Unit 17.

1 - Overview of the Endocrine System

The nervous system uses two types of intercellular communication: electrical and chemical signaling.
Electrical signals occur directly through electrical charges, while chemical signals use neurotransmitters.

The endocrine system only uses chemical signaling as a mode of communication. These signals are sent
by endocrine organs, which secrete chemicals (known as hormones) into the extracellular fluid. These
hormones are then transported throughout the body via the bloodstream, wherein they bind to receptors on
target cells to induce a response.

Endocrine signaling takes longer than neural signaling to prompt a response in target cells.

Endocrine signaling is typically less specific than neural signaling. The same hormone can affect different
processes in the body depending on the target cells. For example, oxytocin helps with uterine contractions
during labor, supports breastfeeding, and may play a role in emotional bonding and sexual responses.

The nervous system responds quickly to changes in the outside environment, while the endocrine system
works more slowly to maintain the body's homeostasis. However, in situations like the fight-or-flight
response, the two systems work together. The nervous system quickly triggers the adrenal glands to
release hormones, allowing for a fast endocrine response to handle sudden changes in both the external
and internal environments.

Endocrine and Nervous Systems:

Endocrine System Nervous System

Signaling mechanism(s) Chemical Chemical or Electrical

Primary Chemical signal Hormones Neurotransmitters

Distance traveled Long or short Always short

Response time Fast or slow Always fast

Environment targeted Internal Internal and external

Diagram - Parts of the Endocrine System:

In endocrine signaling, hormones are released into the extracellular fluid, then enter the blood or lymph
and travel long distances in the body.

Autocrine signaling is when a cell releases a chemical that affects itself, triggering a response within the
same cell that secreted it.

Paracrine signaling occurs when a cell releases a chemical that affects nearby, neighboring cells, but not
itself. The chemical acts locally, affecting cells in the immediate area.

Unit 17.2 - Hormones

Hormones travel through the bloodstream, but they only affect cells that have specific receptors for them.
When a hormone attaches to its receptor, it starts a series of events that cause the target cell to respond.
Hormones are important for controlling various body functions like reproduction, growth, metabolism,
fluid balance, sleep, and more. These responses help regulate many vital processes in the body.

Human hormones can be grouped into two main categories based on their chemical structure: those from
amino acids and those from lipids. Hormones from amino acids include amines, peptides, and proteins,
while hormones from lipids are steroids. These different types of hormones affect how they are
distributed, the types of receptors they bind to, and their functions. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Amine hormones are made by modifying amino acids, where a carboxyl group is removed but the amine
group stays. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Peptide and protein hormones are made of chains of amino acids. Peptide hormones are short chains,
while protein hormones are longer. These are made like other proteins in the body: the DNA is transcribed
into mRNA, which then is translated into an amino acid chain. An Example of a peptide hormone is
ADH. Protein hormones include growth hormone and FSH.

Note: Whereas the amine hormones are derived from a single amino acid, peptide and protein
hormones consist of multiple amino acids that link to form an amino acid chain.

Steroid hormones are made from cholesterol and include hormones like testosterone, estrogen,
aldosterone, and cortisol. They are not water-soluble, so they travel in the blood attached to proteins. This
helps them stay in the body longer than other hormones.

Hormones bind to receptors on or inside target cells. Hormone receptors recognize molecules with
specific shapes and side groups, and respond only to those hormones that are recognized. Thus, the
response triggered by a hormone depends not only on the hormone, but also on the target cell.

Steroid hormones can pass through the cell membrane easily. Thyroid hormones, on the other hand,
require a specific carrier to enter the cell. Once inside, steroid hormones bind to receptors either in the
cytoplasm or nucleus, while thyroid hormones bind to receptors already attached to DNA. This binding
triggers gene activation, leading to the production of mRNA, which then directs protein synthesis in the
cytoplasm.

Pathways Involving Cell Membrane Hormone Receptors: Hydrophilic

hormones cannot pass through the cell membrane, so they bind to receptors on the cell surface. These
hormones are called first messengers. Instead of directly affecting gene transcription, they trigger a
signaling cascade inside the cell using a second messenger, typically cyclic AMP (cAMP). When the
hormone binds to its receptor, it activates a G protein. This G protein then activates an enzyme called
adenylyl cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP. cAMP activates protein kinases, which trigger a chain
reaction by adding phosphate groups to various cellular proteins, including enzymes.
Helpful Diagaram for the Above Description:

The phosphorylation of cellular proteins by cAMP makes the hormonal response faster and more
efficient.

cAMP’s effect is brief because it is broken down by PDE.

Factors Affecting Target Cell Response & Feedback Loops:

Target cells respond to hormones based on factors like receptor presence and sensitivity. If
there is too much of a hormone, cells may decrease their receptors (downregulation), making
them less sensitive. If a hormone level is low, cells can increase their receptors (upregulation) to
become more responsive.

Hormones can interact in different ways:

●​ Permissive effect: One hormone helps another hormone work (e.g., thyroid hormones
help reproductive hormones).
●​ Synergistic effect: Two hormones together have a stronger effect (e.g., FSH and
estrogens are both needed for egg cell maturation).
 ●​ Antagonistic effect: Two hormones have opposite effects (e.g., insulin and glucagon
regulate blood glucose levels).

Hormone levels are controlled by feedback loops. There are two types:

●​ Positive feedback: More hormone is released in response to an initial release (e.g.,

oxytocin during childbirth).
●​ Negative feedback: Hormone release is reduced once enough hormone has been
produced (e.g., glucocorticoid hormone regulation).

Important Vocab & Definitions:

1.​ Amines: Hormones made from modifying amino acids, such as melatonin and
epinephrine.
2.​ Peptide Hormones: Hormones made of short chains of amino acids, like ADH.
3.​ Protein Hormones: Hormones made of long chains of amino acids, like growth
hormones.
4.​ Steroid Hormones: Hormones made from cholesterol, like testosterone and estrogen.
5.​ Cholesterol: A lipid used to make steroid hormones.
6.​ Hydrophilic (Water-soluble) Hormones: Hormones that cannot pass through the cell
membrane, needing cell surface receptors.
7.​ First Messenger: The hormone that binds to the cell’s surface receptor to start a
signaling process.
8.​ Second Messenger: A molecule inside the cell (like cAMP) that carries the signal from
the hormone to trigger further events.
9.​ cAMP (Cyclic AMP): A common second messenger used by many hormones to trigger
responses inside cells.
10.​G Protein: A protein inside the cell that gets activated when a hormone binds to its
receptor, starting a signaling cascade.
11.​Adenylyl Cyclase: An enzyme activated by G proteins that converts ATP to cAMP.
12.​Phosphorylation: The addition of phosphate groups to proteins, which changes their
activity in a cell.
13.​PDE: An enzyme that breaks down cAMP to stop the signaling process.
14.​Downregulation: The process by which cells reduce the number of receptors when
there’s too much of a hormone, making them less sensitive.
15.​Upregulation: The process by which cells increase the number of receptors when a
hormone level is low, making them more sensitive.
16.​Positive Feedback: A loop where more of a hormone is released in response to an
initial release (e.g., oxytocin during childbirth).
17.​Negative Feedback: A loop where the release of a hormone is reduced when its level is
sufficient, maintaining balance (e.g., glucocorticoid hormone regulation).

Unit 17.3 - The Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus-pituitary complex is the "command center" of the endocrine system. It releases
hormones that directly affect target tissues and also regulate hormone production in other glands.
Additionally, it coordinates the messages between the nervous and endocrine systems. Often, signals from
the nervous system pass through the hypothalamus-pituitary complex to be turned into hormones that
trigger a response.

The hypothalamus is located in the brain, just below the thalamus. It has both neural and endocrine
functions and produces many hormones. The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland. The
pituitary is made up of two lobes: the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary. These lobes release
different hormones.

Hormones:

Pituitary Lobe Associated Hormones Effect

Anterior Growth Hormone Promotes growth of body

tissues

Anterior Prolactin Promotes milk production

from mammary glands

Anterior Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates thyroid hormone

release from thyroid

Anterior ACTH Stimilates hormone release by

adrenal cortex

Anterior FSH Stimulates gamete production

in gonads

Anterior LH Stimulates androgen

 production by gonads

Posterior ADH (Antidiuretic hormone) Stimulates water

retention/reabsorption by
kidneys

Posterior Oxytocin Stimulates uterine

contractions during childbirth.
promotes breastfeeding, and
plays a role in emotional
bonding

Thyroid T3 and T4 Stimulates basal metabolic

rate

Thyroid Calcitonin Reduces blood calcium levels

Parathyroid PTH Increases blood calcium levels

Adrenal Cortex Aldosterone Increases blood sodium levels

Adrenal Cortex Cortisol Increases blood glucose levels

Pineal Gland Melatonin Regulates sleep cycle

Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine, Norepinephrine Stimulates fight-or-flight

response

The posterior pituitary gland does not produce hormones, but rather stores and secretes hormones
produced by the hypothalamus.

Posterior Hormones:

Oxytocin - Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and cervical dilation during childbirth, with its levels
increasing toward the end of pregnancy. It works through a positive feedback loop, where uterine
contractions cause cervical stretching, leading to more oxytocin release until birth. After birth, oxytocin
continues to help with breastfeeding by triggering milk release and plays a role in parent-newborn
bonding and feelings of love and closeness.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - Blood osmolarity is monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.

When it’s high, such as during dehydration, the posterior pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH),
also called vasopressin. ADH increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, reducing blood osmolarity.
This process follows a negative feedback loop: as osmolarity decreases, ADH secretion also decreases.
The nickname "vasopressin" comes from ADH's ability to constrict blood vessels, which increases blood
pressure. Alcohol inhibits ADH release, leading to increased urine production and dehydration. In
diabetes insipidus, low ADH levels prevent water reabsorption in the kidneys, causing chronic
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. (Note that osmolarity refers to salt/solute concentration)

Anterior Pituitary & Hormones:

The anterior pituitary produces hormones regulated by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus releases and
inhibits hormones into the anterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary then produces and releases hormones
into the bloodstream.

Note: Unlike the posterior pituitary, which does not synthesize hormones but merely stores them, the
anterior pituitary does synthesize hormones.

The anterior pituitary produces 7 hormones: Growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, ACTH,
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), LH (lutenizing hormone), prolactin, and beta endorphin.

Growth Hormone - Growth hormone plays a role in regulating growth, protein synthesis, and cell
replication. Human growth begins when the hypothalamus releases growth hormone-releasing hormone,
which then stimulates the anterior pituitary to release GH. Once released, GH triggers several effects: it
stimulates fat breakdown for energy, promotes amino acid uptake and cell growth in bones, muscle,
nervous, and immune cells. GH also prompts the liver to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGFs),
which further supports growth and protein synthesis. When IGF levels become high, they signal the
hypothalamus to release growth hormone inhibiting hormone, which reduces GH release. Disruptions in
GH function can lead to conditions such as gigantism and pituitary dwarfism.

Note: GH promotes protein synthesis and tissue building through direct and indirect actions

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone - The thyroid gland's activity is controlled by thyroid-stimulating

hormone (TSH), which is released in response to TRH from the hypothalamus. TSH stimulates the
thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones. In a negative feedback loop, high levels of thyroid hormones
in the blood signal the hypothalamus to reduce TRH production, which in turn lowers TSH production.

ACTH - ACT) helps the adrenal glands release hormones like cortisol.

FSH and LH - Endocrine glands control the development and regulation of the reproductive system,
including the anterior pituitary, adrenal cortex, and gonads (testes and ovaries). Puberty starts when the
hypothalamus releases GnRH which signals the anterior pituitary to release gonadotropins that regulate
the gonads. GnRH levels are controlled by a negative feedback loop, where high levels of reproductive
hormones reduce GnRH release. Gonadotropins include FSH, which helps produce and mature sex cells
like sperm and eggs, and LH, which triggers ovulation, and stimulates the production of estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone.

Prolactin - promotes milk production and the development of mammary glands during pregnancy. It
stimulates the mammary glands into producing breast milk.

Unit 17.4 - The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism and energy use in the body.

The thyroid gland produces hormones T3 and T4 that regulate metabolism. TSH from the pituitary signals
the thyroid to release T3 and T4 into the bloodstream. When T3 and T4 levels drop, the hypothalamus
releases TRH, which triggers the pituitary to release more TSH, stimulating the thyroid to make more
hormones. This process is controlled by a negative feedback loop.

Regulation of T3 and T4 (TH) Synthesis:

The release of T3 and T4 from the thyroid is controlled by TSH. When blood levels of T3 and T4 are low,
the hypothalamus releases TRH, which stimulates the pituitary to release TSH. TSH then prompts the
thyroid to release more T3 and T4. A negative feedback loop regulates this process: as T3 and T4 levels
rise, they reduce the production of TRH and TSH.

T3 and T4 control how much energy the body uses when at rest (known as basal metabolic rate). They
increase nutrient breakdown and oxygen use in cells to produce (ATP), which also raises body
temperature by releasing excess heat. These hormones are vital for protein synthesis and the proper
development of the nervous system. They also affect reproductive health and make the body more
sensitive to adrenaline, which can increase heart rate and blood pressure.

Hypo and Hyperthyrodism - Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces insufficient
thyroid hormones, leading to a slowed metabolism, weight gain, fatigue, and depression, while
hyperthyroidism results from excessive production of thyroid hormones, causing an accelerated
metabolism, weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety.

Note: Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the amount of energy your body uses at rest to maintain basic
functions like breathing and keeping warm.

Unit 17.5 - The Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone (PTH) in response to low blood calcium levels. This
process is regulated by a negative feedback loop, where rising blood calcium levels inhibit PTH release.
High PTH levels can cause hyperparathyroidism, leading to excessive calcium loss from bones and
weakened bone density, while low PTH levels can result in hypoparathyroidism, causing muscle spasms
and, in severe cases, paralysis. Calcitonin, produced by the thyroid gland, lowers blood calcium.

Vocab in that Paragraph:

●​ Hyperparathyroidism: A condition where there is too much PTH, causing bones to lose calcium
and become weaker.
●​ Hypoparathyroidism: A condition where there is too little PTH, leading to low blood calcium
levels and symptoms like muscle spasms.

Unit 17.6 - The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands, located on top of the kidneys, play a role in managing the body’s response to stress
and regulating various bodily functions. These glands consist of two main parts: the adrenal cortex, which
is the outer region, and the adrenal medulla, the inner region. The adrenal cortex is divided into three
zones, each producing different hormones. The zona glomerulosa produces hormones like aldosterone,
which regulate the balance of sodium and potassium in the blood, The zona fasciculata releases
glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol, which manages long-term stress, controls metabolism, and helps
reduce inflammation. Cortisol also helps the body break down stored nutrients for energy during stress.
The zona reticularis produces small amounts of androgens.

The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) during
immediate stress, like the fight-or-flight response. These hormones increase heart rate, blood pressure,
and blood glucose levels, preparing the body for quick action by directing blood flow to vital organs and
muscles.

The adrenal glands work in response to stress through two main pathways: the HPA axis, which controls
cortisol release for long-term stress, and the SAM pathway, which triggers the release of epinephrine and
norepinephrine for short-term stress. Together, the hormones produced by the adrenal glands help the
body adapt to both immediate and prolonged stress, maintaining homeostasis and supporting various
bodily functions.

Adrenal Gland Associated Hormones Effect

Adrenal Cortex Aldosterone Increases blood Na+ levels

Adrenal Cortex Cortisol, corticosterone Increases blood glucose levels

Adrenal Medulla Epinephrine, norepinephrine Stimulates the fight-or-flight

response

Vocab:

●​ Glucorticoids - Glucocorticoids are hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that help manage
stress, regulate metabolism, and control inflammation.

Unit 17.7 - The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland, located near the thalamus in the brain, produces melatonin, a hormone that helps
regulate sleep-wake cycles. Melatonin production is influenced by light levels: when it’s dark, melatonin
levels rise, promoting sleep, and when it’s light, melatonin levels drop, promoting wakefulness. This
hormone is linked to circadian rhythms, which control sleep, appetite, and body temperature. Melatonin
levels are higher in children and may delay puberty by inhibiting certain hormones. Jet lag occurs when
traveling through time zones, disrupting melatonin production and affecting sleep patterns.

Unit 17.8 - Gonadal and Placental Hormones

The gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) produce sex cells (sperm and eggs) and secrete
hormones. The testes primarily produce testosterone, which is essential for sperm maturation and the
development of secondary male characteristics. They also produce inhibin, which regulates FSH secretion
from the pituitary.
In females, the ovaries produce estrogen, which regulates the menstrual cycle, the development of female
secondary sex characteristics, and helps maintain pregnancy.

Progesterone helps prepare and maintain pregnancy. During pregnancy, the placenta makes estrogens,
progesterone, and hCG to support the pregnancy and prevent the body from rejecting the baby. It also
releases relaxin to help the body get ready for childbirth.

●​ Testosterone: Produced in the testes (and in small amounts in the ovaries).

●​ Crew CT Progesterone: Produced in the ovaries, and later by the placenta during pregnancy.
●​ Estrogens: Produced in the ovaries and the placenta during pregnancy.
●​ hCG: Produced by the placenta during pregnancy.
●​ Inhibin: Produced in the testes and ovaries.

Reproductive Hormones:

Gonad Associated Hormones Effect

Testes Testosterone Stimulates development of

secondary sex characteristics
and sperm production

Testes and Ovaries Inhibin Inhibits FSH release from

pituitary

Ovaries Estrogens and progesterone Stimulate development of

secondary sex characteristics
and prepare the body for
childbirth

Placenta hCG Promotes progesterone synthesis

during pregnancy and inhibits
immune response against fetus

Unit 17.9 - The Endocrine Pancreas

Cells of the Pancreas:

Alpha Cell - Produces glucagon; glucagon is stimulated by low blood glucose levels

Beta Cell - Produces insulin; stimulated by high blood glucose levels

Glucagon: Glucagon stimilates the liver into converting glycogen back into glucose. The glucse
is then released into circulation for the body’s cells. It also stimulates the liver into taking up
amino acids from the blood and converting them into glucose. Together, these actions increase
blood glucose levels. The activity of glucagon is regulated through a negative feedback
mechanism; rising blood glucose levels inhibit further glucagon production and secretion.
Insulin: Insulin facilitates the uptake of glucose into body cells. Insulin reduces blood
glucose levels when they are too high and converts the glucose into stored glycogen.
Insulin also promotes triglyceride and protein synthesis. The secretion of insulin is
regulated through a negative feedback mechanism. As blood glucose levels decrease,
further insulin release is inhibited.

Hormones of the Pancreas (note that all of the hormones below are proteins):

Associated Hormones Effect

Insulin (produced by beta cells) Reduces blood glucose levels

Glucagon (produced by alpha cells) Increases blood glucose levels

Somatostatin (produced by delta cells) Inhibits insulin and glucagon release

Pancreatic Polypeptide (produced by Plays a role in appetite

PP cells)