Religious beliefs in the Harappan Civilisation are evidenced by various archaeological findings, such as seals depicting religious symbols like Pashupati (proto-Shiva) and sacred animals . These suggest the worship of deities and totemic symbols. The presence of fire altars points to ritualistic practices, although no temples have been discovered. Additionally, evidence of Mother Earth worship and the belief in life after death highlight spiritual and cosmological concerns. These components suggest a complex religious system centered on nature and the afterlife .

Evidence of Mother Earth worship and beliefs in life after death within the Harappan Civilisation reflect a society deeply attuned to the natural world and the cyclical nature of life . Mother Earth worship likely symbolized the civilization's dependence on agriculture and fertility, central to their survival and everyday life. Additionally, beliefs in life after death suggest a developed metaphysical understanding and an organized system of eschatological concepts, influencing burial practices and possibly societal stratification. These beliefs would shape social structures, reflecting reverence for elders and ancestors .

The Harappan Civilisation developed along the Indus River and its tributaries, which provided essential resources like water for drinking and irrigation, crucial for sustaining agriculture and supporting urban settlements . This advantageous location also facilitated trade with neighboring regions, contributing to economic prosperity. However, the very location that enabled its growth also contributed to its decline. Changing river courses reduced fertility and impacted agriculture, while earthquakes possibly altered the river's course, further affecting the civilisation's sustainability .

Trade played a crucial role in the economic prosperity of the Harappan Civilisation by facilitating the exchange of goods and culture between distant regions . Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia indicates established commercial connections, contributing to wealth accumulation. The Harappans exported tools, beads, ornaments, and pottery, which were highly sought after. They imported goods like gold from Karnataka and Afghanistan and copper from Rajasthan and Arabia, demonstrating a robust trade network that diversified and enriched their economy . These interactions not only boosted their economy but also exposed them to new ideas and technologies.

The decline of the Harappan Civilisation and the Mesopotamian Civilisation both involved environmental and social disruptions. The Harappan decline was heavily influenced by climatic changes, altering river courses, and reduced agricultural productivity, similar to Mesopotamia where soil salinization and overuse led to reduced crop yields . Both civilisations faced socio-political upheavals, whether through invasions or internal strife. These environmental stresses precipitated social instability and migration. The loss of structured urban society was a common effect, leading to a regression in cultural achievements and decentralization, affecting population centers differently .

Harappan urban planning demonstrated advanced engineering through the structured division of cities into a raised citadel and a lower town, signifying organized social and administrative functioning . The cities featured well-planned drainage systems, which directed wastewater away from living areas, reducing the risk of disease. These systems were complemented by wide roads, allowing for efficient movement, and brick houses with courtyards and private wells, providing water access and ventilation . The construction of monumental architecture, like the Great Bath and granaries, also indicates sophisticated design and construction skills .

The discovery of seals depicting religious symbols such as Pashupati (proto-Shiva) and various sacred animals indicates a richly integrated cultural and religious system within the Harappan society . These symbols suggest a pantheon that consisted of nature deities and possibly the reverence of animal totems, indicating a blend of iconography from various influences or local beliefs. The presence of these symbols on objects used in daily life suggests that religion was deeply embedded in cultural practices, playing a significant role in societal norms and possibly governance .

The Harappan Civilisation's art and craft reflect significant technological and cultural achievements through their production of skilled sculptures, bronze figurines, and terracotta toys . Remarkably, the bronze figurine, known as the 'Dancing Girl', exhibits expertise in metallurgy and artistic expression. Moreover, pottery adorned with black geometric designs indicates advanced artistic skills and aesthetic sensibilities. These artifacts not only showcase technical proficiency but also provide insight into cultural practices and societal values, such as the importance of adornment and ritual .

Multiple factors contributed to the decline of the Harappan Civilisation, including climatic changes, deforestation, natural disasters, and invasions . The changing courses of rivers and reduced land fertility significantly impacted their agrarian-based economy, leading to food shortages. Extensive deforestation for wood possibly deteriorated the environment and soil quality. Earthquakes may have altered the Indus River's course, compounding these environmental issues. Some historians suggest Aryan invasions disrupted the social order. Among these, climatic changes and their resultant impact on agriculture are likely the most significant, as they directly undermined the civilisation’s sustenance .

The evidence of structured urban planning, such as the delineation of cities into citadels and lower towns, along with standardized construction techniques, suggests a form of governance in the Harappan Civilisation . Such complexity in urban development implies organized administrative systems managing city functions and public works. Although direct evidence of governmental offices or palaces is lacking, the presence of granaries, likely used for storing state-controlled resources, hints at centralized authority. This suggests a governing body or leadership responsible for resource allocation and infrastructure development .