – the distance passed over the ground (in relation to the land
reference objects), covered by the time at which it has been travelled.

STW = SOG  no current impact

STW > SOG  current moving the opposite direction
STW < SOG  current moving the same direction

Course Through Water (CTW) – direction of the ship’s movement throught the water,
defined by the angle between the meridian through its position and the direction of the ship’s
movement through the water, expressed in angular units from True North.
Course Over Ground (COG) – direction of the ship’s movement over the ground, defined by
the angle between the meridian through its position and the direction of the ship’s movement
over the ground, expressed in angular units from True North.
Leeway angle – the angle between the line of symmetry of the ship and the line of the
track through the water (wind on the left side  [+], wind of the right side  [-]).
The angle of the leeway can be estimated by observing the angle between the stern part
of the line of symmetry of the ship and the track of the ship.
Set (direction) & drift (speed) of the current – factors inducing the angle between the track
through the water and track over the ground.

The relationship between the log percentage correction and the log correction factor:
 Depth & Underkeel Clearance (UKC)
Depth – distance between the water surface and the bottom
UKC – distance between the bottom of the ship (keel) and the sea floor
Draft – distance between the water surface and the keel

Magnetic declination (variation), compass deviation, compass error,

gyrocompass error
Magnetic Variation (d) – a horizontal angle at a given location on the surface of the Earth
between the geographic and magnetic meridian. If it’s E  +, if it’s W  -
Compass Deviation – caused by the ship’s magnetism.
Compass error – sum of both Magnetic Variation and Compass Deviation.
Gyrocompass error – angle between the true N-S line (the Meridian) and gyro N-S line.
 Range of lights, characteristics of navigation lights
Types of lights:
- fix light - continuously on
- flashing light – flashes at regular intervals; light < darkness
- occulting light – totally eclipsed at regular intervals; light > darkness
- isophase light – flashes at regular intervals; light = darkness
- alternating light – shows different colours alternately
- sector light – different colours in different sectors.

Example of light characteristics:

FL(3)WR 10 – (fl1, ec1)x2, fl1, ec5.
W053* - 248* (195*), R248* - 323* (75*)
fl – flash
ec – eclipse
lt – light
Geographical visibility – theoretical distance of seeing the light.
 Coefficients of magnetic compass deviation:
A, B, C, D, E

δ = A + BsinCHdg + CcosCHdg + Dsin2CHdg + Ecos2CHdg

A – permament coefficient due to misalignment (niewspółosiowość) Compass North to the

ships keel line or asymmetrical arrangements of the soft iron horizontally in the ship
B – semi-circular forces
Fore & aft components of the permanent magnetic field due to hard iron and the induced
magnetism in asymmetrical vertical iron port or starboard of the compass
C – semi-circular forces
Athwartship component of the permanent magnetic field due to hard iron and the induced
magnetism in asymmetrical vertical iron port or starboard of the compass
D – quadrantal forces
Induced magnetism in symmetrical arrangements of horizontal soft iron (e & a iron)
E – quadrantal forces
Induced magnetism in asymmetrical arrangement of horizontal soft iron (b & d iron)