G.H.

Raisoni Institute of Engineering and Technology,

Nagpur.

Department of Electronics & Telecommunication

Engineering.

Year / Sem. : Final Year / 7th Sem.

Subject : UECL 424- Optical Communication.

Subject Teacher: Dr. Sanket B. Kasturiwala.

Unit II :
Topic

Optical Sources: Light Emitting Diodes, working of LED's ,

Heterojunctions (Practical LED's) , Characteristics of LED'S, Lasers,
Basic Principle of the LASER, Semiconductor Laser Diodes.
 UNIT - 2
OPTICAL SOURCES
Optical Sources

• Optical transmitter coverts Electrical Input Signal into corresponding Optical Signal. The
optical signal is then launched into the fiber. Optical source is the major component in an
optical transmitter.
• Popularly used optical transmitters are Light Emitting Diode (LED) and semiconductor
Laser Diodes (LD).

Characteristics of Light Source of Communication

• To be useful in an optical link, a light source needs the following characteristics:

i) It must be possible to operate the device continuously at a variety of temperatures for

many years.

ii) It must be possible to modulate the light output over a wide range of modulating
frequencies.

iii) For fiber links, the wavelength of the output should coincide with one of transmission
windows for the fiber type used.

iv) To couple large amount of power into an optical fiber, the emitting area should be small.

v) To reduce material dispersion in an optical fiber link, the output spectrum should be
narrow.

vi) The power requirement for its operation must be low.

vii) The light source must be compatible with the modern solid-state devices.

viii)Better linearity of prevent harmonics and intermodulation distortion.

ix) High coupling efficiency.

x) High optical output power.

xi) High reliability.

xii) Low weight and low cost.

Two types of light sources used in fiber optics are light emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser
diodes (LDs).
 Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs)

p-n Junction

• Conventional p-n junction is called as homojunction as same semiconductor material is

used on both sides junction. The electron-hole recombination occurs in relatively wide
layer = 10 µm. As the carriers are not confined to the immediate vicinity of junction, hence
high current densities can not be realized.
• The carrier confinement problem can be resolved by sandwiching a thin layer ( = 0.1 µm)
between p-type and n-type layers. The middle layer may or may not be doped. The carrier
confinement occurs due to bandgap discontinuity of the junction. Such a junction is call
heterojunction and the device is called double heterostructure.
• In any optical communication system when the requirements is –
i) Bit rate 100Mb/sec.
ii) Optical power in tens of micro watts.
LEDs are best suitable optical source.

LED Structures

Heterojuncitons

• A heterojunction is an interface between two adjoining single crystal semiconductors

with different bandgap.
• Heterojuctions are of two types, Isotype (n-n or p-p) or Antisotype (p-n).

Double Heterojunctions (DH)

In order to achieve efficient confinement of emitted radiation double heterojunctions are

used in LED structure. A heterojunciton is a junction formed by dissimilar semiconductors. Double
heterojunction (DH) is formed by two different semiconductors on each side of active region. Fig.
3.1.1 shows double heterojunction (DH) light emitter.
 • The crosshatched regions represent the energy levels of freecharge. Recombination occurs
only in active InGaAsP layer. The two materials have different bandgap energies and
different refractive indices. The changes in bandgap energies create potential barrier for
both holes and electrons. The free charges can recombine only in narrow, well defined
active layer side.
• A double heterjuction (DH) structure will confine both hole and electrons to a narrow active
layer. Under forward bias, there will be a large number of carriers injected into active
region where they are efficiently confined. Carrier recombination occurs in small active
region so leading to an efficient device. Antoer advantage DH structure is that the active
region has a higher refractive index than the materials on either side, hence light emission
occurs in an optical waveguide, which serves to narrow the output beam.

LED configurations

• At present there are two main types of LED used in optical fiber links –
1. Surface emitting LED.
2. Edge emitting LED.
Both devices used a DH structure to constrain the carriers and the light to an active
layer.

Surface Emitting LEDs

• In surface emitting LEDs the plane of active light emitting region is oriented
perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber. A DH diode is grown on an N-type substrate at the
top of the diode as shown in Fig. 3.1.2. A circular well is etched through the substrate of
the device. A fiber is then connected to accept the emitted light.
 • At the back of device is a gold heat sink. The current flows through the p-type material
and forms the small circular active region resulting in the intense beam of light.
Diameter of circular active area = 50 µm
Thickness of circular active area = 2.5 µm
Current density = 2000 A/cm2 half-power
Emission pattern = Isotropic, 120o beamwidth.
• The isotropic emission pattern from surface emitting LED is of Lambartian pattern. In
Lambartian pattern, the emitting surface is uniformly bright, but its projected area
diminishes as cos θ, where θ is the angle between the viewing direction and the normal to
the surface as shown in Fig. 3.1.3. The beam intensity is maximum along the normal.

• The power is reduced to 50% of its peak when θ = 60o, therefore the total half-power
beamwidth is 120o. The radiation pattern decides the coupling efficiency of LED.

Edge Emitting LEDS (ELEDs)

• In order to reduce the losses caused by absorption in the active layer and to make the beam
more directional, the light is collected from the edge of the LED. Such a device is known
as edge emitting LED or ELED.
• It consists of an active junction region which is the source of incoherent light and two
guiding layers. The refractive index of guiding layers is lower than active region but higher
than outer surrounding material. Thus a waveguide channel is form and optical radiation is
directed into the fiber. Fig. 3.1.4 shows structure of ELED.
 Edge emitter’s emission pattern is more concentrated (directional) providing improved
coupling efficiency. The beam is Lambartian in the plane parallel to the junction but diverges more
slowly in the plane perpendicular to the junction. In this plane, the beam divergence is limited. In
the parallel plane, there is no beam confinement and the radiation is Lambartian. To maximize the
useful output power, a reflector may be placed at the end of the diode opposite the emitting edge.
Fig. 3.1.5 shows radiation from ELED.

Features of ELED:

1. Linear relationship between optical output and current.

2. Spectral width is 25 to 400 nm for λ = 0.8 – 0.9 µm.
3. Modulation bandwidth is much large.
4. Not affected by catastrophic gradation mechanisms hence are more reliable.
5. ELEDs have better coupling efficiency than surface emitter.
6. ELEDs are temperature sensitive.

Usage :

1. LEDs are suited for short range narrow and medium bandwidth links.
2. Suitable for digital systems up to 140 Mb/sec.
3. Long distance analog links.
Light Source Materials

• The spontaneous emission due to carrier recombination is called electro luminescence. To

encourage electroluminescence it is necessary to select as appropriate semiconductor
material. The semiconductors depending on energy bandgap can be categorized into,
1. Direct bandgap semiconductors.
2. Indirect bandgap semiconductors.
• Some commonly used bandgap semiconductors are shown in following table 3.1.1

Semiconductor Energy bandgap (eV) Recombination Br (cm3 / sec)

GaAs Direct : 1.43 7.21 x 10-10

GaSb Direct : 0.73 2.39 x 10-10

InAs Direct : 0.35 8.5 x 10-11

InSb Direct : 0.18 4.58 x 10-11

Si Indirect : 1.12 1.79 x 10-15

Ge Indirect : 0.67 5.25 x 10-14

GaP Indirect : 2.26 5.37 x 10-14

Table 3.1.1 Semiconductor material for optical sources

• Direct bandgap semiconductors are most useful for this purpose. In direct bandgap
semiconductors the electrons and holes on either side of bandgap have same value of crystal
momentum. Hence direct recombination is possible. The recombination occurs within 10-
8
to 10-10 sec.
• In indirect bandgap semiconductors, the maximum and minimum energies occur at
different values of crystal momentum. The recombination in these semiconductors is quite
slow i.e. 10-2 and 10-3 sec.
• The active layer semiconductor material must have a direct bandgap. In direct bandgap
semiconductor, electrons and holes can recombine directly without need of third particle
to conserve momentum. In these materials the optical radiation is sufficiently high. These
 materials are compounds of group III elements (Al, Ga, In) and group V element (P, As,
Sb). Some tertiary allos Ga1-x Alx As are also used.
• Emission spectrum of Ga1-x AlxAs LED is shown in Fig. 3.1.6.

• The peak output power is obtained at 810 nm. The width of emission spectrum at half
power (0.5) is referred as full width half maximum (FWHM) spectral width. For the given
LED FWHM is 36 nm.
• The fundamental quantum mechanical relationship between gap energy E and frequency v
is given as –

where, energy (E) is in joules and wavelength (λ) is in meters. Expressing the gap energy
(Eg) in electron volts and wavelength (λ) in micrometers for this application.

Different materials and alloys have different bandgap energies.

Quantum Efficiency and Power

• The internal quantum efficiency (ηint) is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination
rate to the total recombination rate.

… 3.1.5

Where, Rr is radiative recombination rate.

Rnr is non-radiative recombination rate.

If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time, and

non-radiative life time,

• The internal quantum efficiency is given as –

… 3.1.6

• The recombination time of carriers in active region is τ. It is also known as bulk

recombination life time.

… 3.1.7

Therefore internal quantum efficiency is given as –

… 3.1.8

• If the current injected into the LED is I and q is electron charge then total number of
recombination per second is –

From equation 3.1.5

 
 • Optical power generated internally in LED is given as –

  

Not all internally generated photons will be available from output of device. External quantum
efficiency is used to calculate the emitted power. External quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of
photons emitted from LED to the number of photons generated internally. It is given by equation

… 3.1.11

• The optical output power emitted from LED is given as –

Example The radiative and non radiative recombination life times of minority carriers in the
active region of a double heterojunction LED are 60 nsec and 90 nsec respectively. Determine the
total carrier recombination life time and optical power generated internally if the peak emission
wavelength is 870 nm and the drive current is 40 mA.

Solutions : Given : λ = 870 nm 0.87 x 10-6 m

τr = 60 nsec.

τnr = 90 nsec.

I = 40 mA = 0.04 Amp.

i) Total carrier recombination life time:

 τ =  nsec. … Ans.

ii) Internal optical power:

… Ans.
Example A double heterjunciton InGaAsP LED operating at 1310 nm has radiative and non-
radiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns respectively. The current injected is 40 mA.
Calculate –

i) Bulk recombination life time.

ii) Internal quantum efficiency.
iii) Internal power level.

Solution : λ = 1310 nm = (1.31 x 10-6 m)

τr = 30 ns

τnr = 100 ns

I = 40 MA – 0.04 Amp.

i) Bulk Recombination Life time (τ) :

 τ =  nsec. … Ans.

ii) Internal euqntum efficienty (ηint) :

… Ans.

iii) Internal pwer level (Pint) :

Advantages and Disadvantages of LED

Advantages of LED

1. Simple design.
2. Ease of manufacture.
3. Simple system integration.
4. Low cost.
5. High reliability.

Disadvantages of LED

1. Refraction of light at semiconductor/air interface.

2. The average life time of a radiative recombination is only a few nanoseconds, therefore
nodulation BW is limited to only few hundred megahertz.
3. Low coupling efficiency.
4. Large chromatic dispersion.

Comparison of Surface and Edge Emitting LED

Maximum
Fiber coupled power
LED type modulation Output power (mW)
(mW)
frequency (MHz)
Surface emitting 60 <4 < 0.2

Edge emitting 200 <7 < 1.0

LASER diode (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation)
• The laser is a device which amplifies the light, hence the LASER is an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The operation of the device may be described by the formation of an electromagnetic
standing wave within a cavity (optical resonator) which provides an output of
monochromatic highly coherent radiation.

Principle :

• Material absorb light than emitting. Three different fundamental process occurs between
the two energy states of an atom.
1) Absorption 2) Spontaneous emission 3) Stimulated emission.
• Laser action is the result of three process absorption of energy packets (photons)
spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. (These processes are represented by the
simple two-energy-level diagrams).
Where E1 is the lower state energy level.
E2 is the higher state energy level.
• Quantum theory states that any atom exists only in certain discrete energy state, absorption
or emission of light causes them to make a transition from one state to another. The
frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy E
between the two states.
If E1 is lower state energy level.
and E2 is higher state energy level.
E = (E2 – E1) = h.f.
Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J/s (Plank’s constant).
• An atom is initially in the lower energy state, when the photon with energy (E2 – E1) is
incident on the atom it will be excited into the higher energy state E2 through the absorption
of the photon.
 • When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2, it can make a transition to the lower
energy state E1 providing the emission of a photon at a frequency corresponding to E = h.f.
The emission process can occur in two ways.
A) By spontaneous emission in which the atom returns to the lower energy state in random
manner.
B) By stimulated emission when a photon having equal energy to the difference between
the two states (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom causing it to the lower state with the
creation of the second photon.

• Spontaneous emission gives incoherent radiation while stimulated emission gives coherent
radiation. Hence the light associated with emitted photon is of same frequency of incident
photon, and in same phase with same polarization.
• It means that when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an incident wave, the
liberated energy can add to the wave in constructive manner. The emitted light is bounced
back and forth internally between two reflecting surface. The bouncing back and forth of
light wave cause their intensity to reinforce and build-up. The result in a high brilliance,
single frequency light beam providing amplification.

Emission and Absorption Rates

• It N1 and N2 are the atomic densities in the ground and excited states.
Fabry – Perot Resonator

• Lasers are oscillators operating at frequency. The oscillator is formed by a resonant cavity
providing a selective feedback. The cavity is normally a Fabry-Perot resonator i.e. two
parallel plane mirrors separated by distance L,

Light propagating along the axis of the interferometer is reflected by the mirrors back to the
amplifying medium providing optical gain. The dimensions of cavity are 25-500 µm longitudinal
5-15 µm lateral and 0.1-0.2 µm transverse. Fig. 3.1.10 shows Fabry-Perot resonator cavity for a
laser diode.

• The two heterojunctions provide carrier and optical confinement in a direction normal to
the junction. The current at which lasing starts is the threshold current. Above this current
the output power increases sharply.

Distributed Feedback (DFB) Laser

• In DFB laster the lasing action is obtained by periodic variations of refractive index along
the longitudinal dimension of the diode. Fig. 3.1.11 shows the structure of DFB laser diode.
… 3.1.28
Resonant Frequencies

m is an integer.

 m  

Since c = vλ

Substituting λ in 3.1.30

… 3.1.31

… 3.1.33

The wavelength Spacing is given as –

… 3.1.34

Optical Characteristics of LED and Laser

• The output of laser diode depends on the drive current passing through it. At low drive
current, the laser operates as an inefficient Led, When drive current crosses threshold value,
lasing action beings. Fig. 3.1.13 illustrates graph comparing optical powers of LED
operation (due to spontaneous emission) and laser operation (due to stimulated emission).
Spectral and Spatial Distribution of Led and Laser

• At low current laser diode acts like normal LED above threshold current, stimulated
emission i.e. narrowing of light ray to a few spectral lines instead of broad spectral
distribution, exist. This enables the laser to easily couple to single mode fiber and reduces
the amount of uncoupled light (i.e. spatial radiation distribution). Fig. 3.1.14 shows spectral
and spatial distribution difference between two diodes.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Diode

Advantages of Laser Diode

1. Simple economic design.

2. High optical power.
3. Production of light can be precisely controlled.
4. Can be used at high temperatures.
5. Better modulation capability.
6. High coupling efficiency.
7. Low spectral width (3.5 nm)
8. Ability to transmit optical output powers between 5 and 10 mW.
9. Ability to maintain the intrinsic layer characteristics over long periods.

Disadvantages of Laser Diode

1. At the end of fiber, a speckle pattern appears as two coherent light beams add or subtract
their electric field depending upon their relative phases.
2. Laser diode is extremely sensitive to overload currents and at high transmission rates, when
laser is required to operate continuously the use of large drive current produces
unfavourable thermal characteristics and necessitates the use of cooling and power
stabilization.

Comparison of LED and Laser Diode

Sr. No. Parameter LED LD (Laser Diode)

1. Principle of operation Spontaneous emission. Stimulated emission.

2. Output beam Non – coherent. Coherent.

3. Spectral width Board spectrum (20 nm – 100 nm) Much narrower (1-5 nm).

4. Data rate Low. Very high.

5. Transmission distance Smaller. Greater.

6. Temperature sensitivity Less sensitive. More temperature sensitive.

7. Coupling efficiency Very low. High.

 Multimode step index multimode Single mode Sl Multimode
8. Compatible fibers
GRIN. GRIN.
9. Circuit complexity Simple Complex

10. Life time 105 hours. 104 hours.

11. Cost Low. High.

Linearly proportional to drive Proportional to current
12. Output power
current. above threshold.
Threshold current 5 to 40
13. Current required Drive current 50 to 100 mA peak.
mA.
14. Wavelengths available 0.66 to 1.65 µm. 0.78 to 1.65 µm.
Long distance high data
15. Applications Moderate distance low data rate.
rates.

Important Formulae for LED and Laser

LED

1.

2.
3.

4.

LASER

1.
2. &