FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

School of Mechanical Engineering

INGM 426

July 2025
TRIBOLOGY

▣ INTRODUCTION TRIBOLOGY

▣ RELEVANCE OF TRIBOLOGY

▣ APPLICATION OF TRIBOLOGY

▣ FRICTION

▣ WEAR

▣ LUBRICATION
Introduction
Tribology is the study of friction, wear, and lubrication that occurs when
two surfaces come into contact and move relative to each other. The term
"tribology" is derived from the Greek word "τρίβω" (tríbō), which means
"to rub". Thus, tribology is fundamentally about understanding the
interactions between surfaces in relative motion.

Key aspects of tribology include:

1. Friction: The resistance to relative motion between two bodies in
contact. It plays a pivotal role in various applications, from industrial
machinery to transportation systems.

2. Wear: The gradual removal or deformation of material at solid surfaces

due to repeated contact and movement. Understanding wear is crucial to
prolonging the lifespan of mechanical components.

3. Lubrication: The use of a substance (usually a fluid) to reduce friction

and wear between two surfaces. Lubrication can be in the form of oils,
greases, or even gases.
Relevance of Studying Tribology
The study of tribology is profoundly relevant in the field of mechanical engineering for a variety of
reasons:
1. Efficiency Improvement: A proper understanding of friction can lead to designs that optimize
energy use. For instance, reducing friction in engines and machinery can lead to significant energy
savings.

2. Extend Equipment Life: Wear is a major factor in the failure of many mechanical components.
By understanding wear mechanisms and ways to mitigate them, engineers can design for longer
component life, reducing the frequency and cost of replacements.

3. Safety: Brakes, clutches, and other devices that rely on friction are critical safety components in
many systems. Understanding tribological interactions ensures these components function
reliably.

4. Cost Savings: Maintenance and replacement of components due to wear and friction-related
issues can be costly. By incorporating tribological principles, mechanical engineers can design
systems that require less maintenance and are more cost-effective in the long run.

5. Innovation in Material Science: Tribology drives innovation in the field of materials. This
includes the development of self-lubricating materials, wear-resistant coatings, and materials that
function under extreme conditions.
Relevance of Studying Tribology

6. Lubrication Optimization: Understanding the principles of lubrication allows engineers

to select and design optimal lubricants for various applications, enhancing performance
and extending the life of machinery.

7. Noise and Vibration Reduction: Frictional interactions can cause unwanted noise and
vibrations in mechanical systems. By studying tribology, engineers can find solutions to
minimize these, leading to quieter and smoother operations.

8. Enhancing Product Quality: In manufacturing processes, the finish and quality of a

product can be influenced by tribological interactions. For instance, in metalworking, the
choice of lubricant can affect the surface finish of the machined part.

9. Environmental Considerations: Effective tribological practices can lead to a reduction

in waste and energy consumption, making machinery and processes more
environmentally friendly.

10. Predictive Maintenance: With a profound understanding of wear mechanisms and

frictional behaviors, engineers can develop better predictive maintenance schedules,
ensuring machinery downtime is minimized and operational efficiency is maintained.
Application of Tribology
1. Bearings: Bearings, especially in machinery, vehicles, and some
electronics, reduce friction between rotating shafts and stationary parts.
The lubrication, wear, and friction in bearings are key tribological
considerations.

2. Gears: In machinery or vehicles, the interaction between gear teeth,

especially under lubricated conditions, is a tribological phenomenon. Wear
can cause gears to lose efficiency or fail.

3. Engine Pistons: The sliding motion of pistons inside cylinders is a key

tribological interaction in combustion engines. Proper lubrication is vital to
reduce wear and enhance engine life.

4. Machine Slides and Ways: Linear motion devices, such as those on

milling machines or lathes, rely on slideways, which need lubrication to
reduce friction and wear.

5. Seals and O-rings: These components need to prevent leaks while also
minimizing friction. Their interaction with mating surfaces is a tribological
concern.
 Application of Tribology
6. Joint Mechanisms: Articulating joints in robots or machinery, which
often use specialized coatings or lubricants to reduce friction and wear.

7. Wind Turbines: The gearboxes in wind turbines and the blade

bearing systems experience tribological challenges due to variable
speeds and heavy loads.

8. Hydraulic Cylinders: In heavy machinery, the piston-cylinder

arrangement in hydraulic systems relies on proper lubrication to
operate efficiently and avoid wear.

9. Brake Systems: Beyond the pads and rotors in vehicles, larger

mechanical systems, like trains or industrial machinery, also have
complex brake systems where friction and wear are vital considerations.

10. Conveyor Systems: Rollers, belts, and the points where they
interact in conveyor systems, especially in industries, are designed
keeping tribology in mind to ensure efficient transport and minimal
wear.
Cost of Tribology
Economic Costs due to Tribology:

1. Machinery Replacement and Repairs: Wear in industrial machinery can lead to frequent
breakdowns. Repairing or replacing these machines is expensive and can lead to significant
production downtime.

2. Increased Energy Consumption: Wear can increase frictional resistance in machines, which can
result in higher energy consumption for the same amount of work.

3. Reduced Product Quality: Wear in tools and machinery used in manufacturing processes can lead
to inferior product quality, which can translate to returns, warranty claims, or reduced market
value.

4. Shortened Lifespan: Components with excessive wear often have a shortened operational life,
leading to more frequent replacements and associated costs.

5. Lubricant Costs: Wear might necessitate more frequent lubrication or the need for specialized,
often more expensive, lubricants.

6. Loss of Valuable Materials: In some industries, wear can result in the loss of valuable materials.
For instance, wear in mining equipment can lead to the loss of a fraction of mined minerals.
Cost of Tribology
Human Costs due to Tribology:

1. Accidents and Injuries: Wear in critical components can lead to mechanical failures. For
instance, wear in vehicle brake systems or aircraft components can lead to accidents, potentially
causing injuries or fatalities.

2. Health Implications: Wear particles can sometimes be hazardous when inhaled or when they
come into contact with the skin, especially in industrial settings.

3. Job Losses: In industries where machinery is crucial, excessive wear leading to frequent
downtimes can cause financial strains on businesses, potentially leading to job losses.

4. Increased Labor: Manual monitoring, maintenance, and repairs due to wear can increase the
workload on maintenance staff.

5. Training Costs: Industries might need to invest in additional training for their staff to manage
and mitigate wear-related issues.

6. Stress and Mental Health: Continuous breakdowns and increased maintenance can lead to
stress and mental health issues among workers, especially if their safety is at risk or if they are
under pressure to maintain productivity.
Major disasters caused by corrosion

1. Air France Flight 4590 (Concorde Crash, 2000): Debris on the runway (from a burst tire) led to a tire burst on the
Concorde itself. This caused a chain reaction, including puncturing the fuel tanks, leading to a fire and crash. While not
wear of the Concorde's components themselves, the incident illustrates the cascading effects of material failures in
aviation.

2. Alaska Airlines Flight 261 (2000): This plane crashed due to a failure in the jackscrew assembly of the horizontal
stabilizer, caused by insufficient lubrication. The lack of proper tribological practices, in this case, led to the loss of 88
lives.

3. The Silver Bridge Collapse (1967): As previously mentioned, the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River in the USA
collapsed due to a combination of factors, including wear and corrosion, resulting in the deaths of 46 people.

4. Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster (2011): The disaster primarily resulted from a tsunami, but the wear and aging
of the infrastructure, combined with the natural disaster, exacerbated the crisis.

5. The Wear of Rails and Train Derailments: A real-world scenario would be the Hatfield rail crash in the UK in 2000. A
worn rail, weakened by rolling contact fatigue, fractured, causing a high-speed train to derail, resulting in four deaths.

6. Ship Accidents: The MV Prestige oil spill in 2002, off the coast of Spain, was a result of the ship's hull failing, with
wear and corrosion being contributing factors. The spill had a catastrophic impact on the environment and fishing
industry in the region.
Reasons to study Corrosion

FRICTION
Friction
➢ The force which opposes the movement or the tendency of
movement is called Frictional force or simply friction. It is due
to the resistance to motion offered by minutely projecting
particles at the contact surfaces. However, there is a limit
beyond which the magnitude of this force cannot increase.

➢ If the applied force is more than this limit, there will be

movement of one body over the other. This limiting value of
frictional force when the motion is impending, it is known as
Limiting Friction.

➢ When the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the
body remains at rest and such frictional force is called Static
Friction, which will be having any value between zero and the
limiting friction.
Friction
➢ If the value of applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the
body starts moving over the other body and the frictional
resistance experienced by the body while moving is known as
Dynamic Friction. Dynamic friction is less than limiting
friction.

Dynamic friction is classified into following two types:

a) Sliding friction
b) Rolling friction

Sliding friction is the friction experienced by a body when it

slides over the other body

Rolling friction is the friction experienced by a body when it

rolls over a surface
 Friction between unlubricated surfaces
1. Nature of Dry Friction:
• Dry friction: resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction
is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction
between moving surfaces

• Deformation: As force is applied, asperities on the surfaces deform plastically or

elastically. The degree to which they deform depends on the hardness and other
mechanical properties of the materials involved.

2. Factors Affecting Dry Friction:

• Surface Roughness:.
• Material Properties:
• Contact Pressure:
• Environment: Temperature and humidity

3. Implications of Dry Friction:

• Wear: Prolonged dry sliding contact can lead to wear of the materials, potentially
resulting in component failure.
• Energy Loss: Motion against frictional forces results in energy being converted to
heat, leading to inefficiencies in mechanical systems.
• Noise Generation: Sliding can sometimes lead to vibrations and noise (like a squeaky
hinge).
 Friction between lubricated surfaces
1. Nature of Lubricated Friction:
• Hydrodynamic Lubrication: When a sufficiently thick film of lubricant
separates the two sliding surfaces, they don't make contact with each other.
The friction is primarily due to the internal resistance of the lubricant to
flow (viscosity). The pressure builds within the lubricant due to the motion,
leading to a lifting effect, which further separates the surfaces.

• Boundary Lubrication: If the lubricant film is thin and the asperities of the
surfaces start to touch, additives in the lubricant can form a protective layer
on the surfaces to prevent direct metal-to-metal contact, thereby reducing
wear and friction.

• Mixed Lubrication: This is an intermediate condition between

hydrodynamic and boundary lubrication where both the lubricant's viscous
resistance and direct asperity contact contribute to friction.

Factors: Viscosity of Lubricant, Load, Speed, Lubricant Additives:

Temperature

Advantage: Reduction in Wear, Energy Efficiency, Temperature Control

Implications: Maintenance, Environmental Concerns

Mechanic of Friction
To understand dry friction, we need to look at the contact surfaces at a microscopic level:

Dry friction rules:

1. Contact forces occur in equal and opposite pairs (Newtons third law)
2. Contact forces are generated at every point of contact (Direction dependent)
3. Contact forces are perpendicular to the contact surface

Perfectly smooth surfaces produce no

horizontal force component. No friction!!!
 Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction (often represented by the symbol (μ) is a dimensionless scalar value
that represents the frictional interaction between two surfaces.
Lets consider the movement of a box due to force:

How do we quantify the frictional forced?

➢ Friction is typically directed opposite the

motion
➢ Amount of frictional resistance is
proportional to the normal force
F = µsN
The frictional force is simply the normal force (N) multiplied by a coefficient (Ns). This
coefficient is referred to as coefficient of static friction and varies depending on the surface
type.
Metal on ice: µs = 0.4
Wood on wood: µs = 0.35
Friction
Sliding friction:
The term static in the coefficient of static friction implies that the surfaces do not move
with respect to one another. So what happens in a non-static (dynamic) case?

The coefficient of friction decreases once movement occurs. This new coefficient is
referred to as the coefficient of kinetic friction (µk)

Region 1:
• Static Equilibrium
• Maximum friction resistance: fmax = µsN

Region 2:
• Sliding occurs (Kinectic)
• Frictional Resistance: fk = µkN

Applied Force (P)

Areas where friction is desirable
Here are several instances in mechanical engineering where friction is
desirable:
1. Braking Systems:
1. In vehicles and machinery, friction between the brake pads and the
brake disc or drum is essential to convert kinetic energy into heat,
thereby slowing down or stopping the vehicle or machine.
2. Clutches:
1. Friction is needed between the clutch plate and the flywheel in
vehicles to transmit power from the engine to the wheels during
gear changes.
3. Tires:
1. The friction between tires and the road surface provides the
necessary grip to accelerate, decelerate, and turn vehicles safely.
Without sufficient friction, vehicles would skid uncontrollably.
4. Bolts and Screws:
1. Friction between the threads of bolts and screws prevents them
from loosening under vibration or dynamic loads.
5. Fastening and Joining:
1. Friction welds are achieved by rubbing two surfaces together at
high speed until they are joined.
Areas where friction is desirable
1. Bearing:
1. While bearings often use lubricants to reduce friction, a certain
amount of friction is desirable to ensure that there's enough
resistance to maintain the position of rotating components
accurately.

2. Seals and Gaskets:

1. They rely on friction to maintain their position and ensure tight
closures, preventing leaks in systems.

3. Mechanical Couplings:
• Devices that connect two shafts, such as friction clutches, depend on friction
to transmit torque and allow for controlled slippage when needed.

11. Tools:
• Many hand and machine tools rely on friction to grip, cut, shape, or move
materials. For instance, a wrench needs friction to turn a bolt, and a drill bit
needs friction to cut into materials.

12. Machining Processes:

• Some machining operations, like grinding, rely heavily on friction to remove
material from a workpiece.
 Areas where friction is not desirable
1. Bearings and Sliding Surfaces:
1. Reason: Friction in bearings or between any sliding surfaces can cause wear
and tear, reduce the component's lifespan, and increase the energy required
to maintain motion.
2. Outcome: Need for regular maintenance, replacement, and energy
inefficiency.
1. Engines and Moving Machinery:
1. Reason: Internal friction within engines, such as between pistons and cylinder
walls, reduces the overall efficiency by wasting energy in the form of heat.
2. Outcome: Reduced fuel efficiency and increased operational costs.
3. Transmission Systems:
1. Reason: In gear trains, belts, and other transmission systems, friction can lead
to energy losses.
2. Outcome: Reduced efficiency and potential for overheating or failure.
4. Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic Applications:
1. Reason: Friction, in the form of air or fluid resistance (drag), opposes the
motion of vehicles and structures.
2. Outcome: Reduced speed and increased energy consumption. For aircraft, it
can also affect altitude capabilities and range.
5. Electrical Contacts:
1. Reason: Friction can wear down electrical contacts, leading to poor
connections or complete electrical failures.
2. Outcome: Equipment malfunction or failure.
WEAR
WEAR
Wear refers to the progressive loss or alteration of
material from solid surfaces due to relative motion
between them. It's a natural phenomenon that can lead to
degradation in the functional attributes of materials or
systems, eventually leading to their failure.

Why is it Significant?
• Wear is unavoidable in almost all mechanical systems
where there's contact and relative motion.

• It can lead to the loss of efficiency, increased energy

consumption, and even catastrophic failure in machinery.

• The economic implications of wear are significant, leading

to increased maintenance costs, downtime, and premature
equipment replacement.

Factors affecting wear

• Load, Speed, Environment, Lubrication, Material
Properties
 Abrasive Wear
1. Nature of Particles: Abrasive wear can be caused by hard
particles that are either embedded in one of the contacting
surfaces (two-body abrasion) or by particles that are free and
come between the two sliding surfaces (three-body abrasion).

2. Surface Scratches: On a microscopic level, abrasive wear

typically results in grooves, scratches, or gouges on the softer
surface, in the direction of motion.

3. Material Removal: It's essentially a ploughing process where

the harder material (the abrasive) digs into the softer material
and removes it.
 Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear prevention

Mechanical:
a. Remove abrasive by improved air and oil filtering, clean
oil handling practices, improved seals, and Frequent oil
changes.
b. Minimize shot peening, beading, or sand blasting of
surfaces because abrasives cannot be completely
removed.
c. Increased hardness of metal surfaces

Lubricant:
a. Use oil free of abrasive particles
b. Use more viscous oil.
Adhesive Wear
1. Material Transfer: Adhesive wear frequently results in the
transfer of material from one surface to another, especially if
one surface is significantly harder than the other.

2. Asperity Deformation: Under the applied load, softer

asperities may undergo plastic deformation.

3. Formation of 'Wear Particles': As surfaces slide and

asperities bond and subsequently fracture, small wear
particles or debris may be formed.
Adhesive Wear
Adhesive wear prevention

Mechanical:
a. Reduce load, speed, and temperature.
b. Improve oil cooling
c. Use compatible metals
d. Apply surface coatings such as phosphating

Lubricant:
a. Use more viscous oil to separate surfaces.
b. Use “extreme pressure” (anti-scuff) additives such as a sulfur,
phosphorus, or borate compounds.
Corrosive wear
1. Chemical Reaction: The surface undergoes chemical alteration, typically oxidation, which makes it more
susceptible to wear.

2. Layer Removal: The chemically altered (often weaker) layer is more easily removed by mechanical action than the
unaffected material beneath.

3. Accelerated Wear: Corrosive wear often leads to accelerated rates of wear due to the synergy between corrosion
and mechanical removal.
Corrosive wear

Corrosive wear prevention

Mechanical:
a. Use more corrosion-resistant metal (not stainless steel)
b. Reduce operating temperature
c. Eliminate corrosive material

Lubricant:
a. Remove corrosion material, such as too chemically active additives and contaminants
b. Use improved corrosion inhibitor
c. Use fresh oil
Erosive wear
Erosive wear occurs when surfaces are impacted by a
stream of abrasive particles, liquid droplets, or other
impinging materials, resulting in the removal or
deformation of material from the impacted surface.

Characteristics and Mechanics:

1. Impingement: Material removal primarily occurs
through the repetitive impingement of particles or
droplets on the surface.
2. Types of Damage: The worn surface can exhibit
signs such as pits, craters, and grooves.
3. Mechanisms: The predominant mechanisms
include cutting, deformation, and ploughing,
especially when hard particles are involved.
Erosive wear

Erosive wear prevention

Mechanical:
a. Use of wear-resistant alloys, ceramics, or composites
b. Hardfacing and surface coating technologies
c. Adjusting impingement angles to reduce direct particle
impact
d. Application of impact-absorbing materials

Lubricant:
a. Use of high-viscosity oils or greases that cushion
surfaces against particle strike
b. Regular assessment to maintain optimal lubricant
performance and prevent particle-induced degradation
Erosive wear
1. Direct Measurement Methods:
• Weight Loss Method: The simplest method, where a
component is weighed before and after a wear test. The
difference indicates the amount of material lost.
• Linear Measurement: Using instruments like micrometers
or depth gauges to measure the depth or width of wear
scars.
• Profiling Instruments: Tools such as profilometers or
atomic force microscopes to map the surface topography
before and after wear.

2. Analysis Techniques:
• Microscopy: Electron or optical microscopes help in
examining wear scars, understanding wear mechanisms, and
determining the nature and origin of wear debris.
• Spectroscopy: Techniques like X-ray diffraction can be used
to analyze chemical changes or the presence of
contaminants at wear sites.
• Tribometers: Instruments specifically designed to simulate
and analyze friction and wear under controlled conditions.
Procedure for analysing wear failures
1. Identify the actual materials in the part, abrasive, lubricant etc.
2. Identify the wear mechanism
3. Define the surface configuration of the worn surface and the original
surface
4. Define the relative motions in the system
5. Define the force or pressure between mating surfaces
6. Define the wear rate
7. Define the coefficient of friction
8. Define the effectiveness and type of lubricant
9. Establish if the observed wear is normal or excessive
10. Devise a suitable solution
LUBRICATION
Lubrication
• Lubrication is the process of reducing friction and wear
between two contacting surfaces, which have motion relative
to each other, by inserting or introducing a substance, called
the lubricant, between the two contacting surfaces. This
lubricant may be either liquid, gas, or semi-solid.

.
Lubrication
1. Purpose of Lubrication:
• Friction Reduction: Minimizing the resistance to motion
between two contacting surfaces.
• Wear Protection: Protecting contacting surfaces from
abrasive, adhesive, corrosive, and other forms of wear.
• Heat Dissipation: In some machinery, lubricants carry away
heat generated from the moving parts.
• Corrosion Prevention: Many lubricants prevent corrosion
by forming a protective barrier between the surface and
corrosive agents.
• Sealing: Lubricants can act as seals to prevent the ingress of
contaminants.

2. Applications & Examples:

• Automotive: Engine oils, gear oils, transmission fluids.
• Industrial: Hydraulic fluids, compressor oils, turbine oils.
• Specialized: Cutting fluids in machining, rail curve greases,
biodegradable lubricants in sensitive environments.
Lubrication
3. Lubricant Types:
• Liquids: Oils derived from petroleum or synthetics like
silicones, polyglycols, esters.
• Greases: Semi-solid lubricants made by combining oils with
thickeners.
• Solids: Materials like graphite, molybdenum disulfide, PTFE
(Teflon) which can be used in extreme conditions or specific
applications.
• Gases: Typically, air or inert gases, used in some bearings or
specific applications where liquid or solid lubricants are
unsuitable.

4. Lubricant Properties to Consider:

• Viscosity: Measure of a fluid's resistance to shear. Crucial in
determining the lubricant's ability to form a separating film.
• Additives: Chemicals added to enhance properties like anti-
wear, anti-corrosion, and extreme-pressure resistance.
• Thermal Stability: The lubricant's ability to resist breaking
down at elevated temperatures.
• Oxidation Resistance: The ability to resist reacting with
oxygen can degrade the lubricant.