Electric Charges and Field (Formulas)

1. Basic quantum of charge. 𝟏 𝟐 𝒑𝒓 𝟏 𝟐𝒑

𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 𝑬𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 = . 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
≃ .
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 (𝒓 − 𝒂 ) 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑
2. Coulomb's law. 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 ≫ 𝒂.
𝒒 𝒒
𝑭 = 𝒌 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 At any axial point, the direction of dipole field is
𝒓
along the direction of dipole moment 𝑃⃗⃗
𝟏
𝑘= = 𝑲 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐 , 12. Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipole.
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝟏 𝒑 𝟏 𝒑
𝜀0 is called permittivity of free space and its value 𝑬𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . 𝟐 ≃ 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . 𝒓𝟑 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 ≫ 𝒂.
𝟎 (𝒓𝟐 −𝒂𝟐 ) 𝟎
is 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑪𝟐 𝑵−𝟏 𝒎−𝟐 .
The direction of dipole field is antiparallel to the
Hence Coulomb's law in SI units may be expressed
𝟏 𝒒 𝒒
direction of dipole moment 𝑝⃗.
as 𝑭 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 . 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝟐 13. torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field.
𝟎
3. Dielectric constant or relative permittivity. 𝝉 = 𝒑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝜺 𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄 In vector rotation, 𝝉 ⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑬⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝒑
𝜺𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒌 = =
𝜺𝟎 𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 14. Electric flux.
∆𝜙𝐸 = 𝐸Δ𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝐸⃗⃗ . Δ𝑆⃗
𝑭𝒗𝒂𝒄
𝑭𝒎𝒆𝒅 == . ⃗⃗
⃗⃗. 𝐝𝑺
𝝓𝑬 = ∫ 𝑬
𝒌
𝑺
4. Electrostatic force vs. gravitational force. Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
SI unit of electric flux = 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟏 .
𝑭𝒆 𝒌𝒆𝟐 15. Gauss's theorem. The total flux of electric field
= ≃ 𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗 E through a closed surface S is equal to 1 /
𝑭𝑮 𝑮𝒎𝒑 𝒎𝒆
5. Principle of superposition of electrostatic 𝜀0 times the charge q enclosed by the surface 𝑆⃗ .
𝒒
forces. 𝝓𝑬 = ∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗⃗. 𝒅𝑺
𝜺𝟎
𝐹⃗1 = 𝐹⃗12 + 𝐹⃗13 + ⋯ , +𝐹⃗1𝑁 𝑺
⃗⃗
𝑭
16. Electric field of a line charge.
6. Electric field. ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝝀 𝟏
𝒒𝟎 →𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝑬= 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑬 ∝
Electric field is a vector quantity whose direction is 𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
same as that of the force exerted on a positive where r is the perpendicular distance of the wire
test charge. from the observation point.
7. Units and dimensions of electric field. 17. Electric field of an infinite plane sheet of
𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟐 charge.
[𝑬] = = 𝝈
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝑪 𝑬=
𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟐 𝟐𝜺𝟎
= [𝑴𝑳𝑻−𝟑 𝑨−𝟏 ]
𝑨𝑻 where 𝜎 = uniform surface charge density.
8. Electric field due to a point charge. [Link] field of two positively charged parallel
𝟏 𝒒 plates. If the two plates have surface charge
𝑬= . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 densities 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 such that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 0,
If q is positive, E points radially outwards and if q is then
negative, E points radially inwards. This 𝟏
𝑬 = ± 𝟐𝜺 (𝝈𝟏 + 𝝈𝟐 ) (Outside the plates)
field is spherically symmetric. 𝟎
𝟏
9. Electric field due to a system of point charges 𝑬 = (𝝈 − 𝝈𝟐 ) (Inside the plates)
𝟐𝜺𝟎 𝟏
: ⃗𝑬⃗ = ⃗𝑬⃗𝟏 + ⃗𝑬⃗𝟐 + ⋯ + ⃗𝑬⃗𝑵 19. Electric field of two equally and oppositely
10. Continuous charge distribution. charged parallel plates. If the two plates have
𝑑𝑞
Volume charge density, 𝜌 = 𝐶𝑚−3 surface charge densities ± 𝜎, then
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑞 𝑬 = 𝟎 (For outside points)
Surface charge density, 𝜎 = 𝑑𝑆
𝐶𝑚−2 𝝈
𝑑𝑞 𝑬 = 𝜺 (For inside points)
Linear charge density, 𝜆 = 𝐶𝑚−1 𝟎
𝑑𝐿 20. Electric field of a thin spherical shell. If R is
11. Electric field at an axial point of a dipole. The the radius and 𝜎, the surface charge density of
dipole field on the axis at distance r from the the shell, then
centre is 𝟏 𝒒
𝑬 = . 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 > 𝑹 (𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

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 𝑬 = 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 < 𝑹 (𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔)

𝟏 𝒒
𝑬 = . 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 = 𝑹 (𝑨𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟐
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒒 = 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝝈
21. Electric field of a uniformly charged solid
sphere. If 𝜌 is the uniform volume charge
density and R radius of the sphere, then
𝟏 𝒒
𝑬 = . 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 > 𝑹 (𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓

𝟏 𝒒𝒓
𝑬 = . 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 < 𝑹 (𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒔)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹𝟑

𝟏 𝒒
𝑬 = . 𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒓 = 𝑹 (𝑨𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆)
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹
𝟒
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒒 = 𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝝆
𝟑

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 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
1. Potential difference. The potential difference 6. Electric potential due to a group of N point
between two points is defined as the amount of charges. If 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 … 𝑟𝑁 are the distances of N
work done in bringing a unit positive charge point charges from the observation point, then
from one point to another against the 1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑁
𝑉= [ + + + ⋯+ ]
electrostatic forces. 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑁
𝑵
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝟏 𝒒𝒊
Potential difference = = ∑
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝒊
𝑊𝐴𝐵 𝒊=𝟏
Or 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 =
𝑞
Potential difference is a scalar quantity. 7. Determination of electric field from electric
potential. The rate of charge of potential with
2. SI unit of potential difference is volt (𝝂). The distance is called potential gradient. Electric
potential difference between two points in an field at any point is equal to the negative of the
electric field is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of potential gradient at that point
𝒅𝑽
work has to be done in moving a positive 𝑬 = − 𝒅𝒓
charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the ∴ 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑉𝑚−1
other against the electrostatic forces.
8. Determination of electric potential from
𝟏 𝑽 = 𝟏 𝑱𝑪−𝟏 = 𝟏 𝑵𝒎 𝑪−𝟏 electric field. The electric potential at a point
having position vector 𝒓 ⃗⃗ is given by
3. Electric potential. It is defined as the amount of 𝑟
⃗⃗𝒓
⃗⃗ . 𝒅
𝑽 = −∫𝑬
work done in bringing a unit positive charge
∞
from infinity to the observation point against
the electrostatic forces. 9. Electric potential energy. The electric potential
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Electric potential = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 energy of a system of point charges is defined
𝑾 as the amount of work done in assembling the
Or 𝑽 =
𝒒 charges at their locations by bringing them in,
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. from infinity.
4. Electric potential due to a point charge. The P.E. of a charge = Charge × Electric potential at the
electric potential of a point charge q at distance given point It is measured in joule (𝐽) or
r from it is given by electron volt (𝑒𝑉).
𝟏 𝒒 𝟏 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝑽= . 𝒊. 𝒆. , 𝑽 ∝
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝒓
It is spherically symmetric. 10. Potential energy of a system of two point
charges. if two point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are
separated by distance 𝑟12, then their potential
5. Electric potential due to a dipole. Electric energy is
potential at a point having 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
position vector 𝑟⃗, due to a dipole of moment 𝑝⃗ at 𝑼 = .
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐
the origin is given by
𝟏 𝒑 ⃗⃗. 𝒓
⃗⃗ 𝟏 𝒑 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 11. Potential energy of a system of three point
𝑽= . 𝟑 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 charges. It is given by
At points on the axial line of the dipole (𝜃 =
0𝑜 𝑜𝑟 1800 ), 𝟏
𝑼 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 [ 𝒓𝟏
𝒒 𝒒𝟐
+
𝒒𝟐 𝒒 𝟑
+
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
]
𝟏 𝒒 𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟑 𝒓𝟑𝟏
𝑽𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 = ± . 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
At points on the equatorial line of the dipole
(𝜃 = 900 ), 𝑉𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 0 12. Potential energy of N point charges. It is
given by

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 1 𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗 1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 1𝐶
𝑈 = ∑ 1 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 1𝐹 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖𝑗 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 1𝑉
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠
𝑵 𝑵
𝟏 𝒎𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑭, 𝟏 𝝁 𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑭, 𝟏 𝒑𝑭 =
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑭.
𝟏 𝟏 ∑ ∑. 𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝒋
= .
𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒊=𝟏 𝒋=𝟏 𝒓𝒊𝒋 18. Parallel plate capacitor. It consists of two
𝒊≠𝒋
large parallel conducting plates, each of area A,
and separated by a small distance d. Its
13. Potential energy of a dipole in a uniform
capacitance is
electric field. It is equal to the amount of work 𝜺𝟎 𝑨
done in turning the dipole from orientation 𝜃1 𝑪 =
𝒅
to 𝜃2 in the field E.
19. Spherical capacitor. It consists of two
𝑼 = − 𝒑𝑬 (𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝟐 − cos 𝜽𝟏 ) concentric spherical conducting shells of inner
If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the field E, and outer radii a and b.
0j =90° and 02 = 0 (say), then 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒂𝒃
𝑪=
𝒃−𝒂
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑼 = − 𝒑𝑬 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜽 = −𝒑 𝑬
20. Cylindrical capacitor. It consists of two coaxial
When 𝜃 = 0°, 𝑼 = − 𝒑𝑬 i.e., the potential energy conducting cylinders of inner and outer radii a
of the dipole is minimum. The dipole is in stable and b and of common length l.
equilibrium. 𝑙 𝒍
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜀0 = 𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎
𝑏 𝒃
When 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑈 = 0 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑎 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒂
When 𝜃 = 180°, 𝑼 = +𝒑𝑬
i.e., the potential energy of the dipole is maximum. 21. Capacitors in series. The equivalent
The dipole is in unstable equilibrium. capacitance 𝐶𝑠 of number of capacitors
connected in sseries is given by
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
14. Capacitance of a conductor. It is the charge 𝑪𝒔 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
required to increase the potential of a
conductor by unit amount.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 In a series combination of capacitors, the charge
Capacitance = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝒒 on each capacitor is same but the potential
Or 𝑪=𝑽 difference across any capacitor is inversely
15. Capacitance of a spherical conductor. It is proportional to its capacitance.
proportional to the radius R of the spherical
conductor. 22. Capacitors in parallel. The equivalent
𝑪 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝑹 capacitance of a number of capacitors
connected in parallel is given by
16. Capacitance of a capacitor. The capacitance of 𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪 𝟑 …
a capacitor is the charge required to be In a parallel combination of capacitors, the
supplied to one of its conductors so as to potential difference across each capacitor is
increase the potential difference between two same but the charge on each capacitor is
conductors by unit amount. proportional to its capacitance.
𝒒
𝑪=
𝑽 [Link] stored in a capacitor. The energy stored
in a capacitor of capacitance C and charge q
17. Farad. It is the SI unit of capacitance. The
with voltage V is
capacitance of a capacitor is 1 farad (F) if 1
𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏
coulomb of charge is transferred from its one 𝑼 = 𝑪𝑽𝟐 = . = 𝑸𝑽
plate to another on applying a potential 𝟐 𝟐 𝑪 𝟐
difference of 1 volt across the two plates.

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 24. Energy density. The electrical energy stored 𝒂𝒃
𝑪 = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝜿
per unit volume or energy density in a region 𝒃−𝒂
𝟏 32. capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor filled
with electric field E is 𝒖 = 𝟐 𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐
with a dielectric
𝟐𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝜿𝒍
25. common potential. If a number of conductors 𝑪=
𝒃
of capacitances 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 , …, at potentials 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒂
𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , …, having charges 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , 𝑑3 , …,
respectively are placed in contact, their
common potential V is given by
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
𝑽=
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒒 𝟏 + 𝒒𝟐 + 𝒒𝟑 + ⋯
=
𝑪 𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯
𝑪𝟏 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 𝑽𝟑 + ⋯
=
𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑 + ⋯

26. loss of energy of sharing charges. If two

conductors of capacitances 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 at
potentials 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 respectively are connected
together, a loss of energy takes place which is
given by
𝟏 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐
∆𝑼 = (𝑽 − 𝑽𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪 𝟐 𝟏

27. dielectric constant. It is the ratio of the

capacitance (c) of the capacitor with the
dielectric as the medium to its capacitance (𝐶0 )
𝑪
when conductors are in vacuum. 𝒌 = 𝑪
𝟎
It is also equal to the ratio of the applied electric
field (𝐸0 ) to the reduced value of electric field
(E) on inserting the dielectric slab between the
plates of the capacitor
𝑬 𝑬
𝜿 = 𝟎 = 𝟎 . Here E’ is the field set up due to
𝑬 𝑬𝟎 −𝑬′
polarisation of the dielectric in the opposite
direction of 𝐸0 .

28. capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled

with a dielectric.
𝜺 𝜿𝑨
𝑪 = 𝜿𝑪𝟎 = 𝟎𝒅 .

29. capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with

a dielectric slab between its plates. If t is the
thickness of the dielectric slab and 𝒕 < 𝒅, then
𝜺𝟎 𝑨
𝑪= 𝟏 .
𝒅−𝒕(𝟏− )
𝜿

30. capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with

conducting slab between its plates.
𝒅 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝒅
For 𝒕 < 𝒅, 𝑪 = (𝒅−𝒕) ( ) 𝑪𝟎 .
𝒅 𝒅−𝒕

31. capacitance of a spherical capacitor filled

with a dielectric.

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 Current Electricity
1. Electric current. The flow of electric 𝑽
𝑽 ∝ 𝑰 𝒐𝒓 𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰 𝒐𝒓 =𝑹
charges through a conductor 𝑰
constitutes electric current. Here R is called the resistance of the
Quantitatively, electric current across conductor.
an area held perpendicular to the
direction of flow of charge is defined 4. Resistance. It is the property by virtue of
as the amount of charge flowing across which a conductor opposes the flow of
that area per unit [Link] a steady charges through it. It is equal to the ratio of
𝑄 the potential difference applied across the
flow of charge, 𝐼 =
𝑡
conductor to the current flowing through it.
If the rate of flow of charge varies with It depends on the length 𝑙 and area of cross-
time, then section A of the conductor through the
relation:
∆𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝒍
𝐼 = lim = 5. 𝑹 = 𝝆 𝑨 , 𝜌 =
∆𝑡→0 ∆t 𝑑𝑡
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙. 5. SI
SI unit of current is ampere (A).
unit of resistance is ohm (𝛀). The
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 resistance of a conductor is 1 ohm if
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆 = 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝑨 =
𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
−𝟏 a current of 1 ampere flows through
𝟏𝑪𝒔 .
it on applying a potential difference
2. electromotive force(emf). The emf of a of 1 volt across its ends.
source may be defined as the work done 𝟏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕
by the source in taking a unit positive 1 ohm = 𝒐𝒓 𝟏𝛀 = 𝟏𝑽𝑨−𝟏
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆
charge from its lower potential terminal 6. resistivity or specific resistance. It is
to the higher potential terminal. Or, it is the resistance offered by a unit cube of
the energy supplied by the source in the material of a conductor.
𝑹𝑨
taking a unit positive charge once round 𝝆= 𝒍
the complete circuit. It is equal to the SI unit of 𝜌 = Ω𝑚
terminal p. d. measured in open circuit. It depends on the nature of the
material of the conductor and the
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑾
EMF= 𝒐𝒓 𝝃 = physical conditions like temperature,
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒒
pressure, etc.
3. Ohm’s law. The current flowing through a 7. current density. It is the amount of charge
con doctor is directly proportional to the flowing per second per unit area normal
potential difference across its ends. to the flow of charge. It is a vector
Provided the temperature and other quantity having the same direction as that
physical conditions remain unchanged. of the motion of the positive charge.
For normal flow of charge,
𝒂/𝒕 𝑰
𝒋= 𝑨 =𝑨

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 In general, 𝐼 = 𝑗𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐽⃗. 𝐴⃗ resistance per unit original resistance
SI unit of current density = 𝐴𝑚−2. per degree rise in temperature. It is
8. conductance. It is the reciprocal of given by
resistance. 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
𝜶=
𝟏
Conductance = 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑹𝟏 (𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 )
𝟏
If 𝑡1 = 0℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 = 𝑡℃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
Or 𝑮=𝑹 𝑹 −𝑹
𝒂 = 𝑹𝒕 ×𝒕𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕)
SI unit of conductance = 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 = 𝟎
The unit of 𝛼 is 0𝐶 −1 or 𝐾 −1 .
𝑚ℎ𝑜 = 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝑆).
13. Mobility of a charge carrier. The mobility
9. conductivity or specific conductance. It is
of a charge carrier is the drift velocity
the reciprocal of resistivity.
𝟏 acquired by it in a unit electric field. It is
conductivity = give by
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝟏 𝒗𝒅 𝒒𝝉
Or 𝝈= 𝝁= =
𝝆 𝑬 𝒎
SI unit of conductivity = 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1 𝑚−1 = For an electron, 𝜇𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑒𝜏
𝑚𝑒
𝑚ℎ𝑜 𝑚−1 = 𝑆𝑚−1 𝑒𝜏ℎ
10. Drift velocity and relaxation time. For a hole, 𝜇ℎ = 𝑚ℎ
The average velocity acquired by the free SI unit of mobility = 𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
electrons of a conductor in the opposite Practical unit of mobility = 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1
direction of the externally applied electric 14. Relation between electric current
field is called drift velocity (𝑣𝑑 ). The average and mobility.
time that elapses between the two For a conductor, 𝐼 = 𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝜇𝑒 𝐸
successive collisions of an electron is called For a semiconductor,
relaxation time (𝜏). 𝑰 = 𝒆 𝑨𝑬 (𝒏 𝝁𝒆 + 𝒑𝝁𝒉 )
𝒆𝑬𝝉 𝒎𝒍 𝒎 And 𝝈 = 𝒆(𝒏 𝝁𝒆 + 𝒑𝝁𝒉 )
𝒗𝒅 = ;𝑹 = 𝟐 ;𝝆 = 𝟐 ;
𝒎 𝒏𝒆 𝝉𝑨 𝒏𝒆 𝝉 Where n and p are the electron and
𝑰 = 𝒆𝒏 𝑨𝒗𝒅 ; 𝑱 = 𝒆𝒏𝒗𝒅 hole densities.
Here n=no. of free electrons per unit 15. Resistances in series. When a number
volume or free electron density and m of resistances are connected in series,
= mass of an electron. their equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑠 ) is
11. Other forms of Ohm’s law. In terms of equal to the sum of the individual
vector quantities like current density 𝐽⃗ resistances.
and electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , Ohm’s law may be 𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯
expressed as 16. Resistances in parallel. When a
𝑱⃗ = 𝝈𝑬
⃗⃗ 𝒐𝒓 ⃗𝑬⃗ = 𝝆𝒋⃗ number of resistances are connected
The equation 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑗⃗ leads to another in parallel, the reciprocal of their
statement of Ohm’s law i.e., a equivalent resistance (𝑅𝑝 ) is equal to
conducing material obeys Ohm’s law the sum of the reciprocals of the
when the resistivity of the material individual resistances.
does not depend on the magnitude 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
and direction of the applied electric 𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
field. For two resistances in parallel,
12. Temperature coefficient of resistance 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝒑 =
(a). it is defined as the change in 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

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 17. Division of current in resistors joined For maximum current, the external
in parallel. The current is divided in resistance must be equal to the total
resistors, connected in parallel, in the internal resistance, i.e.,
inverse ratio of their resistances. 𝒏𝒓
𝑹=
𝑹𝟐 𝒎
𝑰𝟏 = .𝑰 Or
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟐 𝒎𝑹 = 𝒏𝒓.
𝑰𝟐 = .𝑰 22. Joule's law of heating. It states that
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
18. Relations between emf (𝝃), terminal the amount of heat H produced in a
potential difference (V) and internal resistor is
resistance (r). The potential drop across (i) directly proportional to the square
the terminals of a cell when a current is of current for a given R,
being drawn from it is called its terminal (ii) directly proportional to the
potential difference. It is less than the emf resistance R for a given I,
of the cell in a closed circuit. (iii) inversely proportional to the
𝜉𝑅 resistance R for a given V, and
𝜉 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑟; 𝑉𝜉 − 𝐼𝑟; 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (iv) directly proportional to the time t
𝑅+𝑟
𝜉−𝑉 𝜉−𝑉 for which the current flows through
𝑟= = 𝑅[ ];𝐼 the resistor.
𝐼 𝑉
𝜉 𝜉 Mathematically, this law can be
= ; 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = expressed as 𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑅+𝑟 𝑟
𝑉 2𝑡
= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙 = 𝑅
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Terminal p.d. of a cell when it is being 𝑉𝐼𝑡
charged is Or 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑎𝑙
4.18
𝑽 = 𝝃 + 𝑰𝒓, 𝑽 > 𝝃 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 𝑽𝟐 𝒕
= 𝟒.𝟏𝟖 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟒.𝟏𝟖 𝑹 𝒄𝒂𝒍.
19. Cells in series. If n cells of emf 𝜉 and
23. Electric power. It is the rate at which an
internal resistance r each are connected in
electric appliance converts electric energy
series,-then current drawn through external
into other forms of energy. Or, it is the
resistance R is
𝒏𝝃 rate at which work is done by a source of
𝑰= emf in maintaining an electric current
𝑹 + 𝒏𝒓
20. Cells in parallel. If m cells are through a circuit. Electric power,
connected in parallel, then current 𝑾 𝑽𝟐
𝒑= = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
drawn through external resistance R is 𝒕 𝑹
𝒎𝝃 24. SI unit of power is watt. The power
𝑰= of an appliance is one watt if one ampere of
𝒎𝑹 + 𝒓
21. Cells in mixed grouping. If n cells are current flows through it on applying a
connected in series in each row and m potential difference of 1 volt across it.
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
such rows are connected in parallel, 1 watt =
1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
then current drawn through an = 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 × 1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
external resistance R is Or 1W = 1 𝐽𝑠 −1 = 1𝑉𝐴
𝒎𝒏𝝃 𝟏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕 (𝒌𝑾) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾.
𝑰=
𝒎𝑹 + 𝒏𝒓 25. Electric energy. It is the total work
done in maintaining an electric current
in an electric circuit for a given time.

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3
 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑽𝑰 𝑽 𝑹
= 𝝃𝑰
= 𝝃
= 𝑹+𝒓.
= 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑡
31. Maximum Power Theorem. It states
= 𝑽𝑰 𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
26. Units of electric energy. The that the output power of a source of
commercial unit of electric energy is emf is maximum when the external
kilowatt-hour (kWh) or Board of trade resistance in the circuit is equal to
(B.O.T) unit. It is the electric energy internal resistance of the circuit i.e.,
consumed by an appliance of power when 𝑅 = 𝑟.
1000 watt in one hour. 𝝃𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 1000𝑊ℎ 𝟒𝒓
= 1000 𝑊 × 3600𝑠 = 3.6 × 106 𝐽 The efficiency of source of emf is 50%
Another unit of electric energy is watt when it delivers maximum power.
hour. 32. Efficiency of an electric device. It is
1 watt hour = 1 watt × 1hour the ratio of the output power to the
=3.6× 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱. input power.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
27. Power rating. The power rating of an 𝜂=
electrical appliance is the electrical 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
energy consumed per second by the (i) for an electric motor,
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
appliance when connected across the 𝜂=
marked voltage of the mains. 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑽𝟐 (ii) Input electric power
𝑷= = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑹
28. power consumed by a series + 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
combination of appliance. The reciprocal The power output of an electric motor
of the effective power is equal to the sum is maximum when its back emf is one-
of the reciprocals of the individual powers half the source emf, provided the
of the appliances which have been resistance of the windings of the
manufactured for working, on the same motor is negligible.
voltage. 33. Kirchhoff's laws. These laws enable us
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 to determine the currents and voltages
= + + +⋯ in different parts of the electrical
𝑷 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑷𝟑
circuits.
First law or junction rule. In an electric
29. Power consumed by a parallel
circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at
combination of appliances. The effective
any junction is zero. Or, the sum of
power is equal to the sum of the powers
currents entering a junction is equal to
of the individual appliances.
the sum of the currents leaving that
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + ⋯
30. Efficiency of a source of emf. It is the junction.
ratio of the output power to the input Mathematically,
power. If a source of emf 𝜉 and internal Justification. This law is based on the
resistance r is connected to an external law of conservation of charge. When
resistance, then its efficiency will be the currents in a circuit are steady,
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 charges cannot accumulate or
𝜂 = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 originate at any point of the circuit.

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4
 Second law or loop rule. Around any 35. Slide wire bridge or metre bridge. It
loop of a network, the sum of changes is an application of wheatstone
in potential must be zero. Or, the bridge in which R is fixed and a
algebraic of the emfs in any loop of a balance point is obtained by varying
circuit is equal to the sum of the P and Q i.e., by adjusting the position
products of currents and resistances in of a jockey on a 100 cm long
it. resistance wire stretched between
∑𝚫𝑽 = 𝟎 two terminals. If the balance point is
obtained at length Z, then
𝑃 𝑅 𝑙
𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝜉 = ∑ 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑆 = 100−𝑙
𝑄
Justification. This law is based on the 100−𝑙
Or 𝑆=( 𝑙
)𝑅
law of conservation of energy. As the 𝑆𝐴
electrostatic force is a conservative Resistivity, 𝜌 =
𝑙
force, the total work done by it along 𝑺×𝝅𝒓𝟐
= 𝒍
any closed path must be zero.
34. Potentiometer. It is a device used to
compare emfs of two sources. Its working
is based on the principle that when a
constant current flows through a wire of
uniform cross- sectional area and
composition, the p.d. across any length of
the wire is directly proportional to that
length.
𝑉∝𝑙
Or
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑙
where k is the potential drop per unit
length which is called potential
gradient. Potentiometer has two main
uses.
(i) To compare the emfs of two cells. If
𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the balancing lengths of
the potentiometer wire for the cells of
emfs 6 , and 62 respectively, then
𝝃𝟐 𝒍𝟐
=
𝝃𝟏 𝒍𝟏
(ii) To find the internal resistance r of
a cell. If f is the balancing length of the
potentiometer wire without shunt and
l2 the balancing length with shunt R
across the cell, then internal resistance
of the cell will be
𝝃−𝑽 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
𝒓= ×𝑹= ×𝑹
𝑽 𝒍𝟐

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5
 Magnetic Effect of Current
1. Biot-Savart law. According to this The magnetic field due to a straight
law, the magnetic field due to a conductor of infinite length (𝜙1 =
current carrying element ⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑙 carrying 𝜋 0 𝜇 𝐼
𝜙2 = 2 ) is given by 𝐵 = 2𝜋𝑎
current 𝐼 at a point P at distance r
from it is given by 3. Magnetic field of a circular current
𝜇0 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 loop. The magnetic field of a circular
𝑑𝐵 = . current loop of radius a carrying current
4𝜋 𝑟2
I is
𝜇0 𝐼
(i) At the centre of the loop : 𝐵 = 2𝑎
(ii) At an axial point at distance r from
𝜇0 𝐼𝑎 2
the centre: 𝐵 = .
2(𝑟 2 +𝑎2 )3/2

4. Ampere's circuital law. The line

integral of the magnetic field 𝐵⃗ around
any closed path is equal to g0 times the
total current f threading the closed
path.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∫𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼

𝜇0 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 ×𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
In vector notation, 𝑑𝐵 . 𝑟3
4𝜋
Here 𝜃 is the angle between ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 In a simplified form, the law states that
and 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 , is the if field B is directed along the tangent to
permeability of free space. The every point on the perimeter L of a
direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 is same as that of ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟 closed curve and its magnitude is
and is given by right-hand screw rule. constant along the curve, then
𝐵𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝐼.
2. Magnetic field due to straight
current carrying conductor. The 5. Magnetic field of a straight
magnetic field at a point at solenoid. A solenoid is a long insulated
perpendicular distance ‘a’ from a wire wound in the form of a helix. Its
straight conductor carrying current 𝐼 is length is very large as compared to its
𝜇 𝐼 diameter. The magnetic field of a
given by 𝐵 = 0 (sin 𝜙1 + sin 𝜙2 )
4𝜋𝑎 straight solenoid carrying current I and
having n turns per unit length is given
Where 𝜙1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙2 are the angles which by
the perpendicular from the observation (i) 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 (At a point well inside the
point to the conductor makes with the solenoid)
lines joining the ends of the conductor 1
(ii) 𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 2 𝜇0 𝑛𝑙 (At either well inside
to the observation point.
the solenoid)

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6. Magnetic field of a toroidal
solenoid. A solenoid bent into the form 10. Motion of charge inside an electric
of a closed ring is called a toroidal field. If a potential difference V is
solenoid. The magnetic field inside the applied between two parallel plates
toroidal solenoid has a constant separated by distance d, then electric
magnitude and tangential direction. It is field set up between the plates is
given by 𝑉
𝐸 =
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛 𝐼 𝑑
where 𝐼 is the current in the windings The charge q of mass m experiences the
and n is the number of turns per unit electric force, 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸
length. The field lines are concentric Acceleration produced in the charge,
𝑞𝐸
circles. 𝑎 =
𝑚
The moving charge follows a parabolic
7. force on a charge moving in a path inside the electric field.
magnetic field. A charge q moving
with velocity 𝑣 at an angle with the 11. Motion of charge inside a
magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ experiences the magnetic field.
magnetic Lorentz force, 𝐹= (i) When 𝑣 ⊥ 𝐵 ⃗ , the magnetic force on
𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃 the charge makes it move along a
In vector notation, 𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗) 𝑚𝑣
circular path of radius, 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
The direction of this force is
perpendicular to both 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⃗ , and
(ii) When 𝑣 makes angle 𝜃 with 𝐵 ⃗ , the
work done by it is zero. This force is
perpendicular component : 𝑣⊥ = 𝑣 sin
maximum when the charged particle
𝜃 of the initial velocity makes the
move perpendicular to the direction of
charge move along a circular path of
the field (𝜃 = 900 ) and minimum when
radius,
the charges particle moves along the
field (𝜃 = 00 ).
The parallel component : 𝑣|| = 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
of the initial velocity makes it move
8. SI unit of magnetic field is tesla.
along the direction of the magnetic
One tesla is that magnetic field in which
field. The resultant of the two
a charge of 1 coulomb moving with a
components makes the charge move
speed of 1 𝑚𝑠 −1 at right angles to the
along a helical path of pitch,
field experiences a force of 1 newton.
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒗 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 (𝑇) = 1 𝑁 𝐴−1 𝑚−1 , 𝒉=
1 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 (𝐺 ) = 10−4 𝑇. 𝒒𝑩
12. Cyclotron frequency. In a cyclotron,
the frequency of the applied alternating
9. Lorentz force. The total force, called
electric field is equal to the frequency of
Lorentz force, acting on a charge q
moving with velocity 𝑣 in an electric revolution of the charged particle. This
frequency is called cyclotron frequency
field 𝐸⃗ and magnetic field 𝐵
⃗ is 𝑞𝐵
It is given by, 𝑓𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵 ⃗)

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2
 where m is the mass and q is the charge 𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝒇= .
of the positive ion. The cyclotron 𝟐𝝅 𝒓
frequency is independent of both the The force is attractive when the
velocity of the particle and the radius of currents are in the same direction and
its orbit. repulsive when the currents are in
opposite directions.
13. Maximum energy gained by
positive ions. If 𝑣0 and 𝑟0 are the
maximum velocity and maximum radius 16. Force between two current
of the circular path of the positive ions elements. The force between two
in a cyclotron, then parallel current elements d𝐼1 and d𝐼2
𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟎 𝒒𝑩𝒓𝟎 carrying currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 and
= 𝒒𝒗𝟎 𝑩 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝟎 = separated by distance r much greater
𝒓𝟎 𝒎
1 than their length is given by
∴ Maximum kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒅𝑰𝟏 𝒅𝑰𝟐
2
𝑞2 𝐵2 𝑟02 𝒅𝑭 = .
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
2𝑚
17. Relative sizes of electric and magnetic
If V is the accelerating potential of the
high frequency oscillator and the fields. Under similar conditions, the
magnetic forces are much smaller than
charged particle completes n
the electric forces.
revolutions before leaving the dees,
𝐹𝑚 𝑣1 𝑣2
then Maximum kinetic energy = 2 𝑛𝑞𝑉. = 𝑣1 𝑣2 (𝜇0 𝜀0 ) = 2
𝐹𝑒 𝑐
−5 −5
14. Force on a current carrying 10 × 10
= ≃ 10−27
conductor in a magnetic field A (3 × 108 )2
conductor of length 𝐼 carrying current 𝐼 Here 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 are drift speeds of the
⃗ at an angle 𝜃 electrons in the two conductors.
held in a magnetic field 𝐵
with it, experiences a force given by
18. torque on current carrying coil in a
𝐹 = 𝐼 𝑙𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
magnetic field. A rectangular coil of
𝐹 = 𝐼 ( ⃗𝑙 × 𝐵
In vector notation, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ )
area A, carrying current I and capable of
The direction of 𝐹 is perpendicular to rotation about an axis perpendicular to
both 𝑙 and 𝐵⃗ and is given by Fleming's ⃗ experiences a torque,
the field 𝐵
left hand rule. The force is maximum 𝝉 = 𝑵𝑰𝑩𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
when 0 =90° and zero when 0 =0° or Where 𝑁 = number of turns in the coil,
180°. 𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴 = magnetic dipole moment,
𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝑰(𝒍 × ⃗𝑩 ⃗) 𝜃 = angle which the normal to the
plane of the coil makes with the field 𝐵⃗
15. Force between two parallel Torque is minimum when the plane of
infinitely long current carrying the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic
conductors. The force per unit length field (𝜃 = 0°). Torque is maximum
between two long parallel conductors when the plane of the coil is parallel to
carrying currents 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 , and the magnetic field (𝜃 = 90°). 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
separated by distance r is given by 𝑁𝐼𝐵 𝐴.

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3
 instrument used to measure electric
19. Moving coil galvanometer. It is a current in a circuit. A galvanometer of
device used to detect current in a resistance G can be converted into an
circuit. It is based on the principle that a ammeter of range 0 − 𝐼 by connecting a
current carrying coil placed in a small resistance S in parallel with it. The
magnetic field experiences a current value of small resistance called shunt, is
dependent torque, which tends to given by
rotate the coil and produces angular 𝑰𝒈
𝑺= ×𝑮
deflection. It consists of a coil of wire of 𝑰 − 𝑰𝒈
area A and N turns carrying current I to Where 𝐼𝑔 is the current with which
be measured. It is suspended in a radial galvanometer gives full-scale deflection.
magnetic field so that its plane always Total resistance of an ammeter,
remains parallel to 𝐵 ⃗ (𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 1) by a 𝑮𝑺
suspension fibre of torsion constant k. 𝑹𝑨 =
𝑮+𝑺
In equilibrium position, An ammeter is a low resistance device
Restoring torque = Deflecting torque and is connected in series in a circuit.
𝑁𝐵𝐴
or 𝑘 𝛼 = 𝑁𝐼𝐵 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑘 . 𝐼
24. Conversion of galvanometer into a
i.e., Deflection of coil ∝ Current in the
voltmeter. A voltmeter is used to
coil.
measure potential di ference between
any two points of a circuit.
20. Figure of merit of a galvanometer.
Galvanometer of resistance G can be
It is the current which produces a
converted in to a voltmeter of range
deflection of one scale division in the
0 − 𝑉 by connecting a large resistance R
galvanometer. It is given by
𝑰 𝒌 in series with it. The value of R is given
𝑮 = 𝜶 = 𝑵𝑩𝑨. 𝑉
by 𝑅 = 𝐼 − 𝐺
𝑔

21. Current sensitivity of a Total resistance of a voltmeter, 𝑹𝑽 =

galvanometer. It is the deflection 𝑮+𝑹
produced in a galvanometer when unit A voltmeter is a high resistance device
current flows through it. and always connected parallel to the
𝛼 𝑁𝐵𝐴 conductor across which p.d. is to be
Current sensitivity = 𝐼 = 𝑘 .
measured.

22. voltage sensitivity of a

galvanometer. It is the deflection
produced in a galvanometer when a
unit potential difference is applied
across its ends.
𝜶 𝜶 𝑵𝑩𝑨
Voltage sensitivity = 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 = 𝒌𝑹

23. Conversion of a galvanometer into

an ammeter. An ammeter is an

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4
 Magnetism
(ii) for short magnet, 𝑙 ≪ 𝑟,
𝜇 2𝑚
1. Coulomb's law of magnetic force. This 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 4𝜋0 . 𝑟3 .
law states that the force of attraction or The magnetic field at any equatorial
repulsion between two magnetic poles point of a magnetic dipole is in the
is directly proportional to the product of direction opposite to that of its
their pole strengths and inversely magnetic dipole moment.
proportional to the square of the
distance between them. If 𝑞𝑚1 and 𝑞𝑚2 5. Torque on a magnet in a magnetic
are the pole strengths of two magnetic field. If a magnet of dipole moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗ is
poles separated by distance r, then the ⃗
placed in a magnetic field 𝐵 making an
force of attraction or repulsion between angle 0 with it, then torque acting on
them is the magnet is
𝝁𝟎 𝒒𝒎𝟏 𝒒𝒎𝟐 𝝉 = 𝒎𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑭= .
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐 In vector notation, 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ × 𝐵
where 𝜇0 is the permeability of free
The effect of the torque is to align the
space and its value is 4𝜋 × 10−7 ⃗.
dipole parallel to the field 𝐵
henry/metre or 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 .
If 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜏 = 𝑚𝐵
Hence the magnetic dipole may be
2. Magnetic, dipole moment. It is equal
defined as the torque acting on a
to the product of the pole strength (𝑞𝑚 )
magnetic dipole placed perpendicular to
and the magnetic length (2𝑙) of the
a uniform magnetic field of unit
magnet.
strength.
𝒎 = 𝒒𝒎 × 𝟐𝒍
The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment
is Am2 or 𝐽𝑇 −1 . 6. Potential energy of a magnetic dipole
in a magnetic field. When a magnetic
3. Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an dipole is rotated in a magnetic field
axial point (end-on position). against the torque from initial position
𝜇 𝑚 𝜃1 to final position 𝜃2 , the work done or
(i) 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 0 . (𝑟2 2 )3/2
4𝜋 +𝑙 the potential energy stored is given by
where r is the distance of the point from 𝑊 = 𝑈 = − 𝑚𝐵 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 )
the centre of the magnet. P.E. is zero when 𝑚 ⃗⃗ ⊥ 𝐵⃗ . Hence P.E. of
(ii) For a short magnet, 𝑙 << 𝑟, the dipole in any orientation 0 is
𝜇 2𝑚
𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 4𝜋0 . 𝑟3 𝑼 = − 𝒎𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = −𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗ . ⃗𝑩
⃗
The magnetic field at any axial point of 7. Special cases
magnetic dipole is in the same direction 1. When 𝜃 = 0°, 𝑈 = − 𝑚𝐵. Thus the
as that of its magnetic dipole moment. P.E. of a dipole is minimum when m is
parallel to B. This is the position of
4. Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an stable equilibrium.
equatorial point (Broadside-on 2. When 𝜃 = 90°, 𝑈 = 0.
position). 3. When 𝜃 = 180°, 𝑈 = +𝑚𝐵.
𝜇 𝑚
(i) 𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎 = 4𝜋0 . (𝑟2 +𝑙2 )3/2

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1
 Thus the P.E. of the dipole is maximum Mathematically,
⃗ . This is the
when in is antiparallel to 𝐵 𝝓𝑩 = ∫𝑺 𝑩⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒔
⃗ = 𝟎.
position of unstable equilibrium. This law indicates that isolated
magnetic poles (also called monopoles)
8. Current loop as a magnetic dipole. A do not exist.
planar current loop of area A and
carrying current 𝐼 behaves as a 12. Horizontal component of earth's
magnetic dipole of dipole moment, magnetic field. It is the component of
𝑚= 𝐼𝐴 the earth's total magnetic field B acting
In vector notation, 𝑚
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝐴 in the horizontal direction.
𝐵𝐻 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿
The direction of 𝑚 ⃗⃗ is given by right hand At the magnetic equator, 𝛿 = 0°,
thumb 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 𝐵
rule. If we curl the fingers of the right At the magnetic poles, 𝛿 = 90°,
hand along the direction of current in 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0.
the loop, then the extended thumb
gives the direction of the magnetic 13. Relations between the elements of
moment associated with the loop. earth's magnetic field.
𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿
9. Magnetic dipole moment of a and
revolving electron. The orbital magnetic 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
moment of an electron revolving 𝐵𝑉
= tan 𝛿
around a nucleus in n th orbit of radius r 𝐵𝐻
with speed v is given by and
𝒆𝒗𝒓 𝒆 𝒆𝒉
𝝁𝒍 = = 𝒍 = 𝒏( ) 𝑩 = √𝑩𝟐𝑯 + 𝑩𝟐𝑽
𝟐 𝟐𝒎𝒆 𝟒𝝅𝒎𝒆

Where 𝑙 is the magnitude of the 14. Neutral point. It is the point where the
angular momentum of the electron magnetic field of a bar magnet is
revolving around the nucleus. completely cancelled by the horizontal
10. Bohr magneton. It is the magnetic component of earth’s magnetic field.
dipole moment associated with an (i) For a magnet placed with its N-pole
electron due to its orbital motion in the pointing geographic north, the neutral
first orbit of hydrogen atom. It is the points lie at the equatorial line.
smallest value of 𝜇𝑙 . At each neutral point,
𝒆𝒉 𝜇0 𝑚
𝝁𝑩 = (𝝁𝒍 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝐵𝐻 = . 2
𝟒𝝅𝝁𝒍 4𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙 2 )3/2
𝜇0 𝑚
= 9.27 × 10−24 𝐴𝑚2 = .
4𝜋 𝑟 3
11. Gauss's law in magnetism. This law (ii) For a magnet placed with its N-pole
states that the net magnetic flux pointing geographic south, the neutral
through any closed surface is zero.

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2
 points lie at the axial line. At each 19. Magnetic permeability. It is the ratio
neutral point, of the magnetic induction to the
𝜇0 2𝑚𝑟 magnetising field intensity.
𝐵𝐻 = . 2 𝑩
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙 2 )3/2
𝜇0 2𝑚 𝝁=
𝑯
= . 𝐼𝑡𝑠 𝑆𝐼 unit is 𝑇𝑚𝐴−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑏𝑚−1 𝐴−1.
4𝜋 𝑟 3
15. Magnetising field. The magnetic field
that exists in vacuum and induces 20. Relative permeability. It is the ratio of
magnetism is called magnetising field. the permeability of the material to the
The magnetising field set up in a permeability of free space.
solenoid carrying current 𝐼 and placed 𝝁
𝝁𝒓 =
in vacuum, 𝝁𝟎
𝐵0 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
SI unit of 𝐵0 is tesla (T) 21. Magnetic susceptibility. It is the ratio
of the intensity of magnetisation (M)
16. Magnetising field intensity or induced to the magnetising field
magnetic intensity. It is the number of intensity (H).
ampere-turns (𝑛𝐼) flowing round the 𝑴
𝝌𝒎 =
unit length of the solenoid required to 𝑯
produce a given magnetising field. It can be shown that
Thus 𝐻 = 𝑛𝐼 𝜇 = 𝜇0 (1 + 𝜒𝑚 )
Also, 𝐵0 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝜇𝐻 And 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟏 +
𝐵 𝝌𝒎
∴ 𝐻 = 𝜇0
0
SI unit of H is 𝐴𝑚−1 and its dimensions
22. Diamagnetic substances. These are the
are [𝐿−1 𝐴].
substances which when placed in a
magnetising field get feebly magnetised
17. magnetisation of intensity of
in the opposite direction of the applied
magnetisation. It is the magnetic
field. Such substances are feebly
moment developed per unit volume of a
repelled by magnets and tend to move
material when placed in a magnetising
slowly from stronger to weaker parts of
field. It is a vector quantity.
𝒎 a magnetic field.
𝑴=
𝑽 Examples are
Its SI unit is A 𝐵𝑖, 𝐶𝑢, 𝑃𝑏, 𝑆𝑖, 𝑁2 (𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃), 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙.
𝑚−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 𝑊𝑏 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑇 −1 .

18. Magnetic induction. It is the total 23. Paramagnetic substances. These are
number of magnetic lines of force the substances which when placed in a
crossing per unit area through a magnetising field get feebly magnetised
magnetic material. Its SI unit is tesla (T). in the direction of the magnetising field.
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑯 + 𝑴) Such substances are feebly attracted by
magnets and tend to move slowly from
weaker to stronger parts of a magnetic

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3
 field. Examples are If a bar magnet of magnetic moment m
𝐴𝑙, 𝑁𝑎, 𝐶𝑎, 𝑂2 (𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2 . and moment of inertia I oscillates under
the horizontal component (BH ) of
earth’s magnetic field, then its period of
24. Curie's law. The magnetic susceptibility vibration is
of a paramagnetic substance varies
inversely with its absolute temperature. 𝑰
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ .
𝟏 𝒎𝑩𝑯
𝝌𝒎 ∝
𝑻 28. Uses of vibration magnetometer.
𝑪
or 𝝌𝒎 = , (i) Measurement of magnetic moment of
𝑻

where C is curie constant. a magnet,

25. Curie temperature. The temperature 4𝜋 2 𝐼

𝑚=
above which a ferromagnetic substance 𝐵𝐻 𝑇 2
becomes paramagnetic is called Curie (ii) Comparison of magnetic moments of
temperature (TC). The modified Curie law two magnets of same size and same
for ferromagnetic substances above the mass.
Curie temperature is
𝑚2 𝑇12
𝐂′ =
𝛘𝒎 = (𝐓 > 𝐓𝐂 ) 𝑚1 𝑇22
𝐓 − 𝐓𝐂
(iii) Comparison of magnetic moments of
This relation is also called Curie-Weiss
two magnets of unequal sizes and
law.
masses.
26. Tangent galvanometer. Its working is
𝑚1 𝑇22 + 𝑇12
based on tangent law and is used to =
measure very small currents. It consists 𝑚2 𝑇22 − 𝑇12
of a circular coil of radius R and N turns. (iv) Comparison of horizontal
If a current I in the coil produces component of earth’s magnetic field.
deflection θ in the compass needle at the
𝐵𝐻 𝑇 ,2
centre of the coil, then 𝐵𝐻
= 𝑇2
𝟐𝑹𝑩𝑯
𝑰=( ) 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝑲 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
𝝁𝟎 𝑵
2𝑅𝐵𝐻
where 𝐾 = 𝜇0 𝑁
, is the reduction factor
of the tangent galvanometer.
27. Vibration magnetometer. It is used to
compare magnetic moments of two bar
magnets or to determine the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field.

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4
 Electromagnetic Induction
The negative sign shows that induced
1. Magnetic flux. The number of
emf opposes the change in flux. It is in
magnetic lines of force crossing a
accordance with Lenz’s law.
surface normally is called magnetic flux
linked with the surface. If the normal
5. Motional emf. The emf induced
drawn to the surface area A makes
across the ends of a conductor due to
angle θ with the field B ⃗ , then the
its motion in a magnetic field is called
magnetic flux is
motional emf. It is produced due to the
ϕ = BA cos θ = ⃗B. ⃗A magnetic Lorentz force acting on the
Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. Its free electrons of the conductor. If a
dimensions are [ML2A-1T-2]. conductor of length I moves with
velocity v in a magnetic field B
perpendicular to both its length and
2. SI unit of magnetic flux is weber the direction of the magnetic field,
(Wb). It is the flux produced when a then the emf induced across its ends is
uniform magnetic field of 1 T crosses given by ε = Blv
normally an area of 1 m2. The CGS unit ε Blv
of magnetic flux is maxwell. Induced current, I = R = R
1 weber = 108 maxwell Force necessary to move the conductor,
B2 l2 v
F= R
Power dissipated as Joule heating loss,
3. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic B2 𝑙 2 v2
induction. P = Fv = R
First law. Whenever the magnetic flux
linked with a closed circuit changes, an 6. Relation between induced charge
emf is induced in it which lasts only so and change in magnetic flux. The
long as the change in flux is taking induced charge flowing through a
place. circuit depends on the net change in
Second law. The magnitude of induced magnetic flux linked with circuit and is
emf is equal to the rate of change of independent of the time interval of the
magnetic flux linked with the closed flux change.
dϕ
circuit. Mathematically, |ε| =
dt ∆ϕ Net change in magnetic flux
∆q - R
= Resistance

4. Mathematical form of the laws of

electromagnetic induction. For a coil
of one turn, induced emf is given by. 7. Self-inductance of a long solenoid.
The selfinductance of a long solenoid of
dϕ ϕ2 − ϕ1 length l, area of cross-section A and
ε=− =−
dt t having N turns is
dϕ μ N2 A N
For a coil of N turns, ε = −N df = L= 0 l = μ0n2lA, where n = l
ϕ2 −ϕ1
−N t
. When the solenoid is wound over a soft
iron core of relative permeability μr, L =

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1
 μr μ0 n2lA The value of self inductance
depends on the number of turns in the
solenoid, its area of cross-section and
the relative permeability of its core
material.

8. Mutual-inductance or coefficient
of mutual induction (M). If a current I
flowing through one coil generates flux
ϕ in the neighbouring coil, then sϕ = MI
dϕ dI
Induced emf, ε = - dt = -M dt
Thus mutual-inductance of two coils may
be defined as the induced emf set up in
one coil when the current in the
neighbouring coil changes at the unit
rate.

9. Mutual inductance of two long

solenoids. The mutual inductance of
two long co-axial solenoids wound over
one another is
μ N N A
M = 0 1l 2 = μ0 n1 n2 Al = μ0n1n2 πr12 l
where n1, n2 are the number of turns per
unit length of the solenoids, l is their
common length and A = πr12 = cross-
sectional area of the inner solenoid.

10. Henry. It is SI unit for both self and

mutual-inductances. Inductance is one
henry if an induced emf of 1 volt is set
up when the current changes at the
rate of 1 ampere per second.
1 henry (H) = 1 VsA-1 = 1 Wb A-1.

11. Coefficient of coupling. It gives a

measure of the manner in which two
coils are coupled together. If L1 and L2
are the self-inductances of the two
coils and M is the mutual inductance,
then the coefficient of coupling
M
K = √L
1 L2
The value of K lies between 0 and 1.

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2
 Alternating current and Electrical Machines
alternating current and voltage of the
1. Alternating current. It is that current
same frequency as rotating vectors
which varies in magnitude
(phasors) along- with proper phase
continuously and reverses its direction
angle between them is called a phasor
periodically. Its value at any instant is
diagram or Argand diagram.
given by
6. A.C. circuit containing only an inductor.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝎𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕 An alternating voltage, = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡 if
where I0 is the peak value of a.c. or applied to a pure inductor L drives a
current amplitude. The frequency of current, I = I0 sin (ωt - π / 2) in the
a.c. supplied to our homes is 50 cps. inductor. The current in the inductor
The average value of a.c. over a lags behind the voltage in phase by π /
complete cycle is zero. 2 rad.
𝜀 𝜀
Peak value of current, 𝐼0 = 𝜔𝐿0 = 𝑋0
2. Average or mean value of a.c. It is that 𝐿

value of direct current which sends the Root mean square value of current,
𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝜺𝟎
same charge in a circuit in the same 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = =
time as is sent by the given alternating 𝑿𝑳 𝝎𝑳 √𝟐. 𝝎𝑳
7. Inductive reactance. It is the effective
current in the same circuit in its half
𝟐 resistance or opposition offered by an
time period. 𝑰𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑰𝟎 inductor to the flow of a.c. through it.
𝝅
3. Effective or rms or virtual value of a.c. It is given by XL = ωL = 2 π/L
It is that value of direct current which The SI unit of inductive reactance is
produces the same heating effect in a ohm (Ω).
given resistor as is produced by the For a.c., XL ∝ f
given alternating current when passed For d.c., f = 0, so XL =0. (7.87)
for the same time. 𝐼𝑟𝑛𝑠 or 8. A.C. circuit containing only a capacitor.
1
– 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 or 𝐼𝑣 = 2 ⋅ 𝐼0 An alternating voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
√
= 0.707𝐼0 applied to a capacitor Cdrives a
4. Alternating voltage. It is that voltage current, I = I0 sin (ωt + π/2) in the
whose magnitude varies continuously capacitor. The current in the inductor is
and direction reverses periodically with ahead of voltage in phase by π/2 rad.
𝜀 𝜀
time. Its instantaneous, average and Peak value of current, 𝐼0 = 0 = 0
1/𝜔𝐶 𝑋𝐶
root mean square values are Root mean square value of current,
respectively given by 𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝜺𝟎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = = =
𝜀 = 𝜀0 SIN𝜔𝑡𝑡 𝜀𝑎𝑣 = 0.637𝐸0 𝑿𝑪 𝟏/𝝎𝑪 √𝟐 ⋅ 𝟏/𝝎𝑪
9. Capacitive reactance. It is the effective
𝟏 resistance or opposition offered by a
𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝜺𝟎
√𝟐 capacitor to the flow of a.c. through it.
1 1
5. Phasors and phasor diagrams. A It is given by 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
rotating vector that represents a The SI unit of capacitive reactance is
sinusoidally varying quantity is called a ohm (Ω)
phasor. A diagram that represents

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 1 Instantaneous voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
For a.c., 𝑋𝐶 ∝ 𝑓
Instantaneous current, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 −
For d.c., 𝑓 = 0, so 𝑋𝐶 = ∞
𝜙)
Thus a capacitor allows a.c. to flow 𝜀0 𝜀
Peak current, 𝐼0 = = 0
through it easily but blocks d.c. √𝑅2 +𝑋𝐶2
𝑍
10. Impedance. It is a quantity that 𝜀0 𝜀
measures the opposition of a circuit to Impedance, 𝐼0 = = 𝑍0
√𝑅2 +𝑋𝐶2
the flow of current through it and so 𝑋𝐶
determines the magnitude of the Phase angle, 𝜙 = tan−1 or 𝜙 =
𝑅
current. In a d.c. circuit, this is the 𝑅
cos−1
𝑍
resistance R alone. In an a.c. circuit, the
13. The series LCR-circuit. For a series LCR-
reactance X also has to be taken into
circuit connected across a source 𝜀 =
account, according to the relation:
𝜉0 sin𝜔𝑡 the current I is given by
Z2 = R2 + X2 𝜀0
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
Where Z is the impedance. Impedance 𝑍
triangle is a right angled triangle where Z is the total effective resistance
whose base represents resistance R, of the LCR-circuit and is called its
perpendicular represents reactance impedance.
and hypotenuse represents 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐
impedance Z of the circuit. From this
triangle, the phase angle ϕ between 𝟏 𝟐
= √𝑹𝟐 + (𝝎𝑳 − ) T
voltage and current is given by 𝝎𝑪

𝑋 𝑅 The phase angle ϕ between voltage

tan𝜙 = or cos𝜙 = and current is given by
𝑅 𝑍
11. A.C. through a series LR-circuit. The 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑅
tan𝜙 = and cos𝜙 =
alternating voltage leads the current by 𝑅 𝑍
a phase angle ϕ The voltage leads the current if XL > XC
Instantaneous voltage, 𝜀 = 𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡 and it lags behind the current if XL <XC.
Instantaneous current, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 −
𝜙) 14. Resonance condition of the LCR-
𝜀0 𝜀 circuit. If XL=XC, the impedance of LCR
Peak current, 𝐼0 = = 𝑍0
√𝑅2 +𝑋𝐿2 circuit becomes
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 𝑅
Impedance, 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 =
The impedance is minimum and hence
√𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
𝑋 current is maximum. The circuit is
Phase angle, 𝜙 = tan−1 𝑅𝐿 or 𝜙 = purely resistive and voltage and
𝑅
cos−1 𝑍 current are in same phase. This is the
12. A.C. through a series CR-circuit. The resonance condition of LCR-circuit and
alternating voltage lags behind the is satisfied at the resonant frequency
voltage by phase angle ϕ given by

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 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒇𝒓 = 𝑼= 𝑳𝑰
𝟐𝝅√𝑳𝑪 𝟐 𝟎
15. Q-Factor. It indicates the sharpness of 18. Energy stored in a capacitor. The
resonance. It is defined as the ratio of energy stored in a capacitor when it is
the resonant frequency to the charged from 0 to V volt is
difference in two frequencies taken on 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
both sides of the resonant frequency 𝑼= 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑸𝑽 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝑪
such that at each frequency, the
19. LC-oscillations. When a charged
current amplitude becomes 1 / √2
capacitor is allowed to discharge
times the value at resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency through a non-resistive inductor,
Q-factor = = electrical oscillations of constant
Band width

𝝎𝒓 𝝎𝒓 𝑳 𝟏 𝑳 amplitude and frequency are

= = √ produced. These oscillations are called
𝝎𝟐 − 𝝎𝟏 𝑹 𝑹 𝑪
LC-oscillations. The charge of the
16. Power in an a.c.-circuit. The average capacitor satisfies the equation of SHM
power in an a.c. circuit consumed per
cycle is given by 𝒅𝟐 𝒒 𝟏
+ 𝒒=𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑳𝑪
𝜀0 𝐼0
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⋅ cos𝜙 = cos𝜙 Instantaneous charge, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 cos𝜔0 𝑡
2
𝑑𝑞
Here cos ϕ is called power factor which Instantaneous current, 𝐼=− =
𝑑𝑡
is the ratio of true power (Pav) to the 𝜔0 𝑞0 sin𝜔0 𝑡
apparent power
Angular frequency of free oscillations,
(𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) 𝜔0 =
1
𝑅 √𝐿𝐶
Power factor, cos𝜙 = 𝑍 =
Frequency of free oscillations, 𝑓0 =
𝑅
𝜔0 1
√𝑅2 +(𝜔𝐿−1/𝜔𝐶)2 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
√
(i) For a pure resistive circuit, ϕ = 0, The energy in the LC-circuit oscillates
2
𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 between the capacitor and the
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝜀𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = inductor but the total energy remains
𝑅
constant.
(ii) For a pure inductive circuit, 𝜙 =
𝜋 20. Transformer. It is a device used to
, 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0
2 convert a.c. at high voltage into that at
(iii) For a pure capacitive circuit, 𝜙 = low voltage or vice versa. For an ideal
𝜋
− 2 , 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 0 transformer,
𝜀2 𝐼1 𝑁2
17. Energy stored in an inductor. When = = =𝑘
the current in an inductor grows from 0 𝜀1 𝐼2 𝑁1
to I0, the magnetic energy stored in it is Here suffix 1 refers to primary coil and

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 suffix 2 to secondary coil and k is called
transformation or turns ratios of the
transformer.
(i) For a step up transformer, k >1 or N2 >
N1
𝜀2 > 𝜀1 and 𝐼2 < 𝐼1
(ii) For a step down transformer, k < 1 or
N2<N1
𝜀2 < 𝜀1 and 𝐼2 > 𝐼1
21. A.C. generator. It is a device to convert
mechanical energy into electrical
energy of alternating form. It consists
of a coil of wire that rotates with
angular velocity ω in the magnetic field
B of a permanent magnet. The flux
through the coil varies as ϕ = NBA cos
cof, where N is the number of turns in
the coil having the face area
A. (At t =0, the loop is normal to the field).
Induced emf, 𝐸 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔sin𝜔𝑡 =
𝜀0 sin𝜔𝑡
𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
𝐼= sin𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼0 sin𝜔𝑡
𝑅

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 Electromagnetic Waves
𝒅𝝓𝐁 𝒅
∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 =− ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ]
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
[∮ 𝑩
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
1. Displacement current. It is that current (iv) Modified Ampere's circuital law :
which comes into existence (in addition
𝒅𝝓𝐄
of conduction current) whenever the ∮ 𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ == 𝝁𝟎 [𝑰𝑪 + 𝜺𝟎
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 ]
electric field and hence the electric flux 𝒅𝒕
changes with time. It is equal to ε0
times the rate of change of electric flux
4. Source of an electromagnetic wave. An
through a given surface.
accelerating charge produces
𝒅𝝓𝐄 𝒅𝑬 electromagnetic waves. An electric
𝑰𝑫 = 𝜺𝟎 𝒅𝒕
= 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝒅𝒇
charge oscillating harmonically with
2. Modified Ampere circuital law. It frequency v, generates electromagnetic
states that the line integral of the waves of the same frequency v. An
magnetic field B over a dosed path is electric dipole is a basic source of
equal to μ0 times the sum of conduction electromagnetic waves.
current IC and the displacement current An LC-circuit containing inductance
(ID) threading the closed path. L and capacitance C produces
electromagnetic waves of
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑂 ) frequency,

𝒅𝝓𝑬 𝟏
= 𝝁𝟎 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝒔𝟎 ) 𝐯 =
𝒅𝒕 𝟐𝛑√𝑳𝑪
The sum of conduction and 5. Mathematical representation of
displacement currents has an important electromagnetic waves. For a plane
property of continuity i.e., the sum electromagnetic wave of frequency v,
remains constant along any closed path. wavelength 𝜆, propagating along x-
axis, the electric and magnetic fields
may be represented as follows :
3. Maxwell's equations. These are as ⃗E = Ey^j = E0 sin(kx − ωt)j^
follows:
x
(i) Gauss law of electrostatics: = E0 sin [2π ( − vt)]^j
λ
𝒒 x t
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
⃗ . 𝒅𝑺
𝑬
𝜺𝟎 = E0 sin [2π ( − )]^j
λ T
(ii) Gauss law of magnetism: Ex = Ez = 0
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑩 𝒅𝑺 = 𝟎 and ⃗B = Bz k̂ = B0 sin (kx - ωt) k̂
𝑥
(iii) Faraday's law of = 𝐵0 sin [2𝜋 ( − 𝑣𝑡)] 𝑘 ^
𝜆
electromagnetic induction:
𝑥 𝑡
= 𝐵0 sin [2𝜋 ( − )] 𝑘 ^
𝜆 𝑇
Bx = By = 0

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Here E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the 𝟏 𝑩𝟐
𝒖 = 𝒖𝑬 + 𝒖𝑩 = [𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐𝟎 + 𝟎 ]
electric and magnetic fields respectively. 𝟐 𝝁
Propagation constant,
𝟐𝝅 𝝎 7. Intensity of an electromagnetic
𝒌= = .
𝝀 𝒄 wave. The energy' crossing per unit area
per unit time in a direction perpendicular
6. Basic properties of to the direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic waves. These are wave is called intensity of the wave.
Energy/ time Power
(i) The e.m. waves are produced by Intensity = =
Area Area
accelerated charges and do not require
any medium for their propagation. For an e.m. wave of average energy density
u,
(ii) The oscillations of ⃗Eand ⃗Bfields are
I = uc
perpendicular to each other as well as
to the direction of propagation of the 1 2
Also, I = 2 ε0 E02 c = ε0 Erms c
wave. So the e.m. waves are transverse
1 1 2
in nature. and I = 2µ β02 c = µ Brms c
0 0

(iii) The oscillations of ⃗E and ⃗B fields are in

same phase.
(iv) All electromagnetic waves travel in
free space with same speed c given by
𝟏
𝐜= ≃ 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 ms−𝟏
√𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎
In a material medium of refractive index
n, the speed of an electromagnetic
wave is given by
𝟏 𝒄 𝒄
𝒗= = =
√𝝁𝜺 √𝝁𝒓 𝜺𝒓 𝒏
(v) The ratio of the amplitudes of electric
and magnetic fields is
𝑬𝟎 𝟏
=𝒄=
𝑩𝟎 √𝝁𝟎 𝜺𝟎
(vi) The electromagnetic waves carry
energy as they travel through space and
this energy is shared equally by the
electric and magnetic fields. The
average energy of an electromagnetic
wave is

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 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
(ii) If | m | <1, the image is diminished.
1. Images formed by inclined mirrors.
When two planes mirrors are kept (iii) If | m | = 1, the image is of the same
facing each other at an angle θ and an size as the object.
object is placed between them, a
(iv) If m is positive, the image is virtual
number of images are formed due to
and erect.
multiple reflections.
(v) If m is negative, the image is real
If θ is a submultiple of 180°, then the
and inverted.
number of images formed is n =
360 5. Laws of refraction of light:
θ
− 1.
First law. The incident ray, the
If θ is not a submultiple of 180𝑜 then
refracted ray and the normal at the
the number of images formed is the
360 point of incidence all lie in the same
integer next higher than ( θ
− 1). For plane.
360
two parallel plane mirrors, 𝑛 = = Second law. The ratio of the sine of
0
∞. the angle of incidence and the sine of
2. Relation between focal length and the angle of refraction is constant for
radius of curvature of a spherical a given pair of media. This law is also
mirror. known as Snell's law of refraction
1 sin i
Focal length = × Radius of curvature = = μ, a constant.
2 sin r
𝑅
or 𝑓=2 The constant μ is called refractive index
In new cartesian sign convention, the of second medium w.r.t. first medium.
focal length and radius of curvature are 6. Refractive index. Refractive index of a
taken negative for a concave mirror medium for a light of given
and positive for a convex mirror. wavelength may be defined as the
3. Spherical mirror formula. This gives ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to
relation between object distance u, its speed in that medium.
image distance v and the focal length f Velocity of light in vacuum 𝑐
a spherical mirror. μ = =
Velocity of light in medium 𝑣
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒖
+𝒗 = 𝐟
It may also be defined as the ratio of
the wavelength of light in vacuum to
4. Linear or transverse magnification. It its wavelength in that medium.
is the ratio of the height of the image
to that of the object. 𝐯𝐚𝐜
𝛍 =
𝐦𝐞𝐝
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐡𝟐 𝒗
𝐦 = = =− The refractive index of a medium with
𝐇𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐡𝟏 𝒖
𝒇 𝒇−𝒗 respect to vacuum is also called
= = absolute refractive index.
𝒇−𝒖 𝒇
(i) If | m | > 1, the image is magnified.

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1
7. Relative refractive index. The relative glass slab.
refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t.
10. Refraction through a combination of
medium 1 is the ratio of speed of light
media. When a ray of light passes
(v1) in medium 1 to the speed of light
through a combination of media, the
(v2)in medium 2.
quantity μ sin i remains constant,
1 𝑣
𝜇2 = 𝑣1 where μ is the absolute refractive index
2
of the medium and i the angle of
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝜇2
Also 1μ2 = = = constant incidence in that medium. Thus
sin 𝑟 𝜇1
𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝜇𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
or μ1 sin i = μ2 sin r = 𝜇𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑤𝑎𝑡𝔢𝑟
8. Principle of reversibility of light. This Also 𝑎 𝜇𝜔 × 𝜔 𝜇𝑔 × 𝑔 𝜇𝑎 = 1
𝑎𝜇
principle states that if the final path of and 𝜔 𝜇𝑔 = 𝑔
𝑎𝜇 𝜔
ray of light after it has suffered several
reflections and refractions is reversed, 11. Relation between real depth and
it retraces its path exactly. It follows apparent depth. Due to refraction of
from this principle that light, the apparent depth of an object
𝟏 placed in a denser medium is
𝟏𝛍 𝟐 =
𝟐𝛍𝟏
i.e., the refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t.
medium 1 is reciprocal of the refractive
index of medium 1 w.r.t. medium 2.
9. Refraction through a rectangular glass
slab. A ray of light on refraction
through a glass slab does not suffer any
deviation, i.e., the incident and
emergent rays are parallel, but the
emergent ray is laterally displaced
w.r.t. the incident ray. The lateral less than, the real depth. When an
displacement x on passing through a object O, in a denser medium of
glass slab of thickness t and refractive thickness t and refractive index μ is
index μ is given by seen through a rarer medium, its image
is seen at 𝐼. It is seen that
𝑡
𝑥= cos 𝑟
sin (𝑖 − 𝑟) = 𝑡 sin 𝑖 [1 − 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝑨𝑶
𝝁 = =
cos 𝑖 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝑨𝑶 𝑨𝑰
1 ] 𝑡
(𝜇2 −sin2 𝜄)2 Also, apparent depth, 𝐴𝐼 = 𝜇
where i is angle of incidence
The height through which an object
𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟗𝟎𝒐 = 𝒕 appears to be raised in a denser
Thus the displacement of the emergent medium is called normal shift.
ray cannot exceed the thickness of the ∴ Normal shift, 𝑑 = 𝐼𝑂 – 𝐴𝑂 – 𝐴𝑙 =

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2
 1 refractive index μ2, of a spherical
𝑡 (1 − 𝜇)
surface of radius of curvature R, the
Total normal shift for compound media relation between object distance u and
1 1 image distance v is
= 𝑡1 (1 − μ ) + 𝑡2 (1 − μ ) + ⋯
1 2 μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1
= =
12. Critical angle and total internal v u R
reflection. The angle of incidence In If the rarer medium is air, then μ1 = 1
the denser medium for which the angle μ 1 μ−1
and μ2 = μ, we have v − u = R
of refraction in the rarer medium is 90°
is called critical angle of the denser (ii) Refraction from denser to rarer
medium and is denoted by ic. When i = medium. When the object is placed in
ic, r = 90°. a denser medium, the relation
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑐 1 1 between u and v can be obtained by
As = or μ =
sin 90° μ sin ic
interchanging μ1 and μ2.
μ1 μ2 μ1 − μ2
− =
v u R
15. Power of a spherical refracting
μ −μ μ−1
surface. It is given by 𝑃 = 2 R 1 = 𝑅
(for air) where R is measured in metre.
The power of a convex surface is
positive and that of a concave surface
is negative.
16. Principal focal lengths of a spherical
surface.
Total internal reflection is the (i) First principal focal length. it is the
phenomenon in which a ray of light
distance of a point from the pole of the
travelling at an angle of incidence
surface at which if an object is placed,
greater than the critical angle from a the image is formed at infinity.
denser to a rarer medium is totally
μ1 R
reflected back into the denser medium, First principal focal length, 𝑓1 =
μ2 −μ1
obeying the laws of reflection.
13. Relation between critical angle and (ii) Second principal focal length. It is
𝟏 the distance of a point from the pole of
refractive index. μ = .
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒄 the surface at which the image of an
14. Refraction through a spherical object at infinity is formed.
surface. A surface which forms part of
a sphere of a transparent refracting Second principal focal length, 𝑓2 =
μ2 R
material is called a spherical refracting μ2 −μ1
surface.
(i) Refraction from rarer to denser 17. Lens maker's formula. This formula
medium. When a ray of light travels relates the focal length f to the
from a rarer medium of refractive refractive index μ and the radii of
index μ1 to a denser medium of

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3
 curvature R1, R2 of its spherical preceding lens. The total magnification
surfaces. is equal to the product of the
1 μ2 − μ1 1 1 magnifications produced by the
=[ ][ − ] individual lenses.
𝑓 μ1 R1 R 2
m = m1 × m2 × m3 × ....
For the lens placed in air,
1 1 1 The combined focal length / of two thin
𝑓
= (μ − 1) [R − R ] lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed
1 2
in contact is given by
18. Thin lens formula. This formula gives
relationship between object distance 1 1 1
= +
u, image distance v and focal length f a 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
spherical lens (convex or concave) of For n thin lenses in contact,
small aperture. 1 1 1 1
𝑓
= 𝑓 + 𝑓 +…+ 𝑓 or 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 +
1 2 𝑛
1 1 1
− u = f. ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛
v
When the two thin lenses are
19. Linear magnification produced by a separated by a distance d, their
lens. It is the ratio of the size of the equivalent focal length f is given by
image formed by a lens to the size of 1 1 1 𝑑
= + +
the object. 𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
or Power, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑑 × 𝑃1 × 𝑃2
size of image
Magnification = size of object
22. Refraction through a prism. When a
h2 v f f−v ray of light is refracted through a prism,
or 𝑚 = = = =
h1 u f+u f the sum of the angle of incidence i and
When m is positive (or v is negative), the angle of emergence i’ is equal to
the image is virtual and erect. When m the sum of the angle of the prism A and
is negative (or v is positive), the image the angle of deviation δ.
is real and inverted. 𝐴 + 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑖′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 𝑟 + 𝑟′
20. Power of a lens. The power of a lens is where 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟′ are the
defined as the reciprocal of its focal corresponding angles of refraction at
length, expressed in metres. the two faces.
1 23. Relation between the refractive index
𝑃=
𝑓 (𝑚) and angle of minimum deviation. The
SI unit of power is m-1, also called minimum value of the angle of
dioptre (D). One dioptre is the power of deviation suffered by a ray on passing
a lens whose principal focal length is 1 through a prism is called the angle of
metre. minimum deviation and is denoted by
δm. When a ray of light suffers
1 1 1
P= = (μ − 1) [ − ]. minimum deviation.
f R1 R2

21. Lens combinations. When lenses are 𝑖 = 𝑖′, 𝑟 = 𝑟’ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿 = 𝛿𝑚

used in combination, each lens A + δm
∴ A + δm = i + i = 2i or 𝑖 = 2
magnifies the image formed by the

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4
 A
and A = r + r = 2r or 𝑟 = intensity of light of wavelength 
2
present in the scattered light is
A + δm
sin i inversely proportional to the fourth
Refractive index, μ = sin r = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
𝐴 1
sin
2 power of wavelength : 𝐼 ∝ 4

24. Deviation produced by a prism of So, blue colour of sunlight is scattered
small angle. It does not depend on the more by the atmospheric molecules,
angle of incidence and is given by δ = (μ due to which the sky appears blue.
-1) A.
25. Angular dispersion. The angular 29. Long-sightedness or hypermetropia.
separation between the two extreme In this defect a person can see the far
colours (violet and red) in the spectrum off objects clearly but he cannot see
is called angular dispersion. nearby objects distinctly. Here, either
the eyeball becomes too short or the
Angular dispersion focal length of the eyelens becomes
= δV − δR = (μV − 1)𝐴 too large. It can be corrected by using
− (μR — 1)𝐴 convex lens of suitable focal length.
= (μV — μR )A 𝑦𝐷
Focal length of correcting lens = =
𝑦−𝐷
26. Dispersion power. It is the ability of
the prism material to cause dispersion where y = distance of the near point
and is defined as the ratio of the from the defective eye.
angular dispersion to the mean 30. Simple microscope. It is a convex lens
deviation. of short focal length. When the object
Angular dispersion is placed between the lens and its focus
Dispersion power = Mean deviation and the eye is held just behind the lens,
δ𝑉 − δ𝑅 a virtual, erect and enlarged image is
=
δ seen. When the final image is formed
(𝜇𝑉 − 1)𝐴 − (𝜇𝑅 − 1)𝐴 𝜇𝑉 − 𝜇𝑅 at the least distance of distinct vision
= =
(𝜇 − 1)𝐴 𝜇−1 (D), the magnifying power of the simple
δ𝑉 −δ𝑅 𝜇𝑉 +𝜇𝑅 microscope is
Here δ = and 𝜇=
2 2
𝑚
27. Chromatic aberration. The inability of Angle subtended by the image at
= the least distance of distinct vision
a lens to bring the light rays of
different colours to focus at a single Angle subtended by the object at
point is called chromatic aberration. the least distance of distinct vision
Longitudinal chromatic aberration of a  𝐷
or 𝑚 =  = 1 + 𝑓
lens
= Dispersive power × focal When the final image is formed at
𝐷
length of the lens for mean colour infinity, 𝑚 = 𝑓 , viewing is more
or 𝑓𝑅 − 𝑓𝑉 = 𝜔 × 𝑓 comfortable when the eye is focussed
at infinity.
28. Blue colour of the sky. According to
Rayleigh's law of scattering, the

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5
31. Compound microscope. It is an optical 𝑚
device used to see magnified images of Angle subtended by the image
tiny objects. The objective is a convex at distance D from the eye
=
lens of very short focal length and of Angle subtended by the object at
small aperture. The eyepiece is a infinity
convex lens of relatively larger focal  𝑓 𝑓
or 𝑚 =  = − 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 )
length and of larger aperture. The 𝑒
difference between the focal lengths of Length of telescope, 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + 𝑢𝑒 =
the eyepiece and the objective is small. 𝑓𝑒 𝐷
Its magnifying power is given by 𝑓𝑒 +𝐷

m = mo × me When the final image is formed at

infinity (normal adjustment),
When the final image is formed at the
Angle subtended by the
least distance of distinct vision, final image formed at ∞ 
𝑚= Angle subtended by or 𝑚 = =
Angle subtended by final virtual image 
at distance D from the eye the object at ∞
𝑚= Angle subtended by the object at 𝑓
− 𝑓0
distance D from the eye 𝑒

 𝑣0 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷 Length of the telescope in normal

or 𝑚 = 
= 𝑢0
(1 + 𝑓 ) = 𝑓0
(1 + 𝑓 )
𝑒 adjustment,
When the final image is formed at L= f0 + fe
infinity,
For large magnifying power of a
𝐿 𝐷
𝑚= × telescope, clearly
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
f0 >> fe.
where L is the distance between the
objective and the eyepiece. 33. Terrestrial telescope. It is used to see
the erect images of distant earthly
32. Astronomical telescope. It is used to objects. It uses an additional convex
view heavenly bodies. The objective is lens between the objective and the
a convex lens of large focal length and eyepiece for erecting the image.
large aperture. The eyepiece is convex
lens of small focal length and small When the final image is formed at
𝑓
aperture. The difference in the focal infinity, its magnifying power, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒
lengths of the two lenses is large. The
eyepiece forms a real, inverted and Length of telescope = f0 + 4f + fe
diminished image. The eyepiece where f is the focal length of the
magnifies this image. The final image is erecting lens. When the final image is
inverted w.r.t. the object. formed at the least distance of distinct
𝑓 𝑓
When the final image is formed at the vision, 𝑚 = 𝑓0 (1 + 𝐷𝑒 ).
𝑒
least distance of distinct vision,
34. Galileo's telescope. It uses a concave
lens for the eyepiece to obtain an erect
image of the distant object. The real,

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6
 inverted and diminished image formed
by the objective lies at the focus of tire
eyepiece. The final image is formed at
infinity and is erect and magnified.
𝑓
In normal adjustment, 𝑚 = 𝑓0
𝑒

Length of telescope, L = f0 - fe.

35. Reflecting telescope. It uses a concave
paraboloidal mirror of large aperture
to view the distant objects. Both
spherical and chromatic aberrations
are minimum.
When the final image is formed at the
least distance of distinct vision,
𝑓0 𝑓𝑒
𝑚= (1 + )
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
When the final image is formed at
infinity,
𝑓 𝑅/2
𝑚 = 𝑓0 = 𝑓𝑒
.
𝑒

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7
 Wave Optics
ratio between tine intensities at maxima and
minima will be
1. Young's double slit experiment. In Young's I max (a +a )2 r+1 2
Imin
= (a1 −a2 )2 = (r−1)
double slit experiment, two identical narrow 1 2
a1 I
slits S1 and S2 are placed symmetrically with where r = a2
= √I1 , is the amplitude ratio of
2
respect to narrow slit S illuminated with
monochromatic light. The interference pattern two waves. If w1 and w2 are the wldths of the
is obtained on an observation screen placed at two slits, then
large distance D from S1 and S2. w1 I1 a21
= = .
The position of nth bright fringe from the w2 I2 a22
centre of screen is
𝐷λ 4. Displacement of interference fringes. When a
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 thin transparent sheet of thickness t and
𝑑
The position of nth dark fringe from the centre refractive index μ is inserted in the path of one
of the screen is of the interfering beams, the extra path
𝐷λ difference introduced is
𝑥𝑛′ = (2𝑛 − 1)
2𝑑
Fringe width is the separation between two ∆p = Length t in transparent sheet
successive bright or dark fringes and is given by
𝐷λ
β= - Length t in air
𝑑

2. Resultant amplitude and intensity of or ∆p = μt – t = (μ-1)t

interfering waves. If a1 and a2 are the
amplitudes and I1 and I2 are the intensities of ∴ Net path difference for any point on the
two coherent waves having phase difference ϕ, screen
then their resultant amplitude and intensity at
the point of superposition are given by 𝑥𝑑
= 𝐷
- (μ – 1) t
a = √a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos ϕ
and I = I1 + I2 + 2 .√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos ϕ For the central point of the screen,
If amplitude of each wave is and intensity I0,
then 𝑥𝑑 𝐷
- (μ - 1) t = 0 or x = 𝑑 (μ - 1) t
I =2 𝑘𝑎02 (1 + cos ϕ) = 2I0 (1 + cos ϕ) 𝐷
ϕ
= 4I0 cos2 2
Thus the shift in the central bright fringe and
The term 2√𝐼1 𝐼2cos ϕ is called interference hence shift of any other fringe is ∆x =
term. D β
𝑑
(μ-1)t = λ (μ-1)t
(i) When cos ϕ remains constant with time, the
two sources are coherent. The intensity will be
maximum at points for which cos ϕ = +1 and 5. Interference in thin films. A soap film or thin
film of oil spread over water shows beautiful
minimum at points for which cos ϕ = -1.
colours, when seen in the reflected light. This is
(ii) When cos ϕ varies continuously with time
due to interference between light waves
so that its average value is zero over the time
reflected by the upper and lower surfaces of
interval of measurement, the resultant
thin films, as shown in the figure below. The ray
intensity at all points will be I1 – I2 . No
reflected from the upper denser surface of thin
interference fringes are observed. The sources
film suffers a phase change of π or path
are incoherent.
difference of λ/2.
3. Ratio of intensity at maxima and minima of an
interference pattern. If a1 and a2 are the
amplitudes of two interfering waves, then the

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 Width of central maximum,
2Dλ
β0 = 2β =
a
Angular spread of central maximum on either
side of the centre of the screen is
λ
θ=±
a
Total angular spread of the central maximum is
2λ
2θ=
𝑎
For diffraction to be more pronounced, the size
of the slit should be comparable to the
Reflected system. The path difference wavelength of light used.
between the two consecutive rays reflected
from the upper and the lower surfaces of a thin 7. Diffraction at a circular aperture. For
film of refractive index μ and thickness t is diffraction of light at a circular aperture of
given by diameter a, the angular spread of central
λ
P = 2μt cos r – 2 maximum is
λ 1.22 λ
For maximum intensity. 2 μt cos r = (2 n + 1) θ= 𝑎
2
For minimum intensity. 2 μt cos r = nλ. If D is the distance at which the effect is
Transmitted system. observed, then
For maximum intensity. 2μt cos r = nλ Linear spread, x = Dθ
For minimum intensity. Areal spread, x2 = (Dθ)2.
λ
2 μt cos r = (2n + 1) , where n = 0,1,2,3....
2 8. Fresnel's distance. It is the distance at which
the diffraction spread of a beam becomes
6. Diffraction at a single slit. A plane wave of equal to the size of the aperture. If a is the
wavelength λ on passing through a narrow slit width of the aperture, then
of width a suffers diffraction producing a 𝑎2
central bright fringe (θ=0°), flanked on both DF = λ
sides by minima and maxima. The intensity of The ray optics is valid for a distance D< DF.
secondary maxima decreases with the increase
in distance from the centre. 9. Diffraction grating. It is an arrangement of a
For nth minimum : very large number of very narrow, equidistant
Asinθn=nλ, n =1,2,3, .... and parallel slits. The diffraction pattern has
For nth secondary maximum : the central principal maximum of maximum
λ intensity and a number of higher order
a sin θn =(2n + 1) =1,2,3,....
2 intensity maxima whose intensity decreases
Angular position of nth minimum, with the increase of n, the order of the
𝑛λ
θn = spectrum. The direction of nth principal
𝑎
Distance of nth minimum from the centre of maximum is given by
the screen,DX (a + b) sin θn = nλ
𝐷λ where n =0,1,2,3....
xn = n 𝑎
This equation is known as grating law. Here (a
Angular position of nth secondary maximum,
+ b) is called grating dement, where a is width
λ
θ′ n = (2n + 1) of each slit and b is the width of opaque space
2a between two consecutive slits.
Distance of nth secondary maximum from the
centre of the screen,
Dλ
X n′ = (2n + 1) 2a
10. Resolving power of a microscope. The
Width of a secondary maximum, resolving power of a microscope is defined as
Dλ the reciprocal of the smallest distance d
β=
a

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 θ
between two point objects at which they can [𝑠]𝑇𝐷 =
𝑙×𝑐
be just resolved when seen in the microscope.
1 2𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
R.P. of a microscope = 𝑑 = λ 15. Doppler effect It is the phenomenon of the
where θ is half the angle of cone of light from apparent change in the frequency of light due
each point object and μ is the refractive index to the relative motion between the source and
of the medium between the object and the observer. The apparent frequency v’ is given by
objective. 𝑣
𝑣 ′ = 𝑣 (1 ± 𝑐 )
The factor μ sin θ is called numerical aperture
When source moves towards the observer,
(N.A.).
velocity v is taken +ve and when it moves away
from the observer, v is taken -ve.
11. Resolving power of a telescope. The resolving
power of a telescope is defined as the
16. Doppler shift. The apparent change in the
reciprocal of the smallest angular separation
frequency of light due to Doppler effect is
'dθ' between two distant objects whose images
called Doppler shift.
can be just resolved by it. 𝑣
1 𝐷 (i) Δ v = ± 𝑐 v
R.P. of a telescope = dθ = 1.22 λ 𝑣
(ii) ∆ λ = ∓ 𝑐 . λ.
where D is the diameter of the telescope
objective and λ is the wavelength of light used.

12. Law of Malus. This law states that when a

beam of completely plane polarised light is
passed through an analyser, the intensity T of
the transmitted light varies directly as the
square of the angle '& between the
transmission directions of polariser and
analyser.
I = I0 cos2 θ
where I0 is the maximum intensity of
transmitted light.

13. Brewster law. This law states that the tangent

of the polarising angle of incidence of a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive
index.
μ = tan ip

14. Specific rotation. It is the angle through which

the plane of polarisation rotates when plane
polarised light is passed through one decimetre
length of solution containing one gram of the
substance per cm3. The measurement is done
at a given temperature T, using sodium light
(the D-line).
Specific rotation

Observed angle of rotation in degrees

Length of the tube in decimetre × Grams of substance in 1 cm3 of solution

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 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
a radiation of frequency v is incident on a metal
1. Electron. It is an elementary particle
surface, it is absorbed in the form of discrete
having a negative charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C and mass
packets of energy called quanta or photons. A
9.1 × 10-31 kg.
part of energy hv of a photon is used in removing
the electron from the metal surface and
2. Kinetic energy gained by an electron.
remaining energy is used in giving kinetic ' energy
When an electron is accelerated from rest
to the photoelectron. Einstein's photoelectric
through a potential difference of V volts, the gain
equation is
in its kinetic energy is 1 2
1 Kmax = 2 mvmax = eV0 = hv - W0 = h(v - v0)
eV = 2 mv2
where W0 is the work function of the metal and
3. Electron volt (eV). It is the kinetic energy
v0 is the threshold frequency.
gained by an electron when it is accelerated
All the experimental observations can be
through a potential difference of 1 volt.
explained on the basis of Einstein's photoelectric
1 eV =1.6 × 10-19 J, 1 MeV =1.6 × 10-13 J The work
equation.
function of a metal is generally measured in
electron volt (eV).
7. Compton scattering. It is the
4. Photons. According to Planck's quantum
phenomenon of increase in the wavelength of X-
theory of radiation, an electromagnetic wave
ray photons which occurs when these radiations
travels in the form of discrete packets of energy
are scattered on striking an electron. Then
called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is
difference in the wavelength of scattered and
called a photon. The main features of photons are
incident photons is called Compton shift, which is
as follows :
given by
(i) A photon travels with the speed of light. h
(ii) The frequency of a photon does not change ∆λ = m c (1 - cos ϕ)
0
as it travels from one medium to another. where ϕ is the angle of scattering of the X-ray
(iii) The speed of a photon changes as it travels photon and m0 is the rest mass of the electron.
through different media due to the change in its 8. Dual nature of matter. As there is
wavelength. complete equivalence between matter (mass)
(iii) The rest mass of a photon is zero i.e., a and radiation (energy) and the principle of
photon cannot exist at rest. symmetry is always obeyed, de Broglie suggested
hc
(v) Energy of a photon, E = hv - . that . moving particles like protons, neutrons,
λ
hv h electrons, etc. should be associated with waves
(vi) Momentum of a photon, p = me = = .
c λ known as de Broglie waves and their wavelength
(vii) From Einstein's mass-energy relationship, is called de. Broglie wavelength. The de Broglie
the equivalent mass m of a photon is given by wavelength of a particle of mass m moving with
hv
E = mc2 = hv or m = velocity v is given by
c2
h h
λ = p = mv
5. Cut off or stopping potential. It is the where h is the Planck's constant. The de Broglie
minimum value of the negative potential that wavelength is independent of the charge and
must be applied to the anode of photo-cell to nature of the material particles. It has
make the photoelectric current zero. It is denoted significantly measurable values for sub-atomic
by VQ. Its value depends on : (i) the frequency of particles like electrons, protons, etc., due to their
incident light, and (ii) the nature of the cathode small masses. For macroscopic objects of
material. For a given frequency of incident light, everyday life, the de-Broglie wavelength is
it is independent of its intensity. The stopping extremely small, quite beyond measurement.
potential is directly related to the kinetic energy 9. de Broglie wavelength of an electron.
of the emitted electrons. The wavelength associated with an electron
1 2
Kmax = 2 mvmax = eV0 beam accelerated through a potential difference
6. Einstein's theory of photoelectric h 1.227
of V volts is given by λ = = nm
√2meV √V
effect. Einstein explained photoelectric effect
with the help of Planck's quantum theory. When

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1
 Atoms
1. Distance of closest approach. When an α- 3. Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom. An electron
particle of mass m and velocity v moves having charge - e revolves with speed v in a
directly towards a nucleus of atomic number circular orbit of radius r round the nucleus
Z, its distance of closest approach is given by having charge + e. For a circular orbit,
𝑚𝑣𝑟 2
2𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 4𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 = 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2 /𝑟
𝑟0 = = 𝑟
𝐸 𝑚𝑣 2 From quantisation of angular momentum,
1 2
where 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑛ℎ
2
1 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
and 𝑘 = = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 . 2𝜋
4𝜋𝜀0
On solving the above two equations, we get
2. Bohr's atom model. This model is also called Radius of nth orbit,
planetary model of an atom and is based on 𝑛 2 ℎ2
𝑟=
following postulates : 4𝜋𝑚𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2
Speed of electron in nth orbit,
(i) Nuclear concept. An atom consists of a 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2 𝑐 1 𝑐
small massive central core called nucleus around 𝑣= = = . .
𝑛ℎ 𝑛 137 𝑛
which planetary electrons revolve. The 2𝜋𝑘𝑒 2
where α = 𝑛ℎ is fine structure constant.
centripetal force required for their revolution is
provided by the electrostatic attraction between
Total energy of an electron in nth orbit is
the electrons and the nucleus. 𝑘 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2 𝑘𝑍𝑒 2
En = K.E. + P.E. = 2𝑟
− 𝑟
=− 2𝑟
o
(ii) Quantum condition. Of all the possible 2𝜋 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍2 𝑒 4
r En = − 𝑛2 ℎ 2
circular orbits allowed by the classical theory, 𝑍2 𝑅ℎ𝑐 1.36 𝑍2
the electrons are permitted to circulate only in = − 𝑛2 = − 𝑛2 𝑒𝑉
such orbits in which the angular momentum of 2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑒 4
an electron is an integral multiple of h/2π, h where R = 𝑐ℎ3 = 1.0973 × 107 𝑚−1 ,
being Planck's constant, is the Rydberg's constant.

𝑛ℎ 4. Spectral series of hydrogen atom. Whenever

𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, ….
2𝜋 an electron makes a transition from a higher
where n is called principal quantum number. energy level n2 to a lower energy level n1, the
difference of energy appears in the form of a
(iii) Stationary orbits. While revolving in the photon of frequency v given by
permissible orbits, an electron does not radiate
energy. These non-radiating orbits are called 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
𝑣= 3
[ 2 − 2]
stationary orbits. ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2
Wave number,
(iv) Frequency condition. An atom can emit or 1 ∨ 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
𝑣= = = 3
[ 2 − 2]
absorb radiation in the form of discrete energy 𝜆 𝑐 ch 𝑛1 𝑛2
1 1 ]
photons only when an electron jumps from a or 𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅𝑍 2 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
1 2
higher to a lower orbit or from a lower to a
higher orbit. If E1 and E2 are the energies Different spectral series for hydrogen atom are
associated with these permitted orbits, then the as follows:
frequency v of the emitted or absorbed
radiation is given by (i) Lyman Series. Here n2 = 2, 3, 4, … and n1 = 1.
hv = E2 – E1 This series lies in the ultraviolet region.
1 1 ]
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [12 − 𝑛2 ] , 𝑛2 = 2,3,4, … ….
2

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(ii) Balmer Series. Here n2 = 3,4,5,... and n. This
series lies in the visible region.

1 1 1
𝑣= = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] , 𝑛2 = 3, 4,5, … …
𝜆 2 𝑛2

(iii) Paschen Series. Here n2 = 4,5,6,.... and

n1 = 3. This series lies in the infrared region.
1 1 1
𝑣 = 𝜆 = 𝑅 [32 − 𝑛2 ] , 𝑛2 = 4, 5, 6,……
2

(iv) Brackett Series. Here n2 = 5,6,7,……

and n1 = 4. This series lies in the infrared region.
1 1 1
𝑣 = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] , 𝑛2 = 5, 6, 7, … ….
𝜆 4 𝑛2

(v) Pfund Series. Here n2 = 6,7,8,... and n1 = 5.

This series lies in the infrared region.
1 1 1
𝑣 = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] , 𝑛2 = 6, 7, 8, … ….
𝜆 5 𝑛2

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 Nuclei
of its constituent nucleons is called its mass
defect. It is given by
1. Atomic mass unit (amu). It is defined as 1/12 th Δ𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚
of the mass of one √C atom. Its value is given by
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.660565 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉. 7. Binding energy. It may be defined as the energy
required to break up a nucleus into its
2. Electron volt. It is defined as the energy constituent protons and neutrons and to
acquired by an electron when it is accelerated separate them to such a large distance that they
through a potential difference of 1 volt and is may not interact with each other.
denoted by eV. It may also be defined as the surplus energy
which the nucleons give up by virtue of their
1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐽 attractions when they become bound together
1𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 106 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−13 𝐽 to form a nucleus.
The binding energy of a nucleus z X is given by
3. Relation between size of nucleus and mass
number. It is found that the radius r of a nucleus Δ𝐸𝑏𝑛 = [𝑍𝑚𝐻 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚]𝑐 2 .
is proportional to the cube root of its mass
number. 8. Binding energy per nucleon. It is the average
𝑟 = 𝑟0 𝐴1/3, energy required to extract one nucleon from the
nucleus. It is obtained by dividing the binding
Where 𝑟0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚
energy of a nucleus by its mass number.
= 1.2 fermi for electrons as probes.
𝐵. 𝐸.
Δ𝐸𝑏𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝐵̅ =
4. Nuclear density. The density of a nucleus is 𝐴
[𝑍𝑚𝐻 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚]𝑐 2
independent of the size of the nucleus and is =
given by 𝐴
In the mass number range 𝐴 = 30 𝑡𝑜 170, the
𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑛𝑢
𝜌𝑛𝑢 = = binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant,
𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 4 𝜋𝑅 3 about 8 MeV per nucleon.
3

The nuclear density is of the order of 9. Packing fraction. The packing fraction of a
1017 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 nucleus is its mass defect per nucleon.

5. Discovery of neutrons. Neutrons were 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 Δ𝑚

𝑃. 𝐹. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 = =
discovered by Chadwick in 1932. When beryllium 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴
nuclei are bombarded by α-particles, highly
penetrating radiations are emitted, which It is directly related to the availability of nuclear
consist of neutral particles, each having mass energy and the stability of the nucleus.
nearly that of a proton. These particles were
called neutrons. 10. Alpha decay. It is the process of emission of an
α-particle from a radioactive nucleus.
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
4
+ 49𝐵𝑒 → 10𝑛 + 120𝐶 𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑄.
2𝐻𝑒

A free neutron decays spontaneously, with a 11. Beta decay. It is the process of emission of an
half-life of about 1000 s, into a proton, electron electron or a positron from a radioactive
and an antineutrino. nucleus.
𝐴 𝐴 − (𝛽 − − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦)
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝛾 + 𝛽 + 𝜈̅
𝐴 𝐴 + (𝛽 + − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦)
1
→ 11𝐻 + 01𝑒 + 𝜈̅ 𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−1𝛾 + 𝛽 + 𝜈
0𝑛

6. Mass defect. The difference between the rest 12. Gamma decay. It is the process of emission of a
mass of a nucleus and the sum of the rest masses γ-ray photon during the radioactive
disintegration of a nucleus. This occurs when a

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 nucleus in an excited state makes a transition to 20. Nuclear fission. It is the process in which a heavy
a state of lower energy nucleus (𝐴 > 230) when excited gets split up
𝐴
𝑍𝑋(Excited state) into two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable
→ 𝐴𝑍𝑋(Ground state) + 𝛾 masses. For example,

13. Radioactive decay law. The number of atoms of 235 141

92
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 + 310 𝑛 + 𝑄
a radioactive sample disintegrating per second at 36
any instant is directly proportional to the
number of undecayed radioactive nuclei present 21. Nuclear fusion. It is the process of fusion of two
at that instant. smaller nuclei into a heavier nucleus with the
𝑑𝑁 liberation of large amount of energy. For
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡 example,
The law may also be expressed as 𝑁 = 2 2 4
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 24 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 where NQ is the number of nuclei at f = These reactions require the extreme conditions
0 and X is decay constant. of temperature and pressure so that the reacting
nuclei can overcome their electrostatic
14. Half-life. Tire half-life of a radioactive substance repulsion. For this reason, these reactions are
is the time in which one-half of the initial number called thermonuclear reactions.
of nuclei disintegrates.
0.693 1 𝑛
𝑇1/2 = ; 𝑁 = 𝑁0 ( )
𝜆 2
𝑡
where n = number of half-lives in time 𝑡 = 𝑇
1/2
Its units are s, day, year, etc.

15. Mean-life. It may be defined as the ratio of the

combined age of all the atoms to the total
number of atoms present in the given sample.
1 𝑇1/2
𝜏= = = 1.44𝑇1/2
𝜆 0.63
Its units are s, day, year, etc.

16. Decay rate or activity of a sample. It is the

number of radioactive disintegrations taking
place per second in a given sample.
𝑑𝑁
𝑅 = | | = 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡

17. Becquerel. It is the SI unit of activity and is

defined as the decay rate of one disintegration
per second.
1 𝑏𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙 = 1 𝑏𝑞 = 1 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

18. Curie. One curie is the decay rate of 3.7 × 1010

disintegrations per second.
1 𝐶𝑖 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒) = 3.70 × 1010 disintegrations / s.

19. Rutherford. One rutherford is the decay rate of

10Cl disintegrations per second.
1 𝑟𝑑 (𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑑) = 106 disintegrations/s.

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 Semiconductor
The conductivity of an intrinsic
1. n-type semiconductors. The pentavalent
semiconductor increases exponentially with
impurity atoms are called donors because
temperature as
they donate electrons to the host crystal and
the semiconductor doped with donors is 𝐸𝑔
𝜎 = 𝜎0 exp(− )
called n-type semiconductor. In n-type 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
semiconductors, electrons are the majority
5. p-n junction. It is a single crystal of Ge or Si
charge carriers and holes are the minority
doped in such a manner that one half portion
charge carriers. Thus 𝑛𝑒 ≃ 𝑁𝐷 > 𝑛ℎ
of it acts as p-type semiconductor and other
2. p-type semiconductors. The trivalent
half functions as n-type semiconductor. As
impurity atoms are called acceptors because
soon as a p-n junction is formed, the holes
they create holes which can accept electrons
from the p-region diffuse into the n-region
from the nearby bonds. A semiconductor
and electrons from n-region diffuse into p-
doped with acceptor type impurities is called
region. This results in the development of
a p-type semiconductor. In p-type
potential barrier Vβ across the junction which
semiconductor, holes are the majority
opposes the further diffusion of electrons
carriers and electrons are the minority charge
and holes through the junction. The small
carriers. Thus
region in the vicinity of the junction which is
𝑛ℎ ≈ 𝑁𝐴 > 𝑛𝑒 In any semiconductor, depleted of free charge carriers and has only
𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2 immobile ions is called the depletion region.
Moreover, the material on the whole is
electrically neutral.
3. Mobility. The drift velocity acquired by a Symbol for a p-π junction diode.
charge carrier in a unit electric field is called
its electrical mobility and is denoted by μ. 6. Dynamic resistance. The dynamic or ac
resistance of a diode is the ratio of small
𝑣
change in applied voltage 𝛥V to the
𝜇=𝐸 corresponding change in current ΔI. It is given
by
SI unit of 𝜇 = 𝑚2 V−1 s−1
𝛥𝑉
The mobility of an electron in the conduction 𝑟𝑑 = 𝛥𝐼
20.
band is greater than that of the hole (or Characteristic of a p-n junction diode. A graph
electron) in the valence band. showing the variation of current flowing
4. Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor. If through a p-n junction with the voltage
a potential difference V is applied across a applied across it (both when it is forward and
conductor of length l and area of cross- reverse biased) is called the voltage-current
section a, then the total current 𝑙 through it or V-I characteristic of a p-n junction.
is given by 𝐼 = 𝑒𝐴(𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ ) 7. Action of transistor. When the emitted-base
where 𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛ℎ are the electron and hole junction is forward, biased, majority charge
densities, and 𝑣𝑒 and 𝑣ℎ are their drift carriers are pushed from emitter to base.
velocities, respectively. If 𝜇𝑒 and 𝜇ℎ are the Few electrons and holes recombine in the
electron and hole mobilities, then the base region. Most of the majority charge
conductivity of the semiconductor will be carriers cross over to the reversed biased
collector. Collector current / is always slightly
less than the emitter current.
𝜎 = 𝑒(𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ )
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝐵 is base current.
and the resistivity will be
1
𝜌= 8. Common-emitter characteristics of a
𝑒(𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ )
transistor. These are the graphs between

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1
 appropriate voltages and currents for a the small change in the collector current to
transistor when its emitter is taken as the the small change in the base current when
common terminal and grounded (zero the collector- emitter voltage is kept
potential), base is the input terminal and constant.
collector is the output terminal. Three types 𝛥𝐼𝐶
of characteristic curves are studied: 𝛽=[ ]
𝛥𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = constant
(i) Input characteristic. It is the graph showing
10. Relations between 𝜶 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷. The current
the variation of base current IB with base-
gains α and β are related as
emitter voltage VBE at constant collector-
emitter voltage VCE. 𝛽 𝛼
𝛼= and 𝛽=
1+𝛽 1−𝛼
The input resistance rt of a transistor in CE
configuration is defined as the ratio of the 11. Common base transistor amplifier.
small change in the base-emitter voltage to (i) d.c. current gain. It is defined as the ratio of
the corresponding small change in base collector current to the emitter current.
current, when the collector-emitter voltage is
kept fixed. 𝑟𝑖 =
𝛥𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝐼𝐶
[ 𝛥𝐼 ]𝑉𝐶𝐸 = constant 𝛼𝑑𝑐 =
𝐵 𝐼𝐸
(ii) Output characteristic. It is the graph that (ii) a.c. current gain. It is defined as the
shows the variation of collector current Ic with ratio of the small change in collector current
the collector-emitter voltage VCE at constant to the small change in emiiter current.
base-current Ib-.
𝛥𝐼𝐶
The output resistance r0 of a transistor in CE 𝛼𝑎𝑐 =
𝛥𝐼𝐸
configuration is defined as the ratio of the
small change in the collector-emitter voltage (iii) Voltage gain. It is defined as the ratio
to the corresponding change in the collector- of the small change in output voltage to the
current when the base current is kept small change in input voltage.
𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝐼 ×𝑅
constant. 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 𝛥𝐼𝐶 ×𝑅𝑜
𝐸𝐵 𝐸 𝑖
𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐸 or 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛼𝑎𝑐 ⋅
𝑅𝑜
= 𝐴𝑖 × 𝐴𝑟
𝑟0 = [ ] 𝑅𝑖
𝛥𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐵 = constant
(iv) Power gain. It is defined as the ratio of
(iii) Transfer characteristic. It is a graph
output power to input power.
showing the variation of collector current lc
𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝐼
with base current Iβ at constant collector- 𝐴𝑝 = 𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐵 × 𝛥𝐼𝐶 = 𝐴𝑣 ⋅ 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑣 𝛼𝑎𝑐 =
𝐸𝐵 𝐸
emitter voltage VCE. 2 𝑅0
𝛼𝑎𝑐 ⋅
𝑅𝑖

9. Current gains of a transistor. Usually two

current gains are defined: 12. Common emitter transistor amplifier.
(i) Common base current amplification (i) d.c. current gain. It is defined as
𝑙𝐶
factor or ac current gain a. It is the ratio of the 𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵
small change in the collector current to the
(ii) a.c. current gain. It is defined as
small change in the emitter current when the 𝛥𝐼𝐶
collector-base voltage is kept constant. 𝛽𝑎𝑐 or 𝐴𝑖 =
𝛥𝐼𝐵

𝛥𝐼𝐶
𝛼 = [ ]𝑉𝐶𝐵 = constant
𝛥𝐼𝐸
(ii) Common emitter current amplification
factor or ac current gain β. It is the ratio of

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2
 (iii) Voltage gain. It is defined as
𝛥𝑉 𝑅
𝐴𝑣 = 𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 ⋅ 𝑅0 = 𝐴𝑖 ⋅ 𝐴𝑟
𝐵𝐸 𝑖
(𝒊𝒗) Power gain. It is defined as
Output power
𝐴𝑝 = Input power
𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝐼 2 𝑅
= 𝛥𝑉𝐶𝐸 ⋅ 𝛥𝐼𝐸 = 𝐴𝑣 ⋅ 𝛽𝑎𝑐 = 𝛽𝑎𝑐 ⋅ 𝑅0
𝐵𝐸 𝐵 𝑖

(v) Transconductance (gm). It is defined

as the ratio of small change in collector
current (Δ Ic) to the small change in input
𝛥𝐼
base-emitter voltage. 𝑔𝑚 = 𝛥𝑉 𝐶
𝐵𝐸
−1
Its unit is Ω or siemen (S). It depends on the
geometry, doping levels and biasing of the
transistor.

13. Oscillator. An oscillator is an electronic

device which produces electric oscillations of
constant frequency and amplitude. An LC-
circuit is the basic oscillatory circuit. But its
oscillations are damped. When a transistor is
used an amplifier with positive feedback, it
acts as an oscillator. Here the oscillations are
set up in the tank or IC-circuit and feed-back
energy is supplied in the correct phase by an
inductance L which is inductively coupled
with the inductance L of the tank circuit.
The frequency of the oscillations in tire tank
1
circuit is 𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

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