5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

• Check Sheet
Seven Basic Tools of Quality is a designation
given to a fixed set of graphical techniques • Control Charts
identified as being most helpful in
troubleshooting issues related to quality. • Pareto Chart

• Scatter Diagram
They are called basic because they are suitable for people
with little formal training in statistics and because they can • Cause and Effect Diagram
be used to solve the vast majority of quality-related issues.
• Flow Chart

• Histogram

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Check Sheet Example of Check Sheet
A generic Tool which can be used for collection and analysis
of data – A structured and prepared form that can be
adapted for wide variety of issues

When to Use a Check Sheet

 When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same
person or at the same location
 When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events,
problems, defects, defect location, defect causes
 When collecting data from a production process
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Check Sheet

How to prepare? • The check sheet, also called a ‘Defect Concentration

Diagram’, is basically a data collection sheet. It is a simple
 Decide what event or problem will be observed – Develop
tool used to record data for further processing.
operational definitions
 Decide when data will be collected and for how long How to do it
 Design the form – Set it up so that data can be recorded simply by
making check () marks or Xs or similar symbols • Identify your situation and the quality measurement needs.
 Label all spaces on the form. • Design the Check Sheet to collect the data.
 Test the check sheet for a short trial period to be sure it collects
the appropriate data and is easy to use. • Ensure that the people who are going to use the sheets know
 Each time the targeted event or problem occurs, record data on the exactly how to use them.
check sheet. • Use the sheets, as planned.

Check Sheet Pin Diameter Check Sheet

• An Ishikawa Diagram may be helpful in selecting factors to consider.

• The data gathered in a checklist can be used as input to a Pareto chart for
ease of analysis.
• Note that the data does not directly provide solutions.
• Knowing that “wrong letters" is the biggest cause of error only starts the
search for the root cause of " wrong letters " situations.
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Control Charts
Example of Control Charts
A graphical technique to study the changes to a process
over time
When to Use a Control Chart
 When controlling ongoing processes by finding and correcting
problems as they occur
 When predicting the expected range of outcomes from a process
 When determining whether a process is stable (in statistical control)
 When analyzing patterns of process variation from special causes
(non-routine events) or common causes (built into the process)
 When determining whether your quality improvement project
should aim to prevent specific problems or to make fundamental
changes to the process

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

How to prepare?
Pareto Chart
 Choose the appropriate control chart for your data
 Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and plotting A graphical technique used to identify the significance of
data individual factors
 Collect data, construct your chart and analyze the data
 Look for “out-of-control signals” on the control chart. When one is When to Use a Pareto chart
identified, mark it on the chart and investigate the cause
 Document how you investigated, what you learned, the cause and  When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes
how it was corrected. in a process
 Continue to plot data as they are generated – As each new data
point is plotted, check for new out-of-control signals  When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on
 When you start a new control chart, the process may be out of the most significant
control. If so, the control limits calculated from the first 20 points  When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components
are conditional limits. When you have at least 20 sequential points
from a period when the process is operating in control, recalculate  When communicating with others about your data
control limits.
 5/2/2021

Pareto Analysis (80-20 Rule)

13 14

Pareto Charts Pareto Charts

• A Pareto chart contains both bars and a line graph. The lengths of the bars • These "vital few“ causes can be separated from the "trivial many“ using a
represent frequency or cost (time or money), and are arranged with longest diagram known as a Pareto chart and to concentrate on the vital few for
bars on the left and the shortest to the right. The cumulative total is improvement.
represented by the line. • A Pareto diagram indicates which problem we should solve first in
• This is a simple statistical chart, also known as Pareto diagram, but very eliminating defects and improving the operation.
useful in quality control. When to Use
• Alfredo Pareto was an economist who noted that a few people  When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a
controlled most of a nation's wealth. process.
 When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on the
• "Pareto's Law" has also been applied to many other areas, like materials
most significant.
management, quality control etc.
 When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific components.
• In quality control-where a few causes are responsible for most of the
 When communicating with others about your data.
problems.
 5/2/2021

Pareto Analysis (80-20 Rule)

Pareto Analysis
TRIVIAL MANY
Pareto Chart (named after Vilfredo Pareto) VITAL FEW

He observed and stated that about 80% of the country’s wealth is

occupied by 20% of the population. This observation later named
as 80-20 rule. This rule is also applied to quality control. About 20%
causes/reasons are responsible for 80% defects in a shop.

Only a few causes are responsible for majority of the problems.

These few (20%) are known as ‘vital few’ , whereas the rest many
are known as ‘trivial many’. While vital few occurs frequently, trivial
many occurs infrequently. Thus, one should focus on vital few not
on trivial many.

5/2/2021 17 5/2/2021 18
 5/2/2021

Pareto Chart Basic Tools of TQM

Example of Pareto Chart
• The left-side vertical axis of the Pareto chart is labeled Frequency (the
number of counts for each category), the right-side vertical axis of the
Pareto chart is the cumulative percentage, and the horizontal axis of the
Pareto chart is labeled with the group names of your response variables.
• To take the example in the next slide, in order to lower the number of
defects by 80%, it is sufficient to concentrate and analyze the causes of
defects in the first three workstations.

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

How to prepare? Example
 Decide what categories you will use to group items
 Decide what measurement is appropriate. Common measurements are Complaint Count Complaint Count Cumulative Count Cumulative %
frequency, quantity, cost and time Defect 1 65 Defect 5 789 789 45.8

 Decide what period of time the Pareto chart will cover: One work cycle? One Defect 2 109 Defect 8 621 1410 81.9

full day? A week? Defect 3 12 Defect 2 109 1519 88.2

Defect 4 30 Defect 1 65 1584 92.0
 Collect the data, recording the category each time (Or assemble data that
Defect 5 789 Defect 9 45 1629 94.6
already exist)
Defect 6 27 Defect 4 30 1659 96.3
 Subtotal the measurements for each category
Defect 7 9 Defect 6 27 1686 97.9
 Determine the appropriate scale for the measurements you have collected. Defect 8 621 Defect 10 15 1701 98.8
The maximum value will be the largest subtotal from step 5. Mark the scale Defect 9 45 Defect 3 12 1713 99.5
on the left side of the chart Defect 10 15 Defect 7 9 1722 100.0
 Construct and label bars for each category. Place the tallest at the far left,
then the next tallest to its right and so on. If there are many categories with
small measurements, they can be grouped as “other”
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Scatter Diagram
Example
Used to identify the relation between variables, by plotting
pairs of numerical data, with one variable on each axis
Defects
900 100.0

800 90.0 When to Use a Scatter Diagram

80.0
700
70.0
 When you have paired numerical data
600

Cumulative %
60.0
500  When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each
Count

50.0
400
40.0 value of your independent variable
300
30.0
200 20.0  When trying to determine whether the two variables are related
100 10.0
0 0.0 o When trying to identify potential root causes of problems
o When determining whether two effects that appear to be related
both occur with the same cause
o When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control chart

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Example of Scatter Diagram How to prepare?
 Collect pairs of data where a relationship is suspected
 Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the
dependent variable on the vertical axis – For each pair of data, put a dot or
a symbol where the x-axis value intersects the y-axis value (If two dots fall
together, put them side by side, touching, so that you can see both)
 Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the data
clearly form a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are correlated.
You may wish to use regression or correlation analysis now.
Otherwise, complete the following steps
 Divide points on the graph into four quadrants. If there are X points on the
graph,
o Count X/2 points from top to bottom and draw a horizontal line.
o Count X/2 points from left to right and draw a vertical line.
o If number of points is odd, draw the line through the middle point.
 Count the points in each quadrant. Do not count points on a line.
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

How to prepare? (contd.) Example

 Add the diagonally opposite quadrants. Find the smaller sum and the total
of points in all quadrants.
A = points in upper left + points in lower right
B = points in upper right + points in lower left
Q = the smaller of A and B
N=A+B
 Look up the limit for N on the trend test table.
o If Q is less than the limit, the two variables are related.
o If Q is greater than or equal to the limit, the pattern could have occurred
from random chance
A = 9 + 9 = 18
Q=6
B=3+3= 6
N = A + B = 24 Limit = 6

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Scatter Diagram Considerations Scatter Diagram Considerations (contd.)
Here are some examples of situations in which you might use a scatter  Even if the scatter diagram shows a relationship, do not assume that one
diagram: variable caused the other. Both may be influenced by a third variable.
 Variable A is the temperature of a reaction after 15 minutes. Variable B  When the data are plotted, the more the diagram resembles a straight line,
measures the color of the product. You suspect higher temperature the stronger the relationship.
makes the product darker. Plot temperature and color on a scatter  If a line is not clear, statistics (N and Q) determine whether there is
diagram. reasonable certainty that a relationship exists. If the statistics say that no
 Variable A is the number of employees trained on new software, and relationship exists, the pattern could have occurred by random chance.
variable B is the number of calls to the computer help line. You suspect  If the scatter diagram shows no relationship between the variables,
that more training reduces the number of calls. Plot number of people consider whether the data might be stratified.
trained versus number of calls.  If the diagram shows no relationship, consider whether the independent (x-
 To test for autocorrelation of a measurement being monitored on a axis) variable has been varied widely. Sometimes a relationship is not
control chart, plot this pair of variables: Variable A is the measurement apparent because the data don’t cover a wide enough range.
at a given time. Variable B is the same measurement, but at the previous  Think creatively about how to use scatter diagrams to discover a root
time. If the scatter diagram shows correlation, do another diagram cause.
where variable B is the measurement two times previously. Keep  Drawing a scatter diagram is the first step in looking for a relationship
increasing the separation between the two times until the scatter between variables.
diagram shows no correlation.
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

How to prepare?
Cause and Effect Diagram  Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the center right of the
paper. Draw a box around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.
Also called Ishikawa or Fishbone Diagram  Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is
difficult use generic headings:
Used to structure the brain Storming Session – to sort ideas o Methods
into useful categories o Machines (equipment)
o People (manpower)
Many Possible Causes are identified for a stated problem o Materials
and the effect on the problem are identified o Measurement
o Environment
 Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow.
When to Use a Cause and Effect Diagram  Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. Ask: “Why does this
happen?” As each idea is given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from
 When identifying possible causes for a problem the appropriate category. Causes can be written in several places if they
relate to several categories.
 Especially when a team’s thinking tends to fall into ruts
 Again ask “why does this happen?” about each cause. Write sub–causes
branching off the causes. Continue to ask “Why?” and generate deeper
levels of causes. Layers of branches indicate causal relationships.

Cause-Effect Diagram (or Fish Bone

Cause-Effect Diagram (or Fish
Diagram or Ishikawa Diagram)
Bone Diagram)

5/2/2021 35 5/2/2021 36
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Example of Cause and Effect Diagram Example of Cause and Effect Diagram

Cause & Effect diagram

Personnel and resources Management
How is a fishbone diagram constructed?
Unskilled staff Poor core banking
Poor motivation & reward system
software

Lack of Skilled manpower Lack of proper accountability This fishbone diagram was drawn by a manufacturing team to try to
Lack of training understand the source of periodic iron contamination. The team used
Unethical/misuse of power
Lack of hardware support
Nepotism the six generic headings to prompt ideas. Layers of branches show
Long replenishment cycle Unskilled
Lack of Chain of command thorough thinking about the causes of the problem.
Officials
Old Traditional Approach
Poor SMS banking service Inadequate Branches This is a three step process.
and ATM booth

Long Separate Counter for Step 1

Lack of waiting time separate operation
Lack of cleanliness
communication skill
Bad
decoration
No help desks Write down the effect to be investigated and draw the 'backbone' arrow to it.
Lack of
Poor technical
accommod Congested Negative attitude
Poor Customer In the example shown below the effect is 'Incorrect deliveries‘.
knowledge Service in
ation space Work space towards customer
for waiting
Government banks
Lack of Back dated Lengthy processing
responsiveness customer
furniture Poor Gas
Long waiting time Milage
Others Environment Process

Fig.: Fishbone diagram on Poor Customer Service in Govt. banks in Bangladesh

 5/2/2021

How is a fishbone diagram constructed? How is a fishbone diagram constructed?

Step 2
Step 3

• Identify all the broad areas of enquiry in which the causes of the effect being
• This step requires the greatest amount of work and imagination because
investigated may lie. For incorrect deliveries the diagram may then become:
it requires you (or you and your team) to write in all the detailed possible
causes in each of the broad areas of enquiry. Each cause identified should
Measurement Material Method be fully explored for further more specific causes which, in turn,
contribute to them.

Iron in • You continue this process of branching off into more and more directions
Product until every possible cause has been identified. The final result will
represent a sort of a 'mind dump' of all the factors relating to the effect
being explored and the relationships between them.
Manpower Machine Environment

Types of CE diagram

• Cause Enumeration
– This identifies one by one all possible causes from
brainstorming sessions and then classifies into
groups.

• Process Analysis
– It follows the process step by step and causes are
listed as per process step.
– Prior to develop a process type CE diagram,
process flow chart is a must.
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM

Flow Chart
Also called Stratification Charts
Used to identify the patterns within the data collected
from multiple sources and clubbed together – to identify
the meaning of the vast data by identifying patterns
When to Use a Flow Chart
 To develop understanding of how a process is done
 To study a process for improvement
 To communicate to others how a process is done
 When better communication is needed between people involved
with the same process
 To document a process
 When planning a project.

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Example of Flow Chart How to prepare?
 Define the process to be diagrammed. Write its title at the top of the work
surface.
 Discuss and decide on the boundaries of your process: Where or when
does the process start? Where or when does it end? Discuss and decide
on the level of detail to be included in the diagram.
 Brainstorm the activities that take place. Write each on a card or sticky
note. Sequence is not important at this point, although thinking in
sequence may help people remember all the steps.
 Arrange the activities in proper sequence.
 When all activities are included and everyone agrees that the sequence is
correct, draw arrows to show the flow of the process.
 Review the flowchart with others involved in the process (workers,
supervisors, suppliers, customers) to see if they agree that the process is
drawn accurately.
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Histogram
Used to identify the frequency of occurrence of a variable Example of Histogram
in a set of data – looks very much like a bar chart
When to Use a Histogram
 When the data are numerical
 When you want to see the shape of the data’s distribution, especially
when determining whether the output of a process is distributed
approximately normally
 When analyzing what the output from a supplier’s process looks like
 When seeing whether a process change has occurred from one time
period to another
 When determining whether the outputs of two or more processes
are different
 When you wish to communicate the distribution of data quickly
and easily to others

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Example
How to prepare a Histogram Data
83 75
78 83
91
 Collect consecutive data points from a process. 87
84
79 Bars Bars coded Frequency
 Determine the number of bars and the range of numbers that go into each 77 90 70-72 72 3
bar. 80
77
74
81 Data 50 73-75 75 5
 Draw x- and y-axes on graph paper. Mark and label the y-axis for counting 87 87 Max Value 96 76-78 78 6
data values. 84
72
71
Min Value 71 79-81 81 8
76
 Mark and label the x-axis with the data ranges (values) from the 77 83
Range 25 82-84 84 7
worksheet. 80 90 No of Bars 9 85-87 87 8
93 80 Width 3 88-90 90 6
 Do not allow for spaces between bars. 96 81
91-93 93 5
 Before drawing any conclusions from your histogram, satisfy yourself 80 87
78 83 94-96 96 2
that the process was operating normally during the time period being 72 90
studied 87 87
95 93
83 87
90 74
81 91
87 88
93 73
89 73
 5/2/2021

Basic Tools of TQM Basic Tools of TQM

Example Typical shapes of Histogram

Histogram
9

6
Frequency