MODULE 2
ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
1. INTRODUCTION
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the following categories:
1. Permanent (dead) loads
2. Operating (live) loads.
3. Environmental loads including earthquakes.
4. Construction - installation loads.
5. Accidental loads.
Whilst the design of buildings onshore is usually influenced mainly by the permanent and operating
loads, the design of offshore structures is dominated by environmental loads, especially waves, and
the loads arising in the various stages of construction and installation.
In civil engineering, earthquakes are normally regarded as accidental loads , but in offshore
engineering they are treated as environmental loads
2. ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Environmental loads are those caused by environmental phenomena such as wind, waves, current, tides,
earthquakes, temperature, ice, sea bed movement, and marine growth. Their characteristic parameters,
defining design load values, are determined in special studies on the basis of available data. According
to codes of practice, the mean recurrence interval for the corresponding design event must be 100 years,
2.1 Wind Loads
Wind loads act on the portion of a platform above the water level, as well as on any equipment, housing,
derrick, etc. located on the deck. An important parameter pertaining to wind data is the time interval over
which wind speeds are averaged. For averaging intervals less than one minute, wind speeds are classified
as gusts. For averaging intervals of one minute or longer they are classified as sustained wind speeds.
The wind velocity profile is given by the expression
Vh/VH = (h/H)1/n
where:
o Vh is the wind velocity at height h,
o VH is the wind velocity at reference height H, typically 10m above mean water level,
o 1/n is 1/13 to 1/7, depending on the sea state, the distance from land and the averaging time
interval. It is approximately equal to 1/13 for gusts and 1/8 for sustained winds in the open
ocean.
From the design wind velocity V(m/s), the static wind force Fw(N) acting perpendicular to an exposed
area A(m2) can be computed as follows:
Fw = (1/2) r V2 Cs A
where:
o r is the wind density (r » 1.225 Kg/m3)
o Cs is the shape coefficient (Cs = 1,5 for beams and sides of buildings, Cs = 0,5 for cylindrical
sections and Cs = 1,0 for total projected area of platform).
2.2 Wave Loads
The wave loading of an offshore structure is usually the most important of all environmental loadings
for which the structure must be designed. The forces on the structure are caused by the motion of the
water due to the waves which are generated by the action of the wind on the surface of the sea.
Determination of these forces requires the solution of two separate, though interrelated problems. The
first is the sea state computed using an idealization of the wave surface profile and the wave kinematics
given by an appropriate wave theory. The second is the computation of the wave forces on individual
members and on the total structure, from the fluid motion.
Two different analysis concepts are used:
1. The design wave concept, where a regular wave of given height and period is defined and the
forces due to this wave are calculated using a high-order wave theory. Usually the 100-year
wave, i.e. the maximum wave with a return period of 100 years, is chosen. No dynamic
behaviour of the structure is considered. This static analysis is appropriate when the dominant
wave periods are well above the period of the structure. This is the case of extreme storm waves
acting on shallow water structures.
2. Statistical analysis on the basis of a wave scatter diagram for the location of the structure.
Appropriate wave spectra are defined to perform the analysis in the frequency domain and to
generate random waves, if dynamic analyses for extreme wave loadings are required for
deepwater structures. With statistical methods, the most probable maximum force during the
lifetime of the structure is calculated using linear wave theory. The statistical approach has to be
chosen to analyze the fatigue strength and the dynamic behaviour of the structure.
2.3 Wave theories
Wave theories describe the kinematics of waves of water on the basis of potential theory. In particular,
they serve to calculate the particle velocities and accelerations and the dynamic pressure as functions of
the surface elevation of the waves. The waves are assumed to be long-crested, i.e. they can be described
by a two-dimensional flow field, and are characterized by the parameters: wave height (H), period (T)
and water depth (d) as shown in Figure 1
Different wave theories of varying complexity, developed on the basis of simplifying assumptions, are
appropriate for different ranges of the wave parameters. Among the most common theories are: the linear
Airy theory, the Stokes fifth-order theory, the solitary wave theory, the cnoidal theory, Dean's stream
function theory and the numerical theory by Chappelear. For the selection of the most appropriate theory,
the graph shown in Figure 2 may be consulted. As an example, Table 1 presents results of the linear wave
theory for finite depth and deep water conditions. Corresponding particle paths are illustrated in Figures
4
.
Table 1: Linear Wave Parameters
2.4. Wave forces on structural members
Structures exposed to waves experience substantial forces much higher than wind loadings. The forces
result from the dynamic pressure and the water particle motions. Two different cases can be
distinguished:
1. Large volume bodies, termed hydrodynamic compact structures, influence the wave field by
diffraction and reflection. The forces on these bodies have to be determined by costly numerical
calculations based on diffraction theory.
2. Slender, hydrodynamically transparent structures have no significant influence on the wave field.
The forces can be calculated in a straight-forward manner with Morison's equation. As a rule,
Morison's equation may be applied when D/L ≤ 0.2, where D is the member diameter and L is the
wave length.
The steel jackets of offshore structures can usually be regarded as hydrodynamically transparent. The wave
forces on the submerged members can therefore be calculated by Morison's equation, which expresses the
wave force as the sum of an inertia force proportional to the particle acceleration and a non-linear drag
force proportional to the square of the particle velocity:
where
o F is the wave force per unit length on a circular cylinder (N)
o v, |v| are water particle velocity normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at
the cylinder axis (m/s)
o are water particle acceleration normal to the cylinder, calculated with the selected wave theory at the
cylinder axis (m/s2)
o r is the water density (kg/m3)
o D is the member diameter, including marine growth (m)
o CD, CM are drag and inertia coefficients, respectively.
In this form the equation is valid for fixed tubular cylinders. For the analysis of the motion response of a
structure it has to be modified to account for the motion of the cylinder. The values of C D and CM
depend on the wave theory used, surface roughness and the flow parameters.
The total wave force on each member is obtained by numerical integration over the length of the
member. The fluid velocities and accelerations at the integration points are found by direct
application of the selected wave theory.
In addition to the forces given by Morison's equation, the lift forces F D and the slamming forces FS,
typically neglected in global response computations, can be important for local member design. For a
member section of unit length, these forces can be estimated as follows:
FL = (1/2) r CL Dv2
FS = (1/2) r Cs Dv2
where CL, CS are the lift and slamming coefficients respectively, and the rest of the symbols are as
defined in Morison's equation. Lift forces are perpendicular to the member axis and the fluid velocity v
and are related to the vortex shedding frequency. Slamming forces acting on the underside of horizontal
members near the mean water level are impulsive and nearly vertical. Lift forces can be estimated by
taking CL » 1,3 CD. For tubular members Cs » p.
2.5 Current Loads
These are tidal, circulation and storm generated currents. Figure 7 shows a wind and tidal current profile.
When insufficient field measurements are available, current velocities may be obtained from various
sources. In platform design, the effects of current superimposed on waves are taken into account by
adding the corresponding fluid velocities vectorially. Since the drag force varies with the square of the
velocity, this addition can greatly increase the forces on a platform. For slender members, cyclic loads
induced by vortex shedding may also be important and should be examined.
2.6 Earthquake Loads
Offshore structures in seismic regions are typically designed for two levels of earthquake intensity: the
strength level and the ductility level earthquake. For the strength level earthquake, defined as having a
"reasonable likelihood of not being exceeded during the platform's life" (mean recurrence interval ~
200 - 500 years), the structure is designed to respond elastically. For the ductility level earthquake,
defined as close to the "maximum credible earthquake" at the site, the structure is designed for inelastic
response and to have adequate reserve strength to avoid collapse.
2.5 Ice and Snow Loads
Ice is a primary problem for marine structures in the arctic and sub-arctic zones. Ice formation and
expansion can generate large pressures that give rise to horizontal as well as vertical forces. In addition,
large blocks of ice driven by current, winds and waves with speeds that can approach 0,5 to 1,0 m/s,
may hit the structure and produce impact loads.
As a first approximation, statically applied, horizontal ice forces may be estimated as follows:
Fi = CifcA
where:
o A is the exposed area of structure,
o fc is the compressive strength of ice,
o Ci is the coefficient accounting for shape, rate of load application and other factors, with usual
values between 0,3 and 0,7.
Generally, detailed studies based on field measurements, laboratory tests and analytical work are
required to develop reliable design ice forces for a given geographical location.
In addition to these forces, ice formation and snow accumulations increase gravity and wind loads, the latter
by increasing areas exposed to the action of wind. More detailed information on snow loads may be found
in Eurocode 1.
2.6 Loads due to Temperature Variations
Offshore structures can be subjected to temperature gradients which produce thermal stresses. To take
account of such stresses, extreme values of sea and air temperatures which are likely to occur during the
life of the structure must be estimated. Relevant data for the North Sea are given in BS6235 [6]. In
addition to the environmental sources, human factors can also generate thermal loads, e.g. through
accidental release of cryogenic material, which must be taken into account in design as accidental loads.
The temperature of the oil and gas produced must also be considered.
2.7 Marine Growth
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. Its main effect is to increase the wave forces on
the members by increasing not only exposed areas and volumes, but also the drag coefficient due to
higher surface roughness. In addition, it increases the unit mass of the member, resulting in higher
gravity loads and in lower member frequencies. Depending upon geographic location, the thickness of
marine growth can reach 0,3m or more. It is accounted for in design through appropriate increases in the
diameters and masses of the submerged members.
2.8 Tides
Tides affect the wave and current loads indirectly, i.e. through the variation of the level of the sea surface.
The tides are classified as: (a) astronomical tides - caused essentially from the gravitational pull of the
moon and the sun and (b) storm surges - caused by the combined action of wind and barometric pressure
differentials during a storm. The combined effect of the two types of tide is called the storm tide. Tide
dependent water levels and the associated definitions, as used in platform design, are shown in Figure 10.
The astronomical tide range depends on the geographic location and the phase of the moon. Its maximum,
the spring tide, occurs at new moon. The range varies from centimetres to several metres and may be
obtained from special maps. Storm surges depend upon the return period considered and their range is on
the order of 1,0 to 3,0m. When designing a platform, extreme storm waves are superimposed on the still
water level (see Figure 10), while for design considerations such as levels for boat landing places, barge
fenders, upper limits of marine growth, etc., the daily variations of the astronomical tide are used.
2.9 Sea Floor Movements
Movement of the sea floor can occur as a result of active geologic processes, storm wave pressures,
earthquakes, pressure reduction in the producing reservoir, etc. The loads generated by such movements
affect, not only the design of the piles, but the jacket as well. Such forces are determined by special
geotechnical studies and investigations.