CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology

MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology

1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

Overview

CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY

Criminal etiology, in simpler terms, is a study of the causes of crimes. This chapter discusses the different
explanations to criminality. They include the various theories (classical or modern) and factors
(biological, criminogenic) that account for criminal behavior of man. Basically, this section provides a
concise discussion of the psychological, psychiatric, sociological, geographical, and theories of crime
causation.

EARLIER EXPLANATIONS OF THE EXISTENCE OF CRIMINALITY

The following concepts provide a scenario on how criminality was dealt with in the early times:

1. Crime is caused by demon (Paganism Era). Men violate social norms and religious practices
because they are possessed by demons or evil spirits.

2. Crime is caused by divine will. Men manifest criminal behavior because they are sinful. God is
the offended party when they commit crimes, and the punishment is in the form of plagues,
earthquakes, or other forms of desolation. This way, God's anger is lessened.

3. Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution

(Ancient World, Early Greek Law). The earliest form of punishment was private revenge, in
which the victim or the victim's kin retaliated for injury and the community did not interfere. This
often resulted in vendetta or blood feuds that could continue for many years until one or the other
family was completely wiped out.

The earliest broad laws reflective of the retributive system are those found in the Babylonian
Code of Hammurabi (1790 B.C.). These laws were based on an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth
concept of retribution. However, the exacting for a penalty corresponding to the offense was
observed only when the victim was of the upper or freemen group. When a freeman offended a
slave (serſ), he might make justice by a small payment of money Slaves had no legal rights.

4. Crime is equal to sin (Middle Ages). Crimes and sing were treated as the same substance and
nature. The state claimed that it was acting in the place of God when it inflicted horrible
punishments such as ostracism, stoning, exile from the community burning, decapitation, and
capital punishment.

In the Twelve Tables (450 B.C.) of the Roman law, intentional homicide, setting fire to a dwelling or
harvested crop, treason, and parricide were all punished by death.

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

Another cruel punishment method was trial by ordeal or torture in which the accused was subjected to
difficult and painful tests as means of extorting confessions. The belief was that an innocent person
(protected by God) would emerge unharmed while a guilty person would die a painful death. For
example, a common determining whether a woman was a witch was to the method of her up and throw
her into the water. If she floated she was considered innocent, if she sank she was guilty. Other forms of
ordeal included running the gauntlet (a double line of people with whips fraternity paddles, or other
weapons) and walking on fire.

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

The biological explanations of criminality assume that individuals vary in behavior because of their
biological structural differences. These structural differences may be the result of chromosomes, genes,
chemistry, hormones, or even body type. The biological theories suppose that something is happening
inside the person, often beyond his control to cause criminal behavior, and that criminals may be born,
not made.

Heredity and Crimes

Early biological theorists believed that criminality was an inherited trait passed on in the genes. Although
this view has long lost popularity, many modern criminologists are still interested in the role of genetics.

The methods employed to test the proposition that criminality was inherited are the following:

A. Family Studies
In this method, the family known to have many criminals was compared with a family free of criminals.

Some studies were conducted to prove that children of criminal parents are more likely to become law
violators than children of conventional parents. They are as follows:

1. The Study of the Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)

The Juke Family

The Juke family consisted of 6 girls, some of whom were illegitimate, One of them, Ada Juke,
was known as "The Mother of Criminals." Dugdale traced the 1,200 descendants for 75 years and
found 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300
infants prematurely born, 50 prostitutes, and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.

2. The Study of the Kallikak Family (Henry Goddard)

Martin Kallikak was an American Revolutionary war soldier. While stationed in a small village,
he met a feeble minded girl and had illicit relations with her. About 489 descendants from this
lineage were traced which included 143 feeble-minded and 46 normal. Thirty-six were
illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept brothels, and 82 died in infancy.

3. The Study
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher. during the colonial period. When his family tree
was traced, none of the descendants was found to be criminal. Rather, many became presidents of
the United States, governors, members of the Supreme Court, famous writers, preachers, and
teachers.

Contemporary sociologists also had their share in analyzing heredity and criminality. Some of
their studies are as follows:

A study led by David Farrington revealed that a significant number of delinquent youths had
criminal fathers. In his other study, he found that one type of parental deviance, bullying, may be
both inter- and intra-generational. Bullies have children who bully others, and these "second
generation bullies" grow up to become the fathers of children who are also bullies, in a never-
ending cycle.

B. Twin Behavior Studies

The logic of this method is that if there is greater similarity in behavior between identical twins than
between fraternal twins, the behavior must be due to heredity.

In the 1920s, Lange studied 30 pairs of same-sex twins - 13 identical and 17 fraternal twins. He found out
that one member of each pair was a known criminal. Moreover, both twins in 10 of the 13 pairs of
identical twins were criminal; 2 of the 17 pairs of fraternal twins were both criminal. This showed a
significant relationship between the criminal activities of identical twins and a much lower association
between those of fraternal twins.

A famous study of twin behavior is the Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Experts' conclusion was
that twins are alike in personality regardless of how they are reared, that environment induces little or no
personality resemblance on twin pairs.

C. Adoption Studies

This method compared the criminal records of adopted children who were adopted at relatively early age
with the criminal records of adopted parents. Several studies indicate that some relationship exists
between biological parents' behavior and the behavior of their children. In the most significant study,
Hutchings and Mednick found that the criminality of the biological father was a strong predictor of the
child's criminal behavior. An analysis of Swedish adoptees also found that genetic factors are highly
significant accounting for 59 percent of the variation in their petty crime rates. Boys who had criminal
parents were significantly more likely to violate the law.

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

D. The XYY "Supermale" Studies

The role of chromosomes in crime causation has been analyzed in recent studies on human genetics. The
first well-known study of this type was undertaken by Patricia A. Jacobs, a British researcher who
examined 197 Scottish prisoners for chromosomal abnormalities through a relatively simple blood test
known as karyotyping. Twelve of the group displayed chromosomes which were unusual and 7 were
found to have an XYY chromosome. "Normal" males possess an XY chromosome structure while
"normal" females are XX. Some other unusual combinations might be XXX, wherein a female's genetic
makeup contains an extra X or female chromosome. Klinefelter's males (with an extra X chromosome)
often are possessed of male genitalia, but are frequently sterile and with evident breast enlargement and
intellectual retardation. The XYY male, however, whose incidence in the prison population was placed at
around 3.5% by Jacobs, was quickly identified as potentially violent and termed a supermale.

Studies of XYY males tend to show that supermales:

• Are taller than the average male, often standing 6'1' or more
• Suffer from acne or skin disorders.
• Are of less than average intelligence.
• Are overrepresented in prisons and mental hospitals,
• Come from families with less history of crime or mental illness.

Physiognomy

Physiognomy is the study of facial features of a person in relation to his criminal behavior. This is done to
determine whether the shape of the ears, nose and eyes, and the distances between them were associated
with anti-social behavior. The first to use this approach was Beccaria in his Crime and Punishment. It was
later revived by Swiss theologian Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801).

Phrenology or Craniology

Phrenology or craniology is the study of the external formation of the skull indicating the conformation of
the brain and the development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of the criminal. This is
associated with the work of Franz Joseph Gall.

Physiology or Somatotype

Physiology or somatotype refers to the study of the body build of a person in relation to his temperament
and personality and the type of offense he is most prone to commit. This approach by Ernst was
originated by Kretschmer and developed by William Sheldon.

Kretschmer studied the different body types and presented the relationship between physique and mental
illness. He classified the body build into three distinct types:

1. Asthenic type - thin with long narrow arms, delicate bone structure and appearance; could also
be muscular and athletic. This body type is associated with schizophrenia and tends to be
idealistic, introverted,
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MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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2. Pyknic type - round, fat and fleshy body; associated with manic-depressiveness. Persons with
this built tend to be moody, extrovert, jolly and realistic. They are prone to commit deception,
fraud, and violence

3. Dysplastic type - partly asthenic and partly pyknic with no identifiable mental illness. Their
offenses are against decency and morality.

Sheldon defined three body types and their corresponding temperaments:

Body Type Physical Attributes Temperament

1. Ectomorph tall, thin, bony, droopy Cerebrotonic - full of complaints, insomniac with
shoulder chronic fatigue and sensitive skin, nervous and
self-conscious, an introvert
2. Endomorph round, fat, short, tapering Viscerotonic - relaxed, jolly, lazy, comfortable,
limbs, and small bones loves luxury, an extrovert
3. Mesomorph muscular with athletic built Somotonic - active, dynamic: walks, talks and
gestures assertively; behaves aggressively
dominant; more prone to criminal activity than the
ectomorphs and endomorphs

Physical Defects and Crimes

Leaders of notorious criminal groups are usually nicknamed, in accordance with their physical defects or
handicaps, such funny names as "Dorong Pilay," "Asiong Bingot," "Densiong Unano," and others. These
physical defects were the usual source of irritation during their childhood days whenever they were the
subject of mockery by others. As a result, they develop inferiority complex. Consequently, they have poor
social relationship and serious emotional disturbances. They lack competitiveness occupationally and
socially, and they become frequently irritated by people. This makes them resort to violent criminal
behavior.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC Explanations OF CRIMINALITY

Psychologists and psychiatrists, same with biologists and chemists, also attempted to explain behavior.
They tried to find out whether criminal behavior is caused by such personality factors as emotional
problems, mental disorders, sociopathy, and thinking patterns. The psychological and psychiatric theories
have the common assumption that there is something wrong with the mind of the offender, which causes
him to commit crimes.

Psychoanalytic Theory

This theory blames criminal or delinquent behavior to a conscience that is either so overbearing that it
arouses feelings of guilt, or so weak that it cannot control the individual's impulses and leads to a need for
immediate gratification.
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, viewed criminality as a result of too much guilt feelings.
He noticed that those suffering from unbearable guilt committed crimes in order to be apprehended and
punished. Once they had been punished, their feelings of guilt were relieved.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939

Freud attributed these feelings to man's personality structure: the id, ego and the super-ego, as follows:

1. The Id - It is the impulsive part of the personality and unconscious. It repres the unconscious
biological drives for sex, food and other life-sustaining necessities. The id impulses require
instant gratification without concern for the rights of others. Hence, they must be repressed. It
operates according to "pleasure principle."

2. The Ego - This is the objective, rational part of personality, the reality component. Hence, it
considers sensibility and responsibility to others. The ego compensates for the demands of the id
by helping the individual guide his actions to remain within the boundaries of righteousness and
fairness. It operates according to "reality principle."

3. The Superego The superego is the "conscience" of a person. It is the moral aspect of
personality. It allows a person to feel pride, shame and guilt. Thus, it is largely responsible for
making a person follow the moral codes of society. It helps a person weigh his thoughts and
actions. Freud believed that some people are criminal due to an overdeveloped superego which
leads to guilt, anxiety and a desire for punishment.

In contrast to Freud's notion of criminality caused by overdeveloped superego, August Aichorn argued
that criminality is rather the result of an underdeveloped superego. Aichorn was a psychoanalyst who
administered an institution for juvenile delinquents. He observed that many of the incarcerated youths had
underdeveloped superegos, and he attributed their criminality to unregulated id (Glick, 1995).

Personality and Crimes

Some psychological studies have examined the relation between personality and criminality. In the
investigation of the differences of personality between criminals and non-criminals carried out in prisons,
it showed that inmates are typically more impulsive, hostile, self-centered, and immature than non-
criminals. In another study, psychiatrist-psychologists concluded that criminals share abnormal thinking
patterns that lead to decisions to commit crimes. They argued that criminals are "angry" people who feel a
sense of superiority, expect not to be held accountable for their acts, and have a highly inflated self-
image. Any perceived attack on their glorified self-image elicits a strong reaction, often a violent one.

In general, studies on criminals' personality characteristics have revealed some relationships. However,
most data did not reveal any significant differences between criminal and noncriminal psychology.
Personality testing has not differentiated criminals from non-criminals.

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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Mental Disturbances and Crimes

Criminal behavior is also linked to some mental disturbances. These disturbances or disorders come in
many forms as follows:

1. Mental Deficiency - This is a condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind existing
before the age of eighteen, whether arising from inherent causes or induced by disease or injury. Mentally
deficient persons are prone to commit malicious damage to property and unnatural sex offenses. They
may commit violent crimes but definitely not crimes involving the use of mentality.

Classes of Mental Deficiency:

a. Idiots - persons with a mental defect to a degree that they are unable to guard themselves
against common physical dangers. Their mentality is comparable to that of a two year old child.

b. Imbeciles - persons with a mental defect, which though not amounting to idiocy, is yet so
pronounced that they are incapable of managing themselves or their affairs.

c. Feeble-minded - persons with a mental defect, which though not amounting to imbecility, is yet
so pronounced that they require care, supervision and control for their own or for protection of
others, or in the case of children, they appear to be permanently incapable of receiving proper
benefit from instruction in ordinary schools.

d. Morally defective - persons with strong vicious or criminal propensities. They require care and
supervision and control for their own or for the protection of others.

2. Psychosis - This is a common category of mental disorder among youthful offenders and habitual
criminals. Psychosis can be functional or organic. It is characterized by infantile level of response, lack of
conscience, lack of affection to others, and aggression to environment and other people. Psychotic people
lose contact with reality and have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy. Most of the time they
have severe breakdowns in their ability to communicate and they become isolated from others.

The most common types of psychoses are the

following:

a. Schizophrenia - This is manifested by delusions or hallucinations or a clear-cut thought

disorder. This is also known as dementia praecox. Sometimes schizophrenics are not logical in
their thoughts, as shown by their language. Their personal appearance is dilapidated, and they are
liable to impulsive acts and may commit suicide.

b. Paranoia - It is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or unreasonable ideas which can

be seen as truth by people suffering from this disorder. Paranoia is a Greek term which means "a
mind beside itself.” Paranoid people are suspicious and have that feeling of being persecuted by
others, referred to as psychotic delusion. In the paranoid's mind the delusion system is firm and is
accompanied by clear and orderly thinking because he or she can give rational, distinct and clear
reasons for his or her thoughts.

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3. Neurosis - This is another common type of mental disorder linked to criminal behavior. Neurotic
behaviors are those that do not grossly violate social norms or represent severely disorganized
personalities. Most neurotics are aware of their problems and may not seek professional help. They do not
require hospitalization but are guilty, unhappy, anxious people.

The most common neuroses respective symptoms are the following:

a. Neurasthenia - This is a condition of weakened nerves that manifests in fatigue and

nervousness and sometimes in physical symptoms such as pain.

b. Anxiety - It is also known as "anxiety state or "anxiety reaction," with the person feeling
anxious, fearful or apprehensive. The person may also be irritable and restless and has chronic
tension, poor concentration and overreaction to noise.

c. Obsessive-compulsive neurosis - This is the uncontrollable or irresistible impulse to do

something. There may be an active desire to resist this irrational behavior, but the person is
prevented by his unconscious motives to act out his difficulty or to suffer miserably in his fear.
This neurosis may be any of the following forms:

1) Kleptomania - the compulsive desire to steal

2) Dipsomania - the compulsive desire to drink alcohol

3) Pyromania - the compulsive desire to

set fire

4) Homicidal compulsion - the irresistible urge to kill somebody

d. Hysteria - This refers to an unhealthy or senseless emotional outburst coupled with violent
emotional outbreaks.

e. Phobia - It is generally called exaggerated fears of things that normal people fear to some
degree, and fears of things that ordinary people do not fear.

Some Common Phobias

Name of Phobia Object of Fear

Agoraphobia open, crowded places
Sociophobia people or social situations
Acrophobia heights
Claustrophobia enclosed spaces
Necrophobia Homophobia death and/or the dead
Autophobia blood
scotophobia/achluophobia being alone darkness
Pyrophobia fire
Xenophobia strangers, foreigners or aliens
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
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f. Depression - People who suffer from depressive neurosis generally have feelings of pain, hurt,
unpleasantness, sadness, rejection, self-pity, helplessness, boredom, pessimism, despair, and
rejection. When these feelings become pervasive and affect all aspects of a person's life,
depression is said to occur.

4. Epilepsy - This is a condition characterized by compulsive seizures and a tendency to mental

deterioration. The disease is characterized by reduced emotional control, irresistibility, impulsiveness,
stubbornness and inconsistency in feeling, irritability manifested either by sudden outburst of anger and
vicious conduct. Just before the convulsion, the epileptic may have mental confusion, hallucination or
delusion, and may commit violent crimes without provocation. After the attack, he may be at the state of
altered consciousness and may wonder from one place to another and inflict bodily harm. In the course of
mild attack, he may unconsciously perform indecent acts, breach of the peace, and varying degree of
crime of violence.

Intelligence and Crimes

The classic studies of the Juke and Kallikak families were among the first to show that feeblemindedness
or low intelligence was in inherited and transferred from one generation to the next. Numerous tests were
likewise conducted that lead to the development of the use of IQ test as a testing procedure for offenders.
The very first results seemed to confirm that offenders had low mental abilities. They were found to be
mentally impaired and incapable of managing their affairs.

Authorities such as Bartol, Wilson and Herrstein indicate evidence that intelligence is inherited, as shown
by the numerous studies conducted. They were one in concluding that an estimate of 10-point gap exists
on IQ scores between offenders and non-offenders, non-offenders scoring higher. Moreover, most
offenders fall in the low-normal or borderline range (60-100 points).

Criminologists Travis Hirsch and Michael Hindelang also proposed the idea that low IQ increases the
likelihood of criminal behavior through its effect on school performance, that is, youths with Low IQs do
poorly in school, and school failure and academic competence are highly related to delinquency and later
to adult criminality. These inferences were later supported by other researchers who continued to prove
that IQ and crime are related, though indirect.

On the contrary, very limited evidence is available which can support the said contentions. Studies
showed that forgery, bribery, security violation, and embezzlements are crimes committed by offenders
with higher IQ's than those of offenders in the general population; assault, homicide, rape, and sex
offenses are committed by offenders with lower IQ's than these of offenders in the general population;
and that high-frequency property offenders, such as burglars, thieves, robbers, drug and alcohol offenders,
have IQ's that correspond to general population of offenders.

Charles Goring (1870-1919) studied the mental characteristics of 3,000 English convicts. He found little
difference in the physical characteristics of criminals and non-criminals, but he uncovered a significant
relationship between crime and a condition he referred to as defective intelligence, which involves such
traits as feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity and defective social instinct. Goring believed that criminal
characteristics were inherited and recommended that people with such characteristics should not be
allowed to reproduce.

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Cognitive Theory

This psychological theory of behavior is based on the belief that people organize their thoughts into rules
and laws, and that the way in which those thoughts are organized results in either criminal or noncriminal
behavior. This organization of thoughts is called moral reasoning, and when applied to law, legal
reasoning.

There are several sub-disciplines of cognitive theory. Perhaps the most important for crime studies is the
Moral Development Theory pioneered by Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg contended that moral reasoning
develops in three stages. He called the first stage, pre-conventional; the second stage, conventional, and
the third, post-conventional. He and his associates conducted studies in which criminals were found to be
significantly lower in their moral judgment development than non-criminals of the same social
background

Since Kohlberg's pioneering efforts, other researchers have continued to show that criminal offenders are
more likely to be classified in lowest levels of moral reasoning (Stages 1 and 2), whereas non-criminals
have reached a higher stage of moral development (Stage 3). Recent research indicates that the decision
not to commit crimes may be influenced by one's stage of moral development. People at the lowest levels
report that they are deterred from crime because of their fear of sanctions. Those in the middle consider
the reactions of family and friends. Those at the highest stage refrain from crime because they believe in
duty to others and universal rights.

Behavioral Theory

The most popular work on behavioral approaches is that of B.F. Skinner. Behavioral theory is based on
the belief that all behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Its major premise is that people alter their
behavior according to the reactions it receives from others. Behavior is supported by rewards and
extinguished by negative reactions or punishments.

It is assumed that neurotic symptoms and some deviant behavior are acquired through an unfortunate
quirk of learning and that they are rewarding to the person. The undesirable behavior can be eliminated,
modified, or replaced by taking away the reward value or by rewarding a more appropriate behavior that
is incompatible with the deviant one.

SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIMINALITY

Sociologists emphasize that human beings live in social groups, and that those groups and the social
structure they create influence behavior. Most sociological theories of crime causation assume that a
criminal's behavior is determined by his or her social environment, which includes families, friends,
neighborhoods, and so on.

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Most sociological theories of crime explicitly reject the notion of the born criminal.

A. Social Learning Theory

Social learning theorists believe that crime is a product of learning the norms, values and behaviors
associated with criminal activity.

1. Differential Association Theory - Developed by

Edwin Sutherland, it assumes that persons who become criminal do so because of contacts with
criminal patterns and isolation from noncriminal patterns.

Principles of Differential Association:

 Criminal behavior is learned. Delinquent criminal behavior is learned in the same manner as any
other behavior, such writing, painting, or reading.
 Learning is by-product of interaction. Behavior is learned through interaction with others.
 Learning occurs within intimate groups. People's contacts with their most intimate social
companions family, friends, peers - have the greatest influence on their deviant behavior and
attitude development.
 Criminal techniques are learned. Young delinquents learn from their associates the proper way to
pick up a lock, shoplift, and obtain and use narcotics.
 Perceptions of legal code influence motives and drives. The reaction to social rules and laws is
not uniform across society, and people constantly come into contact with others who maintain
different views on the utility of obeying the legal code. Some people they admire may openly
disdain or flout the law or ignore its substance. person becomes a A criminal when he or she
perceives more favorable than unfavorable consequences to violating the law. An example would
be when a person is exposed to friends sneaking into a theater to avoid paying for a ticket.

2. Differential Reinforcement Theory - Proposed by Ronald Akers in collaboration with Robert Burgess,
it is a version of the social learning view that employs both differential association concepts along with
elements of psychological learning theory. According to Akers, people learn to be neither "all deviant nor
"all conforming but rather strike a balance between the two opposing poles of behavior. This balance is
usually stable, but it can undergo revision over time.

A number of learning process shape behavior. Direct conditioning, also called differential reinforcement,
occurs when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded or punished while interacting with others.
When behavior is punished, this is called negative reinforcement.

3. Neutralization Theory - This theory is identified with the writings of David Matza and Gresham Sykes.
They viewed the process of becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential delinquents
and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional values and
drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior. Matza argued that even the most
committed criminals and delinquents are not involved in criminality all the time; they also attend schools,
family functions, and religious services.

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Sykes and Matza based their theoretical model on these observations:

 Criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt over their illegal acts.
 Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding persons.
 Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they cannot.
 Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity.

Techniques of Neutralization:

 Denial of responsibility
 Denial of injury
 Denial of victim

B. Social Control Theory

Another approach is made by the social bond or social control theory. Instead of looking for factors that
make people become criminal, these theories try to explain why people do not become criminal. Travis
Hirschi identified four main characteristics: "attachment to others," "belief in moral validity of rules,"
"commitment to achievement," and "involvement in conventional activities."

The more a person features those characteristics, the less are the chances that he or she becomes deviant
(or criminal). On the other hand, if those factors are not present in a person, it is more likely that he or she
might become criminal. Hirschi expanded on this theory, with the idea that a person with low self control
is more likely to become criminal. A simple example is when someone wants to have a big yacht but does
not have the means to buy one. If the person cannot exert self-control, he or she might try to get the yacht
for the means for it) in an illegal way: whereas someone with high self-control will (more likely) either
wait or deny himself or herself.

C. Conflict Theory

Conflict theory assumes that society is based primarily on conflict between competing interest groups -
for instance, the rich against the poor, management against labor, men against women, adults against
children. In many cases, competing interest groups are not equal in power and resources. Consequently,
one group is dominant and the other is subordinate. One of the earliest theorists to apply conflict theory to
the study of crime was George Fold.

Radical Theory

Although Karl Marx wrote very little about crime and criminal justice, radical theories of crime causation
are generally based on Marx's ideas. Among the first criminologists to employ Marxist theory to explain
crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William Chambliss and Anthony Platt. Radical criminologists
argue that capitalism is an economic system that requires people to compete against each other in the
individualistic pursuit of material wealth. The destructive effects of capitalism, such as crime, are not
caused by income or property inequality or by poverty. Rather, crime is caused by class struggle - the
competition among wealthy people and among poor people, between rich and poor people, and the
practice of taking advantage of other people.
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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D. Social Reaction Theory

Commonly called labeling theory, the focus of social reaction theory is the criminalization process people
and actions are the way defined as criminal. The distinguishing feature of all criminals" is that they have
been the object of a negative social reaction. Throughout their lives, people are given a variety of
symbolic labels and ways to interact with others. Negative labels include troublemaker," "mentally ill,"
and "stupid." These labels reduce the self-image of the individual. The less personal power and fewer
resources a person has, the greater the chance he or she will become labeled.

• Labeling Theory

This theory states that the reaction of other people

and the immediate effects of these reactions create deviance. Once it became known that a person has
engaged in a delinquent behavior, said person is segregated from society, and a label such as "thief,"
"drug addict," and "criminal," is attached to the person. Labeling serves as a process of segregation that
creates "outsiders" or outcasts from society, who begin to associate with others who also have been cast
out. The more people begin to think of these people as deviants and respond to them as such, the more
these deviants react to the response by continuing to engage in the behavior society now expects of them.
This theory serves as a process where the self-image of a labeled deviant is attached to him permanently.

E. Social Structure Theories

Many criminologists view the disadvantaged economic class position as a primary cause of crime. This
view is referred to as social structure theories. These theories suggest that social and economic forces
operating in deteriorated lower-class areas push many of their residents into criminal behavior patterns.
They consider the existence of unsupervised teenage gangs, high crime rates, and social disorder in slum
areas as major social problems.

There are three independent, yet overlapping branches within the social structure perspective - social
disorganization, strain theory, and cultural deviance theory.

1. Social Disorganization Theory

Social disorganization theory is based on the work of Henry Mckay and Clifford Shaw of the Chicago
School. It links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics. A disorganized area is one in
which institutions of social control, such as the family, commercial establishments and schools, have
broken down and can no longer carry out their expected functions. Indicators of social disorganization
include high unemployment, school dropout rates, deteriorated housing, low income levels, and large
numbers of single-parent households. Residents in these areas experience conflict and despair, and as a
result, antisocial behavior flourishes.

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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2. Strain Theory

This theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means
they can use to legally obtain them. Although social and economic goals are common to people in all
economic strata, strain theorists argue that the ability to obtain these goals is class-dependent. People
desire wealth, material possessions, power, prestige, and other life comforts. Members of the lower class
are unable to achieve these symbols of success through conventional means. Consequently, they feel
anger, frustration and resentment, which is referred to as strain. Lower-class citizens can either accept
their condition, or they can choose an alternative means of achieving success such as theft, violence, or
drug trafficking.

The roots of strain theories can be traced to Emile Durkheim's notion of anomie. Sociologist Robert
Merton used a modified version of the concept of anomie fit social, economic, and cultural conditions
found in modern U.S. society. He suggested that mainstream culture is saturated with dreams of
opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the American Dream. Most people buy into this
dream, and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation. If the social structure of
opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realizing the dream, some of them will turn to
illegitimate means (crime) in order to realize it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures
(gang members, "hobos": urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

Sociologist Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST) helps identify the micro-level or individual
influences of strain. Whereas Merton tried to explain social class differences in the crime rate, Agnew
tried to explain why individuals who feel stress are more likely to commit crimes. He also offered a more
general explanation of criminal activity among all elements of society rather than restricting his views to
lower-class crime. He suggested that criminality is the direct result of negative affective states - the anger,
frustration, and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social
relationships.

These negative affective states are produced by a variety of sources of strain:

 Failure to achieve goals

 Disjunction of expectations and achievements
 Removal of positive stimuli
 Presentation of negative stimuli

3. Cultural Deviance Theory

This theory combines elements of both strain and social disorganization. According to this view, because
of strain and social isolation, a unique lower-class culture develops in disorganized neighborhoods. These
independent sub-cultures maintain a unique set of values and beliefs that are in conflict with conventional
social norms. Middle class culture stresses hard work, delayed gratification, formal education, and being
cautious; the lower-class subculture stresses excitement, toughness, risk-taking, fearlessness, immediate
gratification, and "street smarts." The lower-class subculture is an attractive alternative because the urban
poor find that it is impossible to meet the behavioral demands of middle-class society.
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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Albert Cohen postulated the Theory of Delinquent Subcultures. His position was that delinquent behavior
of lower-class youths is actually a protest against the norms and values of middle class culture. Because
social conditions make them incapable of achieving success legitimately, lower class youths experience
status frustration. As a result, they join in gangs and engage in non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic
behavior.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin also combined strain and social disorganization principles into a
portrayal of a gang-sustaining criminal subculture. They agreed with Cohen and found that independent
delinquent subcultures exist within society. They suggest that delinquency can result from differential
opportunity for lower class youth, hence the Theory of Differential Opportunity. Such youths may be
tempted to take up criminal activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more lucrative
economic benefits than conventional, over legal options such as minimum wage-paying jobs available to
them.

Geographical Factors

Earlier criminologists correlated climate, humidity, wind, velocity, atmosphere pressure, rainfall, nature
of soil, and other geographical factors to the existence and development of crimes and criminality. The
following are some of the explanations formulated by criminologists about the contribution of geography
on crimes.

1. North and South Pole

According to Quetelet's "thermic law of delinquency, crimes against persons predominate in the
South Pole during warm season while crimes against property predominate in the North Pole and
cold countries.

2. Approach to the Equator

According to Montesquieu (Spirit of Laws, 1748), criminality increases in proportion as one

approaches the equator, and drunkenness increases as one approaches the north and south pole.

3. Season of the Year

Crimes against persons are more in summer than in rainy season while crimes against property
are more during rainy season. Climatic conditions directly affect one's irritability and cause
criminality. During dry season, people get out of the houses more, and there is more contact and
consequently more probability of personal violence.

4. Soil Formation

More crimes of violence are recorded in fertile level lands than in hilly, rugged terrain. In these
places are more congregations of people, and there is more irritation. Also, there is more
incidence of rape in level districts.
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
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There is frequent incidence of violent crimes during warm months from April to July having its
peak in May. This is due to May festivals, excursions, picnics, and other sorts of festivities
wherein people are more in contact with one another.

6. Temperature

Studies showed that the number of arrests increases quite regularly with the increase of
temperature. Increase of temperature affects the emotional state of the individual and leads to
fighting. Furthermore, the influences of temperature upon females were greater than upon males.

7. Humidity and Atmospheric Pressure

According to a survey, large numbers of assaults are to be found correlated with low humidity
and a small number with high humidity. It was explained that low and high humidity are both
vitally and emotionally depressing to the individual.

8. Wind Velocity

Studies explained that during high wind, arrests were less. It may be due to the presence of more
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that lessens the vitality of men to commit violence.

Other Sociological Causes of Crimes

1. Lack of parental guidance

2. Broken homes and family
3. Poor status of neighborhood
4. Bad association with criminal groups
5. Lack of recreational facilities for proper use of leisure time
6. Lack of employment opportunities
7. Failure of the school in character development of the children or the youth
8. Influence of mass media

OTHER FACTORS OF CRIME CAUSATION

1. Alcoholism - It is a form of vice causing mental disturbance. It is a condition wherein a person is

under the influence of intoxicating liquor or alcohol. His physical condition and behavior may be
modified to a certain extent by the effects of alcohol. The drunkard habitually takes or uses intoxicating
alcoholic liquor. Once under the influence of liquor, he becomes dangerous to himself or to others. He
may commit violent crimes and inflict physical injuries. Habitual drunkard may commit suicide, sex
offense and exquisite crimes.

2. Drug Addiction - This is another form of vice which causes strong mental disturbance. Drug addiction
is the state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by repeated consumption of natural or synthetic
drugs. This vice is punishable by the Revised Penal Code and the Dangerous Drugs Act. An addict may
commit crimes against property when he or she has no more money to buy the drugs. A woman may
become a prostitute just to get money to buy her drugs. Similarly, an addict who has withdrawn from
drugs may commit violent has
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

Directions: Read the statement or question very carefully. Encircle the letter of your answer.

1. These laws were based on an "eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" concept of retribution.

a. Twelve Tables
b. divine laws
c. Code of Hammurabi
d. early Greek laws

2. When people commit crimes, the punishment is in the form of plagues, earthquakes, or other forms of
desolation. What concept of criminality is this?

a Crime is caused by demon.

b. Crime is caused by divine will.
c. Crime is a matter of personal offense and retribution.
d Crime is equal to sin.

3. This family was studied by Henry Goddard to prove that defects such criminality and as
feeblemindedness are hereditary.

a. Juke Family
b. Kallikak Family
c. Edward's Family
d. Hommy Family

4. Richard Dugdale's study of this family attempted to prove that criminality runs in the blood.

a. Juke Family
b. Kallikak Family
c. Edward's Family
d. Hommy Family

5. He became popular for his somatotyping theory.

a. William Sheldon
b. Ernest Krestchmer
c. Albert Cohen
d. George Fold

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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6. This body type is described as athletic muscular. Persons of this type are routinely active, dominant,
aggressive, and are the most likely to
commit crimes.

a ectomorph
b. endomorph
c. mesomorph
d. sumomorph

7. Persons of this body type are tall, thin and bony. They are full of complaints, self-conscious and
introverted.

a, endomorph
b. ectomorph
c. sumomorph
d. mesomorph

8. This body type is described as round and soft. Persons with this body build are typically relaxed, lazy
and comfortable.

a. endomorph
b. sumomorph
c. ectomorph
d. mesomorph

9. It is the moral aspect of an individual's personality that allows a person to feel pride, shame and guilt.
Thus, it is largely responsible for making a person follow the moral codes of society.

a. id
b. ego
c. ego ideal and conscience
d. superego

[Link] represents the unconscious biological drives for sex, food, and other life-sustaining necessities.

a ego
b. id
c. superego
d. ego and ideal conscience

11. The shape of the human skull is indicative of one's personality and could be used to predict
criminality. What field of study is this?

a. Phrenology
b. Physiognomy
c. Somatotype
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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12. It is a psychotic delusion characterized by incorrect or unreasonable ideas which can be seen as truth
by people suffering from this disorder.

a. depression
b. schizophrenia
c. paranoia
d. neurosis

13. It is the uncontrollable or irresistible impulse to do something

[Link]
b. phobia
c. paranoia
d. obsessive-compulsive neurosis

14. It is an assumption that crimes against person predominate in the south pole during warm season
while crimes against property predominate in the North Pole and cold countries.

a temperature
b, wind velocity
c humidity and atmospheric pressure
d thermic law of delinquency

15. He believed that some individuals performed criminal acts because they possess an overdeveloped
superego, which led to constant feelings of guilt and anxiety.

a. David Abrahamsen
b. August Aichorn
c. Sigmund Freud
d. Ernest Hooton

16. According to this sociological theory, criminal behavior is learned, and learning is a by-product of
interaction.

a Psychodynamic Theory
b. Differential Association Theory
c. Differential Opportunity Theory
d Neutralization Theory

17. He believed that criminal characteristics were

inherited and recommended that people with such characteristics should not be allowed to reproduce.

a. Charles Goring
b. David Matza
c. Robert Merton
d. Travis Hirschi
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
1st Semester, AY 2020-2021

18. This psychological theory of behavior is based on the belief that people organize their thoughts into
rules and laws and that the way in which those thoughts are organized results in Criminal or noncriminal
behavior.

a Cognitive Theory
b. Behavioral Theory
c. Social Learning Theory
d. Differential Association Theory

19. He and his associates conducted studies in which criminals were found to be significantly their moral
judgment development than non lower in
criminals of the same social background.

a. Albert Cohen
b. Robert Merton
c. Gresham Sykes
d. Lawrence Kohlberg

20. It is based on the belief that all behavior is learned and can be unlearned. Its major premise is that
people alter their behavior according to the reactions it receives from others.

a. Social Learning Theory

b. Behavioral Theory
c. Cognitive Theory
d. Differential Association theory

21. According to this theory, people learn to be neither "all deviant nor "all conforming but rather strike a
balance between the two opposing poles of behavior.

a. Differential Association Theory

b. Differential Reinforcement Theory
c. Neutralization Theory
d. Social Disorganization Theory

22. This theory views the process of becoming a learning experience in which potential criminal as a
delinquents and criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance conventional values and
drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior

a. Social Disintegration Theory

b. Differential Association Theory
c. Neutralization Theory
d. Strain Theory

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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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23. According to him, a person with low self control more likely to become criminal.

a. David Matza
b. Travis Hirschi
c. Robert Agnew
d. Lawrence Kohlberg

24. This theory purports that crime is a destructive effect of capitalism and is caused by income or
property inequality or by poverty.

a. Radical Theory
b. Social Reaction Theory
c Social Structure Theory
d Social Disorganization Theory

25. Based on this theory, the reaction of other people and the immediate effects of these reactions create
deviance. A person who has engaged in a delinquent behavior is segregated from society and is called as
*thief," "drug addict," or "criminal."

a. Conflict Theory
b. Delinquent Subcultures Theory
c Differential Opportunity Theory
d. Labeling Theory

26. These theories suggest that social and economic forces operating in deteriorated lower class areas
push many of their residents into criminal behavior patterns.

a Social Structure Theories

b. Social Learning Theories
c. Conflict Theories
d Social Reaction Theories

27. Based on the work of Henry Mckay and Clifford Shaw of the Chicago School, this theory links crime
rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics.

a. Social Disorganization Theory

b. Cultural Deviance Theory
c. Strain Theory
d. Radical Theory

28. This theory holds that crime is a function of the conflict between the goals people have and the means
they can use to legally obtain these goals.

a. Social Disorganization Theory

b. Cultural Deviance Theory
c. Strain Theory
d. Conflict Theory
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 CRIM 1 – Introduction to Criminology
MODULE 3 – Criminal Etiology
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29. He suggested that criminality is the direct result of negative affective states - the anger, frustration,
and adverse emotions that emerge in the wake of negative and destructive social relationships.

a Robert Merton
b. Robert Agnew
c. Clif Shaw
d. Albert Cohen

30. He postulated the Theory of Delinquent Subcultures. His position was that delinquent behavior of
lower class youths is actually a protest against the norms and values of middle class culture.

a. Robert Agnew
b. Robert Merton
c. Albert Cohen
d. Clifford Shaw

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