CURRENT ELECTRICITY

ELECTRIC CURRENT IN CONDUCTORS

Electric current at time t the cross-section of a conductor is defined as the value of the ratio of the net
charge ∆𝐐 flowing through the conductor to the time interval ∆𝐭 in the limit of ∆𝐭 tends to zero.

∆𝐐
I = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
∆𝐭→𝟎 ∆𝐭

𝐐
Average electric current I is defined as the rate of flow of charge flowing through a conductor, I=
𝐭

S I unit of current is Ampere (A) and the direction of current is just opposite to direction of motion of
electrons inside the conductor.

Electric current is a scalar quantity.

𝐝𝐐
Instantaneous current (current at any instant), I =
𝐝𝐭

CURRENT DENSITY

Current density is defined as the current flowing per unit cross-section area.

It is denoted by j. It is a vector quantity.

𝐈
If a current I is uniformly distributed over an area A and perpendicular to it, then j = .
𝐀

𝐈
Its SI unit is Am-2. As j= so ⃗⃗⃗
I = ⃗𝐣 . 𝐀
𝐀

Direction of current density is same as the direction of current (along the motion of positive
charge carriers).

MOTION OF CHARGE CARRIERS IN A CONDUCTOR

 At absolute zero (0K), each conductor behaves as an insulator because all the electrons present in
the conductor are at rest.

 At room temperature (T>0 K) and when there is no external electric field applied, the electrons
gain thermal energy and move inside the conductor randomly and gain the speeds which are
known as thermal speeds.
 When there is an electric field applied across the conductor then the electrons experience electric
force and get accelerated. The velocities with which electrons are accelerated in the presence of the
electric field are known as drift velocities.

 Drift velocity is the velocity with which an electron is drifted i.e. get accelerated
opposite to the direction of the applied electric field.

 Electrons suffer collisions with ions when they move in the presence of external electric field. At
each collision, the electrons start afresh in a random direction with random speed but gains an
additional velocity due to the electric field which is known as Drift velocity.

 The Time period between two successive collisions is known as Relaxation time and
denoted by 𝝉.

 The path of electrons between two successive collisions (i) in the absence of electric
field is straight line and (ii) in the presence of electric field is generally curved.

EXPRESSION OF DRIFT SPEED

Length of conductor = l, cross-sectional area of the conductor = A and number density (no. of
charge carriers per unit volume) = n

In the absence of electric field, at room temperature, the electrons move with thermal
speeds ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒖
𝒖𝟏, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒖 𝟑, ………..𝒖
𝟐, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒏, As the motion is completely random then their average thermal
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝒖
𝒖 𝟐 +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+
𝒖𝟑 ………..+𝒖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
velocity will be zero. So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒖𝒂𝒗 = =0
𝒏

When an electric field 𝐄 ⃗⃗is applied across the conductor then each electron experiences an
⃗⃗ = −𝐞𝐄
electric force 𝑭 ⃗⃗. And thus the electrons get accelerated opposite to the direction of
⃗F⃗ ⃗⃗
−𝐞𝐄
⃗⃗ . So acceleration, 𝐚⃗⃗=
electric field 𝐄 = where m = the mass of the electron.
𝑚 𝐦

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒗
𝒗𝟏, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒗 𝟑, ………..𝒗
𝟐, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗are
𝒏, the velocities of the electrons gained just after the collisions and so,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=𝒖
𝒗 𝟏 ⃗⃗𝟏 +𝒂
⃗⃗𝝉𝟏 , 𝒗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=𝒖
𝟐 ⃗⃗𝟐 +𝒂
⃗⃗𝝉𝟐 , 𝒗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=𝒖
𝟑 ⃗⃗𝟑 +𝒂
⃗⃗𝝉𝟑 ………………..𝒗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗=𝒖
𝒏 ⃗⃗𝒏 +𝒂
⃗⃗𝝉𝒏 .

Where 𝝉𝟏 ,𝝉𝟐 ,𝝉𝟑 ,…………. 𝝉𝒏 are the relaxation time periods of the electrons. And average
𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝝉
𝝉 𝟐 +𝝉 ⃗⃗+ ………..+𝝉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
relaxation time period 𝝉 = 𝝉𝒂𝒗 =
𝒏

𝒗 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝒗 𝟐 +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝟑 ………..+𝒗 𝒏
Thus the average drift velocity 𝑣⃗𝑑 =
𝒏
 𝒖 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝒖 𝟐 +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+
𝒖𝟑 ………..+𝒖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗+𝝉
𝝉 𝟐 +𝝉 ⃗⃗+ ………..+𝝉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒏
= +⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂
𝒏 𝒏

−𝐞𝐄⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝒅 =
𝒗 𝛕
𝐦
𝐞𝐄
𝒗𝒅 = 𝛕
 Factors affecting drift speed of electron (i) 𝐦 Electric Field E
and (ii) relaxation time 𝛕

 Relaxation time 𝛕 depends inversely on temperature. With increase in temperature, Kinetic

energy of electron increases and so no. of collision per second increases. Thus, the relaxation
time decreases.

RELATION BETWEEN DRIFT SPEED AND ELECTRIC CURRENT

For a cylinderical conductor of cross-section area A and number density n

If drift speed of each electron is 𝐯𝐝 , then the distance travelled in a small time interval ∆𝐭 = 𝐯𝐝 ∆𝐭

Volume of the portion of the conductor in which the electrons are crossing in ∆𝐭 = 𝐯𝐝 ∆𝐭 A

Thus, the number of free charge carriers ( or electrons ) crossing = n 𝐯𝐝 ∆𝐭 A

And amount of charge crossing through the conductor in time ∆𝐭∆𝐐 =𝐯𝐝 ∆𝐭 A e

∆𝐐 𝐯𝐝 ∆𝐭 𝐀 𝐞
So, electric current, I = = and therefore,
∆𝐭 ∆𝒕

I = n e A 𝐯𝐝

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY AND RESISTIVITY

(EXPRESSION OF RESISTIVITY)

𝛒𝐥
For a conductor of length l and cross-section area A, Resistance of the conductor R =
𝐀

Where 𝛒 = resistivity of the material of the conductor

𝐕 𝛒𝐥
By Ohm’ s Law, = R and so V = I R = I
𝐈 𝐀

𝐕 𝐈𝛒
Electric Field E = and so, E =
𝐥 𝐀

𝐈
Current density, j = . Therefore, E=j𝛒 ⃗⃗ = 𝛒𝒋⃗
In vector form, 𝐄
𝐀
 𝟏 𝒋
 Conductivity of the material of the conductor, 𝛔 = , so E = or j = 𝛔 E.
𝛒 𝝈

⃗⃗
In vector form 𝐣⃗⃗ = 𝛔 𝐄

𝐈
 As current density j = and I = n e A 𝐯𝐝 So, j = n e 𝐯𝐝
𝐀

𝐞𝐄 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐄
as𝒗𝒅 = 𝛕 so j = 𝛕. Comparing it with j = 𝛔 E
𝐦 𝐦
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐄 and thus, resistivity
𝛔 = 𝛕 𝐦
𝐦 𝛒= SI unit of resistivity :- Ohm-meter (Ω m)
𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕

PROOF OF OHM’S LAW (EXPRESSION OF RESISTIVITY)

Current through a conductor of area of cross-section A and number density n, I = n e A 𝐯𝐝

𝐞𝐄 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐄𝐀
As drift velocity, 𝒗𝒅 = 𝛕 so I = 𝛕
𝐦 𝐦

𝐕
Let potential difference across the conductor = V then E =
𝐈

𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐕𝐀
Where l= length of the conductor and thus, I = 𝛕
𝐦𝐥

𝐈 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝐀 𝐕 𝐦 𝐥
= 𝛕and =
𝐕 𝐦𝐥 𝐈 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕 𝐀

It is known as Ohm’s Law.

𝐕 𝐦 𝐥
R is the resistance of the conductor then = R. And so R = .
𝐈 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕 𝐀

𝛒𝐥 𝐦
As R = so resistivity 𝛒 = .
𝐀 𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RESISTIVITY OF THE CONDUCTOR

𝟏
(i) Number density n of the material as 𝛒 𝛂 i.e. Resistivity ρdecreases with increase in n.
𝐧

𝟏
(ii) Relaxation Time period τas 𝛒 𝛂 i.e. Resistivity ρ decreases with increase in 𝛕.
𝛕
𝛕 decreases with increase in temperature T and so 𝛒 increases with increase in temperature.
QUALITATIVE DISCUSSION OF TEMPERATUREDEPENDENCE OF
RESISTIVITY:

 In a metal, n is not dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and so, the decrease in
τ with increase in temperature causes increase in 𝛒 I.e. Resistivity of a metal increases with
increase in temperature.

 In an alloy, with increase in temperature, there is increase in number density (n) but decrease in
relaxation time 𝛕 which compensates increase in n. So, there is no significant change or little
change in resistivity with increase in temperatrure.

 In semiconductor, with increase in temperature, there is increase in number density (n) due to
breaking of co-valent bonds in semiconductor crystal but there in no change in relaxation time
𝝉. So, there is decrease in resistivity with increase in temperature.

TEMPERTAURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY (GRAPHICAL

DISCUSSION):

METAL: Over a limited range of temperature, the resistivity of

a metallic conductor,

𝝆𝑻 = 𝝆𝒐 (1 + 𝛂∆ 𝐓), 𝛂is temperature coefficient of resistivity.

𝝆𝑻 and 𝝆𝒐 are the resistivity of metal at temperature T ℃ and 0 ℃

respectively.

For metals, 𝛂 is positive so resistivity 𝛒 increases with increase in

temperature. The Graph for copper is
given in the figure.

ALLOY: For alloys such as Nichrome,

positive. So, resistivity of alloy changes
very little with temperature. The graph
for Nichrome is given in figure.

SEMICONDUCTOR: For
semiconductors, Resistivity decreases
with increase in temperature
exponentially.
 MOBILITY

It is defined as the drift velocity (𝒗𝒅 ) per unit electric Field ( E). It is denoted by 𝛍.

𝒗𝒅
𝛍 =
𝐄
𝐞𝐄 𝐞
As As drift velocity, 𝒗𝒅 = 𝛕then 𝛍 = 𝛕. SI unit of mobility is m2/ V-s.
𝐦 𝐦

The mobility of electrons, even as acharge carrier, is higher than in [Link] depends
upon the temperature and and imputities present in the material.
 OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE OF THE CONDUCTOR

OHM’S LAW: At constant temperature, potential difference of a given conductor is directly

proportional to the current flowing through it.

𝐕
V ∝ I i.e. = constant. This constant is known as Resistance of the conductor and denoted by R.
𝐈

OHMIC CONDUCTORS: All the conductors which obey Ohm’s law are known as
Ohmic conductors. The graph between current I and Voltage v is always a straight line.

NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS: All the conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are
known as non-ohmic conductors.

Some examples non- ohmic conductors are given below. These are the failures of Ohm’s law.

(i) METALLIC CONDUCTOR – For small currents, a

metallic conductor obeys Ohm’s law and V- I graph is a
straight line. But when large currents are passed through
the same conductor, it gets heated up and its resistance
increases. Thus, V-I graph no longer remains linear.

(ii) BIASING OF p-n JUNCTION DIODE - In

forward and reverse biasing of p-n junction diode, V-I graph
is not linear.

(iii) GALLIUM ARSENIDE- V-I graph

for GaAs exhibits non-linear behaviour.
Moreover, after a certain voltage, the
current decreases as the voltage increases.

RESISTANCE- Generally, Resistance is the opposition offered by the conductor. It is denoted by R.

Resistance of a conductor depends upon
(i) length l of the conductor as R ∝ 𝐥
(ii) Cross-section area A of the conductor as R ∝ 𝑨
(iii) nature of the material and
(iv) Temperature T as R ∝ 𝐓.
𝐥
Thus, Resistance R =𝝆 where 𝝆 is the resistivity of the material. It depends upon the nature of
𝐀
the material and the temperature.

 If a wire of length l is doubled i.e. l →2 l without changing its area of cross- section then
its resistance R is doubled i.e. R →2 R.
 If radius of the wire gets doubled r → 2 r without changing its length then its resistance R
𝟏 𝟏
is becomes times i.e. R → R
𝟒 𝟒
𝐥 𝐥 𝟏
R =𝝆 𝛑𝒓𝟐 and R’ = 𝝆 𝛑(𝟐𝒓)𝟐 thus R’ = 𝟒 R
𝐀
 If a wire is stretched to double its length, then A’ l’ = A l and as I’ = 2 l so, A’ = 𝟐
𝐥 𝐥′ 𝟐𝐥 𝐥
Resistance R =𝝆 𝐀 and new resistance R’ = 𝝆 𝐀′ = 𝝆 𝐀/𝟐 = 4 𝝆 𝐀 = 4 R
 If a wire is stretched to increase its length n times then new resistance becomes n 2 times
i.e. R = n2 R
𝐖 𝐕𝟐
 Electric power is the rate of work done, P = = VI=
𝐭 𝐑
 Power dissipated through the conductor of resistance R, P = I2 R
 Electric energy is the amount of work done by an electric source, W = P t = V I t

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

Resistance of a conductor at temperature T, R = Ro (1 + α T)

Where Ro = Resistance at temperature at 0℃ and α is known as Temperature coefficient of

resistance.
It is the characteristic property of the conductor and so, it depends upon the nature of
material.
Its SI unit is K-1.
 If R1 and R2 are the resistances of the two different temperatures T1 and T2, then
R2 = R1 [𝟏 + 𝛂 ( 𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )]

POWER TRANSMISSION AT HIGH VOLATGES

Electric power is transmitted from power stations to homes and factories through
transmission cables. These cables have some resistances. So, power is dissipated in them as
heat.

Let power P is delivered to a load R via transmission cables of resistance 𝐑 𝐜 . If V is voltage

across load R and I is the current through it, then P = V I
 𝐏 𝟐 𝐑𝐜
The power dissipated in transmission cables, 𝐏𝐜 = 𝐈𝟐 𝐑 𝐜 = 𝐕𝟐

Thus, the power dissipated in the cables is inversely proportional to the square of voltage.
Hence to minimize the power loss, electric power is transmitted to distant places at high
voltages and low currents.

COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

SERIES COMBINATION- In series combination, currents through each resistor is same but
potential difference across each resistor is different if resistances are different.

Equivalent Resistance of the combination, 𝐑 𝐞𝐪 = 𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐑 𝟑

PARALLEL COMBINATION- In parallel combination, Currents are different through different

resistors but potential different through each resistor is same.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Equivalent resistance of the combination, = + +
𝐑 𝐞𝐪 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑
 CELLS
Cell is a device which is used to maintain a steady electric current
in an electric circuit.

It is generally consists of two electrodes immersed in an

electrolytic solution. One of the electrodes is positive, known as
Cathode and other is negative, known as Anode.

Symbol of Cell –

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) OF CELL: Maximum Potential difference across the

terminals of a cell, when no current is drawn from it, is known as Electromotive force (emf) of the
cell. It is denoted by E or ∈.

TERMINAL VOLATGE OF THE CELL: Potential difference across the terminals of the
cell, when some current is drawn from it through the external resistance, is known as
Terminal voltage. It is denoted by V.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE CELL: Total resistance offered by the cell due to the
electrolyte, electrodes etc. is known as internal resistance. It is denoted by r.

FACTORS AFFECTING INTERNAL RESISTANCE: Internal resistance of a cell

depends upon following factors.
(i) Nature of electrolyte (ii) Nature of electrodes
(iii) Separation between electrodes (iv)Temperature

 Internal resistance of a cell increases with decrease in temperature.

DISCHARGING OF A CELL (EXPRESSION OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

A cell of emf E and internal resistance r is connected to an external resistance R.

I is the current flowing through the circuit.
Terminal voltage of the cell, V = emf of the cell – potential drop across the cell
V=E–Ir (i)
Also, Terminal voltage, V = I R (ii)
From (i) and (ii), IR=E–Ir
I (R + r) = E
So, 𝐄
I=
𝐑+𝐫
 𝐄𝐑 𝐑+𝐫 𝐄
Putting the value of I in equation (ii), V = and then =
𝐑+𝐫 𝐑 𝐕
𝒓 𝐄 𝐫
1+ = and so = 𝐄𝐕 – 𝟏
𝑹 𝐕 𝐑

Therefore, 𝐄
r = ( − 𝟏)
𝐕
R
 For maximum current drawn from the cell, R is negligible as compared to internal resistance
𝐄
of the cell i.e. R + r ≈ r, max. current 𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝐫
 In case of discharging of a cell, V < E
 When no current is drawn from the cell, I = 0 and so V = E
 In case of charging of the cell, V > E

CHARGING OF A CELL: To charge the cell, it is

connected to a supply of voltage 𝐕𝐒 .
Potential difference of the cell = V - 𝐕𝐒
𝐕 − 𝐕𝐒
Current flowing through the circuit, I = ,where RS is the
𝑹𝒔 + 𝒓
series resistance.
Terminal Voltage of the cell, V = E + I r

 Why is a resistor kept in series during charging of the cell?

A resistor is kept in series with a cell to limit the value of current in the circuit. If there is
no resistor in series, then current will be dangerously high which can damage the cell.

GRAPH BETWEEN TERMINAL VOLTAGE (V) AND

CURRENT (I) FOR A CELL:

X – intercept gives the value of the maximum current (Imax) as

𝐄
Imax =
𝐫

Y – intercept gives the value of emf of the cell (E).

Slope of the graph represents the internal resistance of the cell.

GRAPH BETWEEN TERMINAL VOLTAGE (V) AND

RESISTANCE (R) FOR A CELL:
𝐄
V = I R and I =
𝐑+𝐫
𝐄𝐑 𝐄
So, V = or V = 𝒓
𝐑+𝐫 𝐑+𝑹

When R = 0 then V = 0 and when R →∞ then V → E

 COMBINATION OF CELLS

SERIES COMBINATION:

E1 and E2 are the emfs of the cells. r1 and r2 are the internal resistances of the cells respectively.
I is the current flowing from the combination and V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages across the

cells respectively.
V1 = E1 – I r1 and V2 = E2 – I r2
Potential Difference across the combination, V = V1 + V2 = E1 – I r1 + E2 – I r2
V = (E1 + E2) – I (r1 + r2)
For a cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req which is equivalent to the combination of the cells,
V = Eeq – I req

Comparing the above equations, Eeq =E1 + E2 and req = r1 + r2

In general, if n cells are connected in series then Eeq = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + …………..
And req = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 + …………………

 If cells are identical i.e. E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 =…………..= E and r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 = …….. = r

then Eeq = n E and req = n r
 If two cells are connected in opposite order then V1 = E1 – I r1 and V2 = - E2 – I r2
Equivalent emf, Eeq =E1 - E2 and
Equivalent internal resistance, req = r1 + r2

PARALLEL COMBINATION:
E1 and E2 are the emfs of the cells. r1 and r2 are the internal resistances of the cells respectively.
I is the current flowing from the combination and V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages across the

cells respectively.
V = E1 – I1 r1 and V = E2 – I2 r2
𝐄𝟏 − 𝐕 𝐄𝟐 − 𝑽
Therefore, I1 = and I2 =
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

𝐄𝟏 − 𝐕 𝐄𝟐 − 𝑽 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
I = I1 + I 2 = + =( + ) – V( + )
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

For a cell of emf Eeq and internal resistance req equivalent to combination of the cells
𝐄𝐞𝐪 − 𝐕 𝐄𝐞𝐪 𝐕
V = Eeq – I req then I = = -
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝐞𝐪

𝐄𝐞𝐪 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Comparing above equations, = + and = +
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐

𝐄𝟏 𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄𝟐 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
Eeq = and req =
𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐
𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
𝐄𝐞𝐪 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝐄 𝐄𝐧
In general, for parallel combinations of n cells, = + + 𝟑 +……………..+
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑 𝐫𝐧

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
And = + + +………………+ .
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝟑 𝐫𝐧

 If cells are identical i.e. E1 = E2 = E3 = E4 =…………..= E and r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 =.…………= r

𝐫
Then Eeq = E and req =
𝐧
 If second cell is connected opposite to the first
cell then V = E1 – I1 r1 and V = - E2 – I2 r2
𝐄𝐞𝐪 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − and = +
𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪 𝐫𝟏 𝐫𝟐
 KIRCHOFF’S RULES AND WHEATSTONE BRIDGES
KIRCHOFF’S RULES

FIRST RULE (JUNCTION RULE): Algebraic sum of all

the currents meeting at a point (junction) is equal to zero.
∑ I = 0 i.e. at any junction in an electrical circuit, the sum of
currents entering the junction must equal the sum of currents
leaving the junction.
So, I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0 or I1 + I2 + I3 = I4 + I5
This rule is based on the principle of conservation of charge.

SECOND RULE (LOOP RULE): Algebraic sum of

changes in potential around a closed loop involving resistors and
emf’s of cells in the loop is zero.
∑ V = 0 i.e. the sum of all voltages around a closed loop in any
circuit is zero.
So, I R1 + I R2 – V2 – V1 = 0 Or I R1 + I R2 = V1 + V2
This rule is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
A Wheatstone Bridge consists of four resistors of resistances
P, Q, R and S connected in four different arms AB, BC, AD
and DC respectively. A galvanometer of resistance G is
connected across diagonal BD. It is called Galvanometer arm.
A battery of emf E is connected across the diagonal AC. It is
called battery arm.

BALANCED CONDITION OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:

Wheatstone Bridge is said to be balanced when there is no current

in galvanometer arm BD i.e. IG = 0. (Galvanometer shows no
𝐏 𝐑
deflection). In this condition, =
𝐐 𝐒

PROOF: i1 and i2 are the currents in the arms AB and AD

respectively. Ig is the current in the galvanometer arm BD so, i1 – ig and i2 + ig are the currents in the
arms BC and CD respectively.
Applying Kirchoff’s loop rule in the circuit ABDA and BCDB,
 i1 P + ig G – i2 R = 0 and (i1 – ig) Q - (i2 + ig) S – ig G = 0
When the Wheatstone Bridge is balanced then ig = 0 so the above equations become

i1 P - i2 R = 0 and i1 Q - i2 S = 0
𝐏 𝐢𝟐 𝐐 𝐢𝟐
= and =
𝐑 𝐢𝟏 𝐒 𝐢𝟏
𝐏 𝐐
From above, =
𝐑 𝐒
Therefore,

𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒

 The Wheatstone Bridge is used to determine the value of unknown resistance.

 Meter Bridge is the application of balanced Wheatstone Bridge.
 A Wheatstone Bridge is said to be sensitive when the resistances of four arms of the bridge
are of same order.
 If battery and galvanometer are interchanged to each other then there is no change in the null
point (the point at which galvanometer shows no defelection).
 SOLUTION OF BALANCED WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:
For a balanced bridge, as there is no current in the arm BD so the resistances P & Q and R & S
are in series.
Equivalent resistance of P and Q, R1 = P + Q and Equivalent resistance of R and S, R2 = R+S
𝐑 𝟏 𝐑𝟐
Thus, the equivalent resistance of the network, Req =
𝐑 𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐

jjjjjnjmjkkllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllust be equal
to zero the sum of all voltages around a closed loop in any circuit must
be um of all voltages around a closed loop in any circuit must be equal
to zero